Liquefied petroleum gas

, also called LPG, GPL, LP Gas,

liquid petroleum gas or simply propane or butane, is a flammable mixture of hydrocarbon gases used
as a fuel in heating appliances and vehicles. It is increasingly used as an aerosol propellant and a
refrigerant, replacing chlorofluorocarbons in an effort to reduce damage to the ozone layer. When
specifically used as a vehicle fuel it is often referred to as autogas.
Varieties of LPG bought and sold include mixes that are primarily propane (C
3H
8), primarily butane (C
4H
10) and, most commonly, mixes including both propane and butane, depending on the season in
winter more propane, in summer more butane.[1][2] In the United States, primarily only two grades of
LPG are sold, commercial propane and HD-5. These specifications are published by the Gas Processors
Association (GPA)[3] and the American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM). [4] Propane/butane blends
are also listed in these specifications. Propylene, butylenes and various other hydrocarbons are usually
also present in small concentrations. HD-5 limits the amount of propylene that can be placed in LPG,
and is utilized as an autogas specification. A powerful odorant, ethanethiol, is added so that leaks can
be detected easily. The international standard is EN 589. In the United States, tetrahydrothiophene
(thiophane) or amyl mercaptan are also approved odorants,[5] although neither is currently being
utilized.
LPG is prepared by refining petroleum or "wet" natural gas, and is almost entirely derived from fossil
fuel sources, being manufactured during the refining of petroleum (crude oil), or extracted from
petroleum or natural gas streams as they emerge from the ground. It was first produced in 1910 by Dr.
Walter Snelling, and the first commercial products appeared in 1912. It currently provides about 3% of
all energy consumed, and burns relatively cleanly with no soot and very few sulfur emissions. As it is a
gas, it does not pose ground or water pollution hazards, but it can cause air pollution. LPG has a typical
specific calorific value of 46.1 MJ/kg compared with 42.5 MJ/kg for fuel oil and 43.5 MJ/kg for premium
grade petrol (gasoline).[6] However, its energy density per volume unit of 26 MJ/L is lower than either
that of petrol or fuel oil, as its relative density is lower (about 0.50.58, compared to 0.710.77 for
gasoline).
As its boiling point is below room temperature, LPG will evaporate quickly at normal temperatures and
pressures and is usually supplied in pressurised steel vessels. They are typically filled to between 80%
and 85% of their capacity to allow for thermal expansion of the contained liquid. The ratio between the
volumes of the vaporized gas and the liquefied gas varies depending on composition, pressure, and
temperature, but is typically around 250:1. The pressure at which LPG becomes liquid, called its
vapour pressure, likewise varies depending on composition and temperature; for example, it is
approximately 220 kilopascals (32 psi) for pure butane at 20 C (68 F), and approximately 2.2
megapascals (320 psi) for pure propane at 55 C (131 F). LPG is heavier than air, unlike natural gas,
and thus will flow along floors and tend to settle in low spots, such as basements. There are two main
dangers from this. The first is a possible explosion if the mixture of LPG and air is within the explosive
limits and there is an ignition source. The second is suffocation due to LPG displacing air, causing a

decrease in oxygen concentration. In addition, an odorant is mixed with LPG used for fuel purposes so
that leaks can be detected more easily.
Large amounts of LPG can be stored in bulk cylinders and can be buried underground.

fire extinguisher

, flame extinguisher,

[citation needed]

or simply an extinguisher, is an active fire protection device used to extinguish or

control small fires, often in emergency situations. It is not intended for use on an out-of-control
fire, such as one which has reached the ceiling, endangers the user (i.e., no escape route, smoke,
explosion hazard, etc.), or otherwise requires the expertise of a fire department. Typically, a fire
extinguisher consists of a hand-held cylindrical pressure vessel containing an agent which can be
discharged to extinguish a fire.
In the United States, fire extinguishers in all buildings other than houses are generally required to
be serviced and inspected by a Fire Protection service company at least annually. Some
jurisdictions require more frequent service for fire extinguishers. The servicer places a tag on the
extinguisher to indicate the type of service performed (annual inspection, recharge, new fire
extinguisher).
There are two main types of fire extinguishers: stored pressure and cartridge-operated. In stored
pressure units, the expellant is stored in the same chamber as the firefighting agent itself.
Depending on the agent used, different propellants are used. With dry chemical extinguishers,
nitrogen is typically used; water and foam extinguishers typically use air. Stored pressure fire
extinguishers are the most common type. Cartridge-operated extinguishers contain the expellant
gas in a separate cartridge that is punctured prior to discharge, exposing the propellant to the
extinguishing agent. This type is not as common, used primarily in areas such as industrial
facilities, where they receive higher-than-average use. They have the advantage of simple and
prompt recharge, allowing an operator to discharge the extinguisher, recharge it, and return to the
fire in a reasonable amount of time. Unlike stored pressure types, these extinguishers use
compressed carbon dioxide instead of nitrogen, although nitrogen cartridges are used on low
temperature (-60 rated) models. Cartridge operated extinguishers are available in dry chemical
and dry powder types in the U.S. and in water, wetting agent, foam, dry chemical (classes ABC
and B.C.), and dry powder (class D) types in the rest of the world.
Fire extinguishers are further divided into handheld and cart-mounted, also called wheeled
extinguishers. Handheld extinguishers weigh from 0.5 to 14 kilograms (1.1 to 31 lb), and are
hence, easily portable by hand. Cart-mounted units typically weigh more than 23 kilograms

(51 lb). These wheeled models are most commonly found at construction sites, airport runways,

Electric generator

U.S. NRC image of a modern steam turbine generator

Early Ganz Generator in Zwevegem, West Flanders, Belgium
Early 20th century alternator made in Budapest, Hungary, in the
power generating hall of a hydroelectric station
In electricity generation, an electric generator is a device that
converts mechanical energy to electrical energy. A generator
forces electric current to flow through an external circuit. The

source of mechanical energy may be a reciprocating or turbine

steam engine, water falling through a turbine or waterwheel, an
internal combustion engine, a wind turbine,[1] a hand crank,
compressed air, or any other source of mechanical energy.
Generators provide nearly all of the power for electric power
grids.
The reverse conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy is done by an electric motor,
and motors and generators have many similarities. Many motors can be mechanically driven to
generate electricity and frequently make acceptable generators.

Refrigerator
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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"Fridge" and "Freezer" redirect here. For other uses, see Fridge (disambiguation) and Freezer
(disambiguation).
For other uses, see Refrigerator (disambiguation).
See also: Refrigeration

A typical refrigerator with its door open

A side-by side refrigerator with an icemaker

A refrigerator (colloquially fridge) is a common household appliance that consists of a

thermally insulated compartment and a heat pump (mechanical, electronic, or chemical) that
transfers heat from the inside of the fridge to its external environment so that the inside of the
fridge is cooled to a temperature below the ambient temperature of the room. Refrigeration is an
essential food storage technique in developed countries. Lower temperatures in a confined
volume lowers the reproduction rate of bacteria, so the refrigerator reduces the rate of spoilage.
A refrigerator maintains a temperature a few degrees above the freezing point of water. Optimum
temperature range for perishable food storage is 3 to 5 C (37 to 41 F).[1] A similar device that
maintains a temperature below the freezing point of water is called a freezer. The refrigerator
replaced the icebox, which was a common household appliance for almost a century and a half
prior. For this reason, a refrigerator is sometimes referred to as an icebox.