Professional Documents
Culture Documents
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
UNIVERSITY TENAGA NASIONAL
Semester 1 2015/2016
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section:
Page No.
Experiment 1
Tensile Test
Experiment 2
Torsion Test
14
Experiment 3
Bending Test
20
Experiment 4
Buckling Test
23
Experiment 5
Hardness Test
34
Experiment 6
Thin Cylinder
41
Experiment 7
Impact Test
55
Experiment 8
Microstructure Analysis
61
Lab Schedule
65
: Pre Lab and Quiz - Each student must answer the pre lab/quiz at the
beginning of each session in group. These practices to ensure each student
are fully prepared to conduct the experiment as stated in course schedule.
Individual Informal Report - The informal report report should be submitted
before 5 pm two day after the experiment. The informal report must have
following criteria: date of experiment; title of experiment; objective(s); data and
observation; analysis; results and discussion; conclusion; and references.
Group Formal Report - vital part of good engineering practice. They permit
the organisation, condensation, analysis, interpretation, and transmission of
meaningful result. The reports are to be handed in at the beginning of the next
period unless otherwise directed by the instructor. No late reports will be
accepted. Late submission will be subjected to mark deduction penalty. 20
marks will be deducted for one day late, 40 marks for 2 days, 60 marks for 3
days and no report will be accepted after that.
Type of report
Grading
Plagiarism
3.
4.
Statement of
Purpose /
Introduction /
Objective (1%)
Data (2%) and
Observations
(1%)
Analysis and
Results (8%)
5.
Discussions
(4%)
This section should tie the results of the experiments to the purpose.
Sources or error, deviations and uncertainty should be discussed and
how they might affect the results. Any points that are specifically asked
for in experiment instructions should be discussed in this section.
6.
Conclusions
(3%)
This section summarizes the lab report. Any conclusions drawn from the
results should be given in this section. Express the implication of the
results. Examine the outcome in the light of the stated objectives.
7.
References
(1%)
A list of all references used in writing the report should be included in this
section. Use the following format:
1. Book :
a. Author (s). Year. Title. Edition. Place: Publisher. Page
number. (example: L.H. van Vlack. 1989. Elements of
Materials Science and Engineering. 6th Ed. Reading
:Addison-Wesely Publ. pp100-105.)
b. Title. Year. Book Title. Edition. Place: Publisher. Page
number. (Example: Materials Science Handbook. 1986.
20th Ed. Ohio: C.R.C. Press. pp. 1986)
2. Journals : Author (s), Year, Article Title; Journal Title, Volume,
Page number. (Example: Brandt, A. 1977. Multtilevel adaptive
solution to boundary value problems. Math of Computation. 31:
333-390)
3. Internet : Title. Year. URL. (Example: Selected encyclopedias
and major reference works in polymer science and technology at
Stanford University. 1998. http://wwwsul.stanford.edu/depts/swain/polymer/encys.html
Note:
1. Lab Manual Mark will be awarded to current lab manual only.
2. Books and Journals are highly recommended.
No
1.
Items
Title page
(3%)
Description
This page must include:
1. Title of experiment
2. Course and course code
3. Semester and Academic Year (e.g. Sem 1 2015/16)
4. Day and date experiment was performed and due date
5. Names and SIDs of group member
6. Section and group number
7. Name of the lab instructor
2.
Table of
content (2%)
This should be placed following the title page (for reports more than 10 pages). It
should list up each section of the report and corresponding page number
3.
Summary /
Abstract
(10%)
This should encapsulate the major portion of the report and provides a concise
overview of the work. The length should be no more than 200-300 words or 2-3
paragraphs. It should highlight the objectives, results and conclusions of the
experiment.
4.
Statement of
Purpose /
Introduction /
Objective
(5%)
Theory (5%)
Equipment /
Description of
Experimental
Apparatus
(5%)
Procedure
(10%)
A list of equipment and specimen used should be included. This may be the same
as the list on the experiment instructions. Sketch of the equipment should also be
included where necessary.
8.
Data (10%)
and
Observations
(5%)
9.
Analysis and
Results
The data obtained will be analysed with a view towards fulfilling the purpose
stated at the beginning of the report. When possible, part of the analysis may be
5.
6.
7.
Any theory related to the experiment should be included. The theory must be
clearly explained and complete with diagrams where necessary. The relevant
equations should be introduced. Each figure should be labelled and numbered.
This is a step-by-step explanation of what was done in the lab and why each step
was performed. The procedure listed in the experiment instructions may be used
as a guide. The description does not have to be very lengthy, but should enough
detail so that a reader knowledgeable in the field would understand what was
done. Sufficient information should be provided to allow the reader to repeat the
experiment in an identical manner.
(15%)
10.
Discussions
(15%)
This section should tie the results of the experiments to the purpose. Sources or
error, deviations and uncertainty should be discussed and how they might affect
the results. Any points that are specifically asked for in experiment instructions
should be discussed in this section.
11.
Conclusions
(10%)
This section summarizes the lab report. Any conclusions drawn from the results
should be given in this section. Express the implication of the results. Examine
the outcome in the light of the stated objectives.
12.
References
(5%)
A list of all references used in writing the report should be included in this section.
Use the following format:
Book :
1.
Author (s). Year. Title. Edition. Place: Publisher. Page number. (example:
L.H. van Vlack. 1989. Elements of Materials Science and Engineering. 6th Ed.
Reading :Addison-Wesely Publ. pp100-105.)
2.
Title. Year. Book Title. Edition. Place: Publisher. Page number. (Example:
Materials Science Handbook. 1986. 20th Ed. Ohio: C.R.C. Press. pp. 1986)
Journals : Author (s), Year, Article Title; Journal Title, Volume, Page number.
(Example: Brandt, A. 1977. Multtilevel adaptive solution to boundary value
problems. Math of Computation. 31: 333-390)
Internet : Title. Year. URL. (Example: Selected encyclopedias and major
reference works in polymer science and technology at Stanford University.
1998. http://www-sul.stanford.edu/depts/swain/polymer/encys.html
Note:
1. Lab Manual Mark will be awarded to current lab manual only.
2. Books and Journals are highly recommended.
13.
Appendices
Experiment 1
Tensile Testing (Universal Tester)
Objectives
1. To understand the principles of tensile testing.
2. To determine the stress-strain relationship for two types of materials
3. To determine the values of:
i. elongation at fracture
ii. tensile strength (UTS)
iii. yield strength (offset of 0.2%)
iv. Modulus of Elasticity
Theory
If a load is static or changed relatively slowly with time and is applied uniformly over a cross
section /surface of a member, the mechanical behaviour may be ascertained by a simple stressstrain test. These tests are most commonly conducted for metals at room temperature. There are
three principal ways in which the load may be applied: tension, compression and shear.
Tension is one of the most common mechanical stress-strain tests. The stress-strain diagram
shows the different behaviour of the individual materials particularly clearly. Each material has a
characteristic pattern of stress and strain. A standard specimen is deformed, usually to fracture
with a gradually increasing tensile load that is applied uniaxially along the long axis of a
specimen. Most of the tension tests for metals are conducted according to the ASTM Standard E
8 and E 8M, Standard Test Methods for Tension Testing of Metallic Materials.
Technical Description of the Equipment
The WP 300 material testing device is a robust unit designed specifically for technical instruction
and is one of the classical materials testing device in materials science. The flexible design of the
unit permits a wide range of different tests requiring tensile or compressive force. Thanks to its
clear, sample layout, the unity is ideally suite for both students experiments and for
demonstrations. Its compact dimensions and relatively low weight permit mobile use and erection
on all common laboratory benches.
Basic
In its basic form, the unit does not require any
external connections. The test force is generated
via a manually actuated hydraulic system and
displayed via a large, easily legible display
instrument with a trailing pointer. Elongation of the
samples is recorded via a dial gauge. All
accessories are screwed to the cross members.
This means that the test unit can be quickly and
easily refitted for various tests.
The basic unit essentially consists of the following
elements:
machine base (1) with handgrip (11)
support with cross-head (2)
load frame with upper (3) and lower crossmember (4)
hydraulic system consisting of a main cylinder
(5) and a master cylinder with hand wheel (6)
force display (7)
elongation display via a dial gauge (8)
gripping heads (9) with sample (10)
Machine Base
The rigid machine base made of cast iron forms the
foundation and ensures stability of the test unit in
connection with 4 rubbers feat. The machine base
supports the hydraulics and the frame.
10
Support
The posts (1) and cross-head (2) form fixed support of the test
unit. The various fixed sample receptacles are fastened to the
cross-head. The mobile load frame is also mounted on it lowfriction linear ball bearings.
Load Frame
The load frame consists of the upper (1) and lower crossmember (2) and the guide rod (3). The load frame transmits
the test force from the hydraulic main cylinder to the relevant
sample. The load frame is slide-mounted in the cross-head of
the support. Tensile samples are clamped between the upper
cross-member and the cross-head, whilst compressive
samples are clamped between the lower cross-member and
the cross-head.
Hydraulic system
The test force is generated by hydraulic means. A
piston in the master cylinder (2) actuated via the hand
wheel (1) and the threaded spindle creates a
hydrostatic pressure, which induces the test force in the
main cylinder (3). The hydraulic transmission ration is
2.77:1, whilst the mechanical transmission ratio hand
wheel / spindle is 503:1. Excluding friction losses, this
would correspond to a manual force of 1 N per 1.3 kN
test force. The full stroke of the main cylinder of 45 mm
requires 83 revolutions of the hand wheel.
Force display & elongation measurement
11
Gripping heads
Tensile sample
Procedure
The test device is set up as follows:
Untwist the hand wheel on the master cylinder as far as it will go and
move the load frame down to its lowest position. (if this has not been
done, insert the gripping heads in the upper cross-member and crosshead).
Screw down the gripping heads with the short bolt at the bottom and with
pressure pad.
Gripping head with the long bolt at the top
Measure and note down the test length LO of the sample between two
marks.
Screw the sample by hand into the lower gripping head as far as the end
stop.
Screw the sample into the upper gripping head as far as the end stop, by
rotating the gripping head itself.
Tighten the nut on the upper gripping head by hand until he gripping
head is seated without slack in the upper cross-member.
12
Question
1. Based on the data, observation and analysis sections:
a. Determine the Modulus of Elasticity, yield strength, tensile strength and ductility.
b. Identify the Material A and Material B. State your reasons.
c. State one application of Material A and Material B in actual engineering
application. For the chosen application, comparing between Yield strength and
Ultimate tensile strength, which one have to be considered for that application.
Why?
13
Experiment 2
Torsion Test
Objectives
1. To understand the principle of torsion test.
2. To determine the modulus of shear, G through measurement of the applied torque and angle
of twist.
Theory
Torsion is a variation of pure shear wherein a structural member is twisted, torsional forces
produce a rotating motion about the longitudinal axis of one end of the member relative to the
other end. Torsion tests are normally performed on cylindrical solids shaft or tube. Most of these
tests are performed according to ASTM Standard E 143, Standard Test for Shear Modulus.
In each test, torque and twisting angle are measured to determine the shear modulus, G.
T G
J
L
, J
r 4
2
d 4
32
Where;
T = torque
J = polar moment of inertia
G = shear modulus
= angle after application of torque
L = length
d = diameter
r = radius
Specimen made of various materials, with differing diameters and lengths may be investigated.
The effective torque is recorded with the aid of a reference rod equipped with strain gauges. The
torque is directly displayed on a digital display of a strain gauge measurement amplifier. This also
incorporates important principles of electronic measurement of mechanical values into the
experimental program. The unit is primarily intended for practical laboratory experiments.
Technical description of the apparatus
The apparatus consists mainly of:
1 Loading device with scale and revolution counter for twisting angle measurement
2 Torque measurement unit
3 Calibration device
4 Specimen (is mounted between the loading device and torque measurement unit into
hexagon socket)
5 Track base
6 Digital torque meter
14
Technical data
General data:
Main dimension
Weight
Loading device:
Worm gear reduction ratio
Revolution counter
Output scale
Input scale
Indicator
: 62
: 5 digit, with reset
: 360
: 360
: Adjustable
: 0 30 Nm
: 6 digit, LED 14 mm
: 0 - 50 C
: 230 V, 50/60 Hz
Calibration device:
Maximum load
Load increment
: 30 Nm
: 2.5 Nm
15
Loading Device
The torsional loading is transmitted to the specimen by a
worm gear (1) and a hand wheel (4). The twisting angle at
the output and the input is read off by two 360 scales
(2,3).
At the input side of the gear there is in addition a 5-digit
revolution counter (5) which shows the input revolutions
1:1.
The worm gear has a reduction ratio of 62. The specimens
hexagon ends are set into an axial moveable socket (6) at
the worm gear output end.
Torque measurement unit
In this testing the torque will be measured by a reference
torsion rod and strain gauges. The specimen is mounted on
one side to the loading device and on the other side to the
torque measurement device.
The load torque applied to the specimen produce shear
stresses in the measurement torsion rod. These shear
stresses are proportional to the load torque. Strain gauges
are used for detecting the shear stresses.
Because strain gauges can only measure strain but not
twisting they must be applied in the direction of the maximum
principal stress. In the case of pure torsion the maximum of
principal stress will occur at a 45 to the axial axis of the
torsion rod.
Due to the arrangement of 4 strain gauges in form of a full
bridge circuit the distortion influence of additional bending
and direct stresses is minimized.
The signal of the gauges is conditioned by a measuring
amplifier with a digitally read out. The amplifier also delivers
the supply voltage for the bridge circuit.
The load torque will occur a slight deformation of the torsion
rod. This will cause an error in determining the twisting angle
of the specimen.
16
17
Procedure
a) Calibration
For calibration of the torque measurement unit a
defined load torque is used as reference. This
reference load torque is generated by a
calibration unit. The calibration unit mainly
consists of a lever and a load weight. The weight
of the lever is balanced by a certain counter
weight. By that the load torque only depends on
the load weight.
A wide range of torque between 0 and 30 Nm
can be set thanks a division into weight discs.
The resolution is 2.5 Nm. The calibration unit
must be clamped near by the specimen holder of
the torque measurement unit. To connect both
units use the 15 mm hexagon socket.
18
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
1. Turn the hand wheel at the input of the gear clockwise to load the specimen. Turn it only for a
defined angle increment.
2. For the first rotation choose an increment of a quarter rotation (90), for the second and third
rotation of a half-quarter (180) and for the 4th to 10th rotation of one rotation (360).
3. To calculate the twist angle at the specimen (output angle of the gear) divide the rotations at
the input by the reduction ratio of 62.
4. Fracture will occur between 100 and 200 rotations.
5. Compensates the deformation of the measuring torsion rod after each angle increment.
Doing this turn the hand wheel of the compensation unit until the dial gauge indicates zero.
6. Read the torque value from the display of the amplifier and note it together with the indicated
twist angle.
7. Table the result.
8. Repeat the experiment with other test specimen
Questions
1. Plot a graph of calibration curve of Amplifier Torque value (read-out at amplifier torque value)
vs. the Applied Load Torque value. Observe and determine the trend of the curve.
2. The specimen torque value is measured by the amplifier (read-out at amplifier torque value).
By using the equation from the calibration curve, determine the actual Load Torque value
from the read-out amplifier torque value. Plot a graph of Load Torque vs. Revolution in radian
at gear output.
3. Determine the experiment shear modulus, Gexp for each material. Compare the results with
the theoretical value, G.
4. Based on your results, conclude the different between specimens tested.
5. State two common mechanical parts that are subjected to torsion in real engineering
application? Explain in details.
19
Experiment 3
Bending test tensile strength (OPEN-ENDED LAB)
Objectives
1. To investigate the relationship between load, span, width, height and deflection of a beam,
placed on two bear affected by a concentrated load at the center.
2. To ascertain the coefficient of elasticity for steel, brass, aluminum and wood.
Theory
The stress-strain behavior of brittle materials (e.g. ceramic, low toughness composite material) is
not usually ascertained by tensile tests as outline in Exp. 1. A more suitable transverse bending
test is most frequently employed, in which a rod specimen either a circular or rectangular cross
section is bent until fracture using a three- or four-point loading technique. The assessments are
conducted according to ASTM Standard C 1161, Standard Test Method for Flexural Strength of
Advanced Ceramics at Ambient Temperature.
In this module, the apparatus has been design to enable students to carry out experiments on
simply supported and cantilever beams in order to investigate:(a) the relationship between the deflections and the applied loads
(b) the effect of variations in 1ength and cross sectional i.e. deflection per unit load.
For this arrangement, it can be shown that the deflection under the load
i.e. maximum deflection
Wl 3
48EI
20
bd 3
where I
12
beam compliance
l3
W 4Ebd 3
Calculations:
Deflection formula for the load given above:
FL3
48EI
FL3
E
48I
Deflection (mm.)
Span(mm.)
Moment of Flexure (Nmm)
Resistance to Flexure (mm3)
Flexural Stress (N/mm2)
E =
I =
F1 =
F =
Set of Apparatus
Twist and Bend Test Machine MT 210.
21
Coefficient of Elasticity
Inertia Factor
Load occasioned
= by weight of load device =2.5N
Load occasioned by additional weight (N)
Procedure
Create the procedure for Task 1 and Task 2 using provided apparatus and samples.
Task 1: To investigate the relationship between load, span, width, height and deflection of
a beam, placed on two bear affected by a concentrated load at the center.
a) Investigate the relationship between load and deflection
b) Investigate relationship between span and deflection
c) Investigate the relationship between width and deflection of the test specimen.
d) Investigate the relationship between the height and deflection of the test specimen.
Task 2: To ascertain the Coefficient of Elasticity (E) for steel, brass, aluminum and wood.
When E is calculated, the initial load caused by the load device has no significance since the
gauge has been set at zero with the device in place. However, when calculating flexural stress, F 1
is included.
Questions
1: Plot graphs for Task 1 (a, b, c and d). Discuss the relationship observed.
2: Calculate the Coefficient of Elasticity (E). Compare the Coefficient of Elasticity with
theoretical value for steel, brass, aluminum & wood. Discuss the result.
3: Give one example of application which apply the concept of simply supported beam
with central point load.
a) Explain your answer in details.
b) Propose a material for the stated application. Why?
22
Experiment 4
Buckling Test
Objectives
1. To determine critical buckling loads for columns with support.
2. To examination the Euler theory of buckling.
3. To investigate the influence of different material parameters.
Introduction
All relevant buckling problems can be demonstrated with the WP 120 test stand.
Buckling, as opposed to simple strength problems such as drawing, pressure, bending and
shearing, is primarily a stability problem. Buckling plays an important role in almost every field of
technology. Examples of this are:
-
Theory
23
b) Euler Formula
Buckling occurs suddenly and without warning when a certain limit load is attained. It is therefore
an extremely dangerous type of failure, which must be avoided by all means. As soon as a rod
begins to buckle, it will become deformed to the point of total destruction. This is typical unstable
behavior. Buckling is a stability problem. The critical limit load Fkrit, above which buckling can
occur is dependent on both the slenderness of the rod, i.e. influence of length and diameter, and
the material used. In order to define slenderness the slenderness ratio will be introduced here.
l
k
i
In this case l k is the characteristic length of the rod. It takes both the actual length of the rod and
the mounting conditions into consideration.
For example, clamping the ends of the odds causes rigidity. The buckling length decisive for
slenderness is shorter than the actual length of the rod. Altogether, a differentiation is made
between four types of mountings, each having a different buckling length.
The influence of diameter in the slenderness ratio is expressed by the inertia radius i. It is
calculated using the minimum geometrical moment of inertia ly and the cross-sectional area A.
ly
A
The influence of material is taken into consideration by the longitudinal rigidity of the rod EA.
Here, E is the modulus of elasticity of the respective material and A is the cross-sectional area.
The influence of various factors on the critical load are summarized in the so-called Euler
formula":
Fcrit 2
or expressed in a different form:
Fcrit 2
24
EA
2
El y
l2
c) Influencing Factors
Below the influence of various characteristic values such as the E modulus, geometric moment of
inertia, length and the type of mounting on buckling behavior will be examined using the Euler
formula.
E modulus
The E modulus is a measure of the rigidity of a material. A stiff material is sensible for high
resistance to buckling. Since strength has no influence on buckling, materials with as high an E
modulus as possible should be used. For example, in the case of buckling strength a simple
constructive steel St37 with a tensile strength of only 370 N/mm should be given preference over
a high strength titanium allow TiAI6Zr5 with 1270 N/mm.
Whereas the constructive steel has an E modulus of 210 kN/mm, the titanium alloy only features
105 kN/mm.
Geometric moment of inertia
The geometric moment of inertia indicates the resistance against deflection resulting from the
cross-sectional shape of the rod. Since a rod buckles in the direction of least resistance, the
minimum geometric moment of inertia is the decisive factor. The table contains the geometric
moment of inertia for several cross-sectional shapes. Here, hollow sections with small wall
thickness are more favorable at the same weight as solid cross sections. For example, the ratio of
the geometric moment of inertia of a thin tube (dia. 52 x 2) to that if a solid rod (dia. 20 mm) with
the same cross-sectional area is 12.5 to 1. In addition, double symmetrical cross-sections such
as tubes or quadratic cross sections should be used since their geometric moment of inertia is the
same in every direction.
Buckling length
The length of the rod as well as the type of mounting determines the buckling length 1k. The
influence of the length is quadratic. At twice the length the admissible load is only one-fourth the
original value.
d) Tensions in Buckling Rod
In order to determine whether a rod has failed due to exceeding the admissible compressive
strain or by buckling, the normal compressive strain in the rod, which is part of the critical load,
must be calculated.
Fk
E
2 2
A
If this normal compressive strain is lower than the admissible compressive strain, the rod will fail
due to buckling. If the admissible compressive strain is used as the normal compressive strain,
25
the critical slenderness ratio crit at which buckling occurs can be calculated.
crit 2
For constructive steel St37 with p =192 N/mm the crit = 104. Above crit buckling according to
Euler can be expected. The buckling strain curve can be seen in Diagram 3.10.
Fcrit 2
EI y
l2
The modulus of elasticity E for steel is 210000 N/mm. T geometric moment of inertia I y is
calculated as follows for a square cross section:
Iy
bh 3
12
26
27
c) Specimen Holders
Two diffe
d) Deformation Measurement
28
620 mm
450 mm
ll50 mm
35 kg
2000 N
20 N
20 mm
700 mm
l0 mm
20 mm dia.
Rod Specimens
The rod specimens contained in the standard set can be used to conduct tests on the influence of
mountings, length and material. The influences of eccentric mounting and different cross
sectional shapes can be studied with the WP120.01 accessories set.
a) Standard Set WP120
No:
S1
S2
S3
S4
S5
S6
S7
S8
S9
S10
S11
Material
Tool steel 1.2842
Tool steel 1.2842
Tool steel 1.2842
Tool steel 1.2842
Tool steel 1.2842
Tool steel 1.2842
Tool steel 1.2842
Alu. AlMgSiO.5 F22
Brass CuZn40Pb2
Copper E-Cu
Fieberline
Diameter
mm
Length
mm
20 x 4
20 x 4
20 x 4
20 x 4
20 x 4
20 x 4
20 x 4
25 x 6
25 x 6
25 x 6
20 x 10
350
500
600
650
700
650
650
600
600
600
600
29
Mounting
knife-edge/knife-edge
knife-edge/knife-edge
knife-edge/knife-edge
knife-edge/knife-edge
knife-edge/knife-edge
clamped/knife-edge
clamped/knife-edge
knife-edge/knife-edge
knife-edge/knife-edge
knife-edge/knife-edge
knife-edge/knife-edge
Material
Alu. AlMgSiO.5 F22
Alu. AlMgSiO.5 F22
Alu. AlMgSiO.5 F22
Alu. AlMgSiO.5 F22
Fieberline
PVC
PVC
Alu. AlMgSiO.5 F22
Alu. AlMgSiO.5 F22
Alu. AIMgSiO.5 F22
Diameter
mm
25 x 6
25 x 6
25 x 6
40 x 6
25 x 10
1 6 x 2
20 x 1.5
20 x 10 x 2
1 5 x 2
1 4
Length
mm
500
500
500
500
700
400
400
700
700
700
Mounting
knife-edge/knife-edge (e=0 mm)
Knife-edge/knife-edge (e=1 mm)
Knife-edge/knife-edge (e=3mm)
knife-edge/knife-edge
knife-edge/knife-edge
knife-edge/knife-edge
knife-edge/knife-edge
knife-edge/knife-edge
knife-edge/knife-edge
knife-edge/knife-edge
Procedure
1) Introductory Test
30
b) Testing
1. Set up the test device in vertical or horizontal position. The force gauge can be turned 90 o for
this purpose
3. Insert long thrust piece with V notch into the guide bush of the
load cross-bar and hold it firmly
31
10. Slowly subject the rod specimen load using the load nut.
11. Read the deflection from the measuring gauge. Read and
record the deflection every 0.25-mm up to 1 mm.
12. Above 1-mm deflection, it suffices to record the deflection
and force every 0.5-mm.
13. The test can be concluded when the force does not change, despite an increasing load (in the
case of rod specimen S2 this as at approx. 4 mm).
14. Slowly remove the tension from the rod specimen.
15. Table the result
16. Repeat the experiment with two other specimens
32
Safety
DANGER!
The load cross arm can drop of the clamping screws are loosened!
A drop could damage parts of the testing machine located underneath the cross arm.
Carefully support the cross arm by hand when loosening the clamping screws!
Before removing a rod specimen make sure that the clamping screws are tightened
securely! Pay attention to the top thrust piece when removing the rod specimen!
The hazards mentioned do not apply when the test device is set up horizontally.
The rod specimen could break suddenly in this case. Pieces of specimen could fly around
and cause injuries!
This hazard is not posed with original G.U.N.T. rod specimens, since they are made
of ductile material.
CAUTION
Do not overload device!
The maximum testing force is 2000 N. Overloads can occur if attempts
are made to force a loaded rod specimen in the direction opposite that
of deflection.
Never deflect more than max. 6 mm, since there is a risk or plastic
deformation and damage to the rod specimen.
Questions
1. Plot a graph of Force vs. Deflection (mm). Identify the maximum experimental critical
force.
2. Calculate the theoretical critical force for each material.
3. Compare the values obtain in (1) and (2).
4. What are the different between one material and another?
5. Identify one engineering example where buckling is highly concerned. Explain your
answer in details.
33
Experiment 5
BRINELL HARDNESS TESTING
Objectives:
1. To study the hardness of different material.
2. To understand the principles of Brinell Testing method.
Theory
Brinell Fundamental principles
Hardness refers to the resistance, which a body has to the penetration of another. Accordingly, in
common hardness testing methods, a hard test body is pressed into the sample perpendicular to
its surface.
A three-dimensional stress forms in the sample beneath the penetrating test body. Lasting impressions can be achieved in very hard and brittle materials without resulting in cracks. This
distinguishes hardness testing from tensile testing in which only a mono-axial stress is generated
in the sample and no plastic deformation is possible with hard materials.
34
Brinell Hardness
Brinell hardness is calculated from the test force F and the
surface area of the Impression AB caused by the ball. With
the ball diameter D and the diameter of the impression d this
then produces
HB
0.102 F
0.102 F
AB
0.5D D D 2 d 2
The factor 0.102 is an historical one and takes into account the conversion from kp/mm 2 to
N/mm2.
If the impression from the ball is not circular, the average from two vertically superimposed
measurements should be used.
To ensure that the hardness numbers for various materials, sample forms and ball diameters are
comparable, certain rules must be observed.
Ball diameter
The ball diameters 10, 5, 2.5 and 1-mm are standardized.
Application time
The test force should be applied to the sample for at least 10 to 15 seconds and with creeping
materials 30 seconds or more. The increase in the test force to its maximum should last at least 5
seconds.
Load factor
In order to obtain a legible, reproducible ball impression, the diameter of the impression should be
between d = 0.2 and 0.7 D. In order to adhere to this for various hard materials, various
pressures per unit of area are recommended, i.e. the force and the square of the ball diameter
must be at a certain ratio to one another. This ratio is termed load factor x.
x
0.102 F
D2
Here too, the factor 0.102 results from the conversion from kp to N. The following table lists the
load factors for various materials.
35
Load Factor x
Load factor x
30
Measurable
67.400
hardness
range HB
Material
Iron
materials
Steel
Cast steel
Cast iron
10
22315
Light metals
Copper Brass
Gunmetal
Nickel
0.102 F
depending on material
D2
5
2.5
1.25
11158
6...78
3...39
Pure
aluminum
Magnesium
Bearing Lead
metals
Tin
Zinc CastSoft
brass
solder
0.5
1...15
Soft metals at
higher
temperatures
Technical description
The WP300 materials testing device is a robust unit designed specifically for technical
instruction and is one of the classical materials testing devices in materials science. The flexible
design of the unit permits a wide range of different tests requiring tensile or compressive
forces. Thanks to its clear, simple layout, the unit is ideally suited for both student experiments
and for demonstrations.
Its compact dimensions and relatively low weight permit mobile use and erection on all
common laboratory benches. The device can easily be transported by two persons using the four
handgrips.
Basic unit
In its basic form, the unit does not require any external
connections.
The test force is generated via a manually actuated
hydraulic system and displayed via a large, easily
legible display instrument with a trailing pointer.
All accessories are screwed to the cross-members. This
means that the test unit can be quickly and easily
refitted for various tests.
The basic unit essentially consists of the following
elements:
- Machine base (1) with handgrip (11)
- Support with cross-head (2)
- Load frame with upper (3) and lower cross-member
(4)
- Hydraulic system consisting of a main cylinder (5)
and a master cylinder with a hand wheel (6)
- Force display (7)
- Elongation display via a dial gauge (8)
- Gripping heads (9) with sample (10)
36
Machine base
Support
The posts (1) and cross-head (2) form the fixed support
of the test unit. The various fixed sample receptacles
are fastened to the cross-head. The mobile load frame
is also mounted on it in low-friction linear ball bearings.
Load frame
The load frame consists of the upper (1) and lower
cross-member (2) and the guide rods (3). The load
frame transmits the test force from the hydraulic main
cylinder to the relevant sample. The load frame is slidemounted in the cross-head of the support. Tensile
samples are clamped between the upper cross-member
and the cross-head, whilst compressive samples are
clamped between the lower cross-member and the
cross-head.
Load frame
37
Hydraulic system
The test force is generated by hydraulic means. A
piston in the master cylinder (2) actuated via the
hand wheel (1) and the threaded spindle creates a
hydrostatic pressure, which induces the test force in
the main cylinder (3). The hydraulic transmission
ratio is 2.77:1, whilst the mechanical transmission
ratio hand wheel/spindle is 503 : 1. Excluding friction
losses, this would correspond to a manual force of 1
N per 1.3 kN test force. The full stroke of the main
cylinder of 45 mm requires 83 revolutions of the
hand wheel.
38
Hardness test
The basic unit includes a device for hardness testing
according to Brinell. Hardness testing is performed with
a hardened steel ball with a diameter of 10 mm.
Metal plates 10 x 30 x 30 mm made of the materials
aluminum, copper, brass and steel are used as
samples.
39
Procedure
Samples of 4 different materials are tested. For all materials,
a load factor of 10 is selected. For the steel sample, a load
factor of 30 is recommended in accordance with the table on
page 38. However, the necessary test force of 29 kN cannot
be applied with the WP3OO. As the Brinell hardness of the
steel sample is undoubtedly less than HB 315, the load factor
of 10 is still permissible.
(Part A)
- 1. Position the test piece on the lower pressure plate so
that the center of the test ball is at least 20 mm from the
edge.
-
Questions
1. Calculate the Brinell hardness.
2. Discuss the different hardness results for different materials and explain the significance of
the Vickers hardness measurement.
3. Compare the testing techniques in terms of indenter, load and equations for Rockwell, Brinell,
Knoop and Vickers methods.
4. What are the important samples preparations need to be considered before conducting
hardness test?
5. Give two examples regarding the importance of hardness test.
6. What is the advantage of hardness testing in contrast to tensile testing?
7. Discuss the hardness and softness of the materials.
40
Experiment 6
THIN CYLINDER
Objective
Determination of circumferential stress under open condition, and analysis of combined and
circumferential stress.
Theory
a) Complex Stress System
The diagrams in Figure 4.1 represent (a) the stress and (b) the forces acting upon an element of
material under the action of a two-dimensional stress system.
a) Stress diagram
b) Force Diagram
Figure 6.1: Stress and force diagrams for two dimensional stress systems
41
Assuming (b) to be a 'wedge' of material of unit depth and the side AB to be of unit length:
Resolving along will give:
2
1
1
y x y x cos 2 sin 2
2
2
(1)
sin 2
sin 2
x
sin 2 cos 2
2
2
1
y x sin 2 cos 2
2
(2)
From equation 2 it can be seen that there are values for e for which is zero and the planes on
which the shear component is zero are called 'Principal Planes'.
For equation 2:
1
y x sin 2 cos 2
2
1
cos 2 y x sin 2
2
1
y x tan 2
2
0
(3)
This will give two values of 2 differing by 1800 and, therefore, two values of differing by 900.
This shows that Principal Planes are two planes at right angles to each other.
42
and
cos 2
(4)
x 4 2
2
(5)
x 4 2
2
The stresses on the principal planes are normal to these planes and are called principal stresses.
From equation 1 and substituting the above values:
1
y x 1
2
2
x 4 2
2
(6)
Principal stresses are the maximum and minimum values of normal stress in the system. The
sign will denote the type of stress.
i.e
1
2 1 sin 2
2
(7)
Now maximum shear stress will be seen to occur when sin2 = 1, i.e. when =450.
43
Therefore the maximum shear stress occurs on planes at 450 to the principal planes, and
1
2 1
2
(8)
or (using equation 6)
x 4 2
2
(9)
1
Strain in direction of 2:
1
E
2
E
v 2
E
(10)
v 1
E
(11)
44
cos 2
2 2
m 2 1 1 2 cos 2
2 2
m 2
(12)
and
1 2 1 2
cos 2
2 2
n 2 1 2 1 cos 2
2 2
n 2
45
(13)
pd
2t
(14)
pd
4t
(15)
and
As previously stated, there are two possible conditions of stress obtainable; 'open end' and
'closed ends'
H
1
and
L
1
(16)
v H
E
(17)
46
and these are the two principal strains. As can be seen from equation 17, in this condition L will
be negative quantity, i.e. the cylinder in the longitudinal direction will be in compression.
b) Closed Ends Condition
By constraining the ends, a longitudinal as well as circumferential stress will be imposed upon the
cylinder. Considering an element of material:
H will cause strains of:-
and
L
1
L
and
(18)
v H
E
(19)
L
E
(20)
v L
E
(21)
H
and
1
H v L
E
(22)
1
L v H
E
(23)
The principal strains may be evaluated and a Mohr Strain Circle constructed for each test
condition. From this circle the strain at any position relative to the principal axes may be
determined.
c) To determine a value for Poisson's Ratio
Dividing equations 16 and 17 gives :-
L
v
H
(24)
47
48
the locking screw and the hand wheel. The hand wheel sets the cylinder for open and closed
ends conditions.
When the hand wheel is screwed in, it forces the piston away from the end plate and the entire
axial load is taken on the frame, thus relieving the cylinder of all longitudinal stress. This creates
open ends experiments as shown in Figure 6.9. Pure axial load transmission from the cylinder
to frame is ensured by the hardened steel rollers situated at the end of the locking screw and
hand wheel.
49
Strain Gauges
50
Items
Dimensions
Nett weight
Electrical supply
Fuse
Maximum cylinder pressure
Strain gauges
Cylinder oil
Total oil capacity
Cylinder dimensions
Cylinder material
Youngs modulus (E)
Poissons ratio
Details
370 mm high x 700 mm long x 380 mm
front to back
30 kg
85 VAC to 264 VAC 50 Hz to 60Hz
20 mm 6.3 A Type F
3.5 MNm-2 Set by a pressure relief valve
on the hand pump
Electrical resistance self-temperature
compensation type
Shell Tellus 37 (or equivalent)
Approximately 2 litres
80 mm internal diameter
3mm wall thickness
359 mm length
Aged aluminium alloy 6063
69 GN/m2
0.33
51
condition, the value of Young's Modulus for the cylinder material may be determined and also the
value for Poisson's Ratio.
To obtain the biaxial stress system: - (refer to Figure 6.10)
Ensure that the return valve on the pump is fully unscrewed. Unscrew the hand wheel and push
the crosspiece to the left until it contacts the frame end plate. Now close the return valve and
operate the hand pump to pump oil into the cylinder and push the piston to the end of the
cylinder.
Thus, when the cylinder is pressurized, both longitudinal and circumferential stresses are set up
in the cylinder. Before any test, and at zero pressure, each strain gauge channel should be
brought to zero or the initial strain readings recorded as appropriate.
This equipment is equipped with VDAS (Versatile Data Acquisition System), however, for
teaching purposes, students are encouraged to conduct the experiment manually.
Precaution: NEVER pump the oil pressure higher than 3.1 MN/m2
a)
b)
52
Data
Reading
Pressure
(MN.m-2)
Gauge
5
Gauge
6
Gauge
5
Gauge
6
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Values from actual Mohrs
Circle (at 3 MN.m-2)
Values from theorethical
Mohrs Circle (at 3 MN.m-2)
Data Table 6.1: Open Ends Results
Reading
Pressure
(MN.m-2)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Values from actual Mohrs
Circle (at 3 MN.m-2)
Values from theorethical
Mohrs Circle (at 3 MN.m-2)
Data Table 6.2: Closed Ends Results
53
Questions:
A. Open Ends Conditions
1. Plot a graph of Hoop Stress against Hoop Strain. Find the Youngs Modulus for the
cylinder material. Compare your result.
2. Plot a Longitudinal Strain against Hoop Strain. Find the Poissons ratio for the cylinder
material. Compare your result.
3. Draw the Mohrs Circle at 3 MN/m2. Identify the Principles Strains for Open Ends
Conditions. Compare the values with theoretical Mohrs Circle (Hint: to construct the
theoretical Mohrs Circle, consider Poissons Ratio and Youngs Modulus given in
technical details, use these values with the Principal Strain equations 16 and 17 to
calculate theoretical principal strain with calculated Hoop Stress at 3 MN/m2 pressure).
B. Closed Ends Conditions
1. Draw the Mohrs Circle at 3 MN/m2. Identify the Principles Strains for Closed Ends
Conditions.
2. Compare the values with theoretical Mohrs Circle (Hint: to construct the theoretical
Mohrs Circle, consider Poissons Ratio and Youngs Modulus given in technical details,
use these values with the Principal Strain equations 22 and 23 to calculate theoretical
principal strain with calculated Hoop Stress at 3 MN/m2 pressure).
C. State one example of real engineering application using open ends condition and
closed ends condition concept. Explain your answer in details.
54
Experiment 7
IMPACT TEST
Objective
To investigate the impact strength of polymers
Theory
Impact testing
For determination of both tensile strength and hardness testing, the test piece is loaded
continuously and slowly. How a material reacts to a sudden tension due to a quick blow or impact
is shown by means of an impact tester. The test is conducted according to D6110-06 Standard
Test Method for Determining the Charpy Impact Resistance of Notched Specimens of Plastics.
55
Test pieces
Charpy test-pieces see fig. 8:4 can have slightly different instruction as to how the test is
conducted.
Keyhole and U test-pieces give equally good results. The specific impact energy or impact unit
KCU is measured in kj /m2. For U test-pieces the impact energy or impact strength kV, is
measured in j (joules). There is no sure method of calculation of impact energy for test pieces, for
tests carried out with different instructions on the test piece.
56
Impact Strength
57
The impact tester has maximum impact energy of 1 joule, each scale division being 0.1 joules.
Test pieces suitable for the tester are 6 x 6 x 44 mm. The reduced length of the pendulum
requires a test piece smaller then standard.
The impact tester weights 30 kg and has dimensions of 195 x 315 x 590 mm.
The weight of the pendulum is 2 kg.
Procedure
a) Setting the zero point of the start point
Because of friction and wind resistance, the pendulum will not have the same striking angle as
the fall angle. This can be compensated for by inclining the impact tester slightly. The fall angle
will then be larger and the striking angle less but the scale is fixed and a non-loaded blow of 15
joules should show a value of 15 joules.
58
Method:
1.
2.
Raise the pendulum to the start point. Release the pendulum by means of the black knob.
KEEP FINGERS AND HANDS CLEAR OF THE PENDULUM MOTION THUS
AVOIDING JAMMING ACCIDENTS.
3.
Stop the pendulum using the friction brake. Take the reading of the pointer. The pointer
should point to zero (0) if the impact tester is properly set.
4.
If the pointer shows more than zero, fixed impact testers should be angled slightly by
inserting a spacer (washer) under the pendulum side. For the freestanding model, screw
down the allen screw using an MOO allen key.
If the pointer shows less than zero, i.e. the pointer is over the scale, then the spacer
(washer), shall be placed under the back edge for fixed models end the allen screw in the
free standing model, turned anti clockwise (upwards).
5.
Check the setting with an unloaded test. Complete further adjustment until exactly zero is
registered.
The test piece is placed on the supports so that the break indentation faces the direction of
the pendulum swing and that the indent is exactly in the middle of the supports.
2.
3.
59
4.
Release the pendulum by turning the black knob, top right. KEEP HANDS CLEAR. The test
piece is broken off.
5.
Stop the pendulum by lifting the friction brake. Be sure that the pendulum is at standstill
before removing the test pieces.
6.
The energy consumed when breaking the test piece can now be read directly from the scale,
indicated by the pointer.
7.
Read and note the value of the impact energy. Calculate the fracture area and
subsequently the impact strength.
Data
Test
Fracture
Area
(cm2)
Impact
Energy
(joule)
Impact
Strength
(joule/cm2)
HDPE
LDPE
Questions
1. Calculate the impact strength for all test pieces..
2. HDPE and LDPE have different polymeric chain. Explain how it affects the impact strength
obtained.
3. Other than impact strength, state other information can be gathered through Izod & Charpy
method?
4. Give one example of engineering application where impact is a real concern. Explain your
answer in details.
60
Experiment 8
Microstructure Analysis
Objective:
1. To be familiar with metallography techniques such as grinding, polishing and etching.
2. To be familiar with metallurgy microscope
3. To investigate the microstructure of metal and alloy.
Theory
Metallurgy is the study of microstructural features of materials. The structure studied by
metallography are indicative of the properties and hence the performance of material in service.
Typical application of metallography techniques in research centres and industry may include:
a. To monitor metal alloy heat treatment
b. To measure the thickness of coating
c. To evaluate/examine the weld or braze
d. To evaluate corrosion, etc.
e. For failure analysis
In this technique, planar surface is prepared by sectioning followed by mounting in a
thermosetting resin prior to grinding and polishing to obtain a reflective surface. In order to
delineate the microstructure chemical or other etching method is often employed prior to
microscopy investigation.
a) Sectioning and cutting
The areas of interest forming the metallography specimens need to be sectioned for ease of
handling. Depending on the type of material, the sectioning operation can be done by using
abrasive cutter (for metal and metallic composite), diamond wafer cutter (ceramics, electronics,
and minerals) or thin sectioning with a microtome (plastics).
In order not to damage the specimen, proper cutting requires the correct selection of abrasive
cutting wheel, proper cutting speed & cutting load and the use of coolant.
b) Mounting
The mounting operation accomplishes three important functions:
1. To protects the specimen edge and maintain the integrity of materials surface features.
2. Fill voids in porous materials.
3. Improves handling of irregular shaped samples.
61
Samples for microstructure evaluation are typically encapsulated in a plastic mount for handling
during sample preparation. Large sample or samples for macrostructure evaluation can be
prepared without mounting.
The metallography specimen mounting is done by encapsulating the specimen into:
1. A compression/hot mounting compound (thermosets e.g. phenolics, epoxies or
thermoplastics e.g. acrylics)
2. A castable resin/cold mounting (e.g. acrylics resins, epoxy resins and polyester resins)
c) Grinding
Grinding is required to ensure the surface is flat & parallel and to reduce the damage created
during sectioning. Grinding is accomplished by decreasing the abrasive grit size sequentially to
obtain the required fine surface finish prior to polishing.
It is important to note that the final appearance of the prepared surface is dependent on the
machine parameters such as grinding/polishing pressure, relative velocity distribution and the
direction of grinding/polishing.
d) Polishing
For microstructure examination a mirror/reflective finish is needed whereas a finely ground finish
is adequate for macrostructure evaluation. Polishing can be divided into two main steps:
1. Rough polishing
The purpose is to remove the damage produced during grinding. Proper polishing will maintain
the specimen flatness and retain all inclusions or secondary phases by eliminating the previous
damage and maintaining the specimen integrity.
2. Fine polishing
The purpose is to remove only surface damage.
e) Etching
Etchans are specially formulated for the specific material and evaluation objectives. Etching
alters the microstructural features based on composition; stress or crystal structure and it will
develop the surface topology, which can be visible in the microscope.
Typically, chemical etching involves immersing the polished surface in the prepared chemical
solution for a specified time (usually seconds) followed by rinsing the etched specimen under
running tap water and drying.
f) Microscopic Analysis
For microscopic analysis, a reflective surface is required. The analysis can be done by using a
metallurgy microscope.
62
8. Grinder
9. Silicon carbide paper (4 different mesh)
10. Diamond spray (6 micron and 1 micron)
11. Dryer
12. Cotton
13. Alcohol
14. Sample mild steel
Procedure
1. Grinding is done using planar grinding machine covered with silicon carbide (SiC) paper and
water. In this operation four different grade of paper is used. Starts with the smallest grit
number; which represents coarse particles.
2. During grinding apply light pressure on the centre of the sample. Continue grinding until all
the blemishes have been removed, the sample surface is flat, and all starches are directed in
one direction.
3. Wash the sample in water and move to the next grit, orienting the starches from the previous
grade normal to the planar direction.
4. Repeat the grinding procedure until the final grinding operation. After that wash the sample
thoroughly followed by cleaning using alcohol and dry the sample.
5. Polishing is done using rotating disc covered with soft cloth impregnated with diamond
particles and lubricant. Begin the polishing operation with 6-micron grade and continue the
process until the grinding starches have been removed.
6. Wash the sample under running tap water followed by cleaning with alcohol, immerse the
sample in ultrasonic cleaner for one minute and then dry the sample.
7. Repeat the same procedure for final polishing stage using 3-micron diamond paste..
8. Examine your sample by using metallurgy microscope. Note down your observation.
9. Immerse the polished sample in the etching solution for about 2 to 3 seconds. Wash the
sample with water followed by alcohol. Dry the sample prior to microscopy examination.
Precaution:
While using the microscope be careful not to raise the stage too much which may
result in contact between the objective lens and the specimen and cause damage.
Never touch the optical surfaces with your fingers or any object.
63
Question:
1. Label the microstructure obtained.
2. Discuss the difference between before- and after- etching process.
3. Discuss the effect of etching process. What will happen if the process is too long (more
than 3 seconds)?
4. Explain the relationship of grain and grain boundary with mechanical properties of
materials.
5. Other than metallurgy microscope, identify another two methods applicable to investigate
the morphology and microstructure in area related to mechanical engineering. State the
advantages of that equipment.
6. Give two real examples where microstructures study are real concern in mechanical
engineering application. Explain your answer in details.
64
Lab Schedule
Mechanics and Materials Laboratory Schedule (MEMB221)
Semester 1 2015/2016
S1 (Wed, 5-8pm), S2 (Thu, 5-8 pm), S3 (Thu, 8-11am), S4 (Fri, 9-12 pm), S5 (Mon, 7-10 pm) and S6 (Wed, 11-2 pm)
W3
W4
W5
W6
W7
W8
W9
W10
W11
W12
W13
W14
W15
W16W17
1 -5
Jun
2015
8-12
Jun
2015
15-19
Jun
2015
22-16
Jun
2015
29
Jun -3
July
2015
6-10
July
2015
13-16
July
2015
17-26
July
2015
27-31
July
2015
3-7
Aug
2015
10-14
Aug
2015
17-21
Aug
2015
24-28
Aug
2015
31
Aug 4 Sep
2015
7-11
Sep
2015
14-29
Sep
2015
1/5
6*
1/5
6*
1/5
6*
1/5
6*
1/5
6*
1/5
6*
G3
G4
G5
G6
Introduction
G2
G1
Exam week
W2
W1
31 Aug
National Day
*Instructor
Note
may
split into two lab
sessions (W11&
W12)
G7
Exp No.:
1
Buckling Test
Impact test
Torsion Test
Hardness Test
Microstructure Analysis
Bending Test
Thin Cylinder
66