UNIT I

INTRODUCTION TO THE METHODOLOGY OF LANGUAGE TEACHING

...Fashions that come and go with monotonous regularity (Nunan
1991)

Aims:
to clarify concepts related to the methodology of language teaching
to make students aware of the historical development of the

language

teaching methods/approaches
to help students assess the various teaching methods and adapt them to their
own teaching

1. What is methodology?
The methodology of language teaching draws on theories of language (linguistics)
and theories of language learning (applied linguistics) leading to different approaches
to/methods of language teaching. If we are to define methodology , the Longman
Dictionary of Applied Linguistics (1985) gives the following definition:
a) the study of the practices and procedures used in teaching and the principles
and beliefs that underlie them;
b) such practices, principles and beliefs themselves.
Methodology includes:
a) the study of the nature of language skills (e.g.: listening, speaking, reading,
writing) and procedures for teaching them;
b) the preparation of lesson plans, materials and textbooks for teaching
language skills;
c) the evaluation and comparison of language teaching methods .

For reasons of course organisation we shall start by defining methods first, and
language skills, lesson plans, materials and textbooks will be approached in later
units.
Therefore, we shall now define three useful concepts in language teaching: methods,
principles and techniques (Larsen-Freeman,D, 1986).
Methods, according to Anthony Norris (1969:2) involve the selection of materials to
be taught, the gradation of those materials, their presentation and pedagogical
implementation to induce learning. As the definition shows, methods imply that the
teacher chooses either the textbooks or the materials to supplement a textbook, plans
how to use these materials, and finally teaches them in order to help students learn.
Principles involve the various theoretical backgrounds concerning the teachers and
the learners roles, the teaching and the learning processes as well as knowledge of the
target language ( language to be learned)/culture.
Classroom techniques involve the classroom activities and procedures derived from
the application of the principles. We can remark that a given technique may be
associated with more than one method i.e., two methods sharing certain principles or a
particular technique may be compatible with more than one method, depending on the
way the technique is used.
After having defined methodology, we shall ask the following questions, related to
teaching (including teaching methods that we will be dealing with in the next section)
and learning a foreign language:
1. What do we learn when we learn a foreign language? and
2. Why do learners learn a foreign language?
1. The process of learning a foreign language involves learning grammar, vocabulary,
and developing such skills as listening, speaking, reading and writing.
2. The second question involves several answers. First, foreign languages are part of
school curriculum. Second, knowing a foreign language may help the learner to
advance in his/her professional life. Third, learners of a foreign language may find
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themselves temporarily or permanently in the target language community and

therefore target language knowledge is of utmost importance. Fourth, learners may
have specific reasons for learning foreign languages, such as: communication within
business communities, writing for academic purposes, etc. And fifth, some learners
may learn languages for fun, for travel, etc.
As we can see, there may be a lot of reasons why learners want to learn a foreign
language, and the degree of success in this activity is closely connected to their
motivation in undertaking the task of language learning. The motivation the learners
bring to class is the biggest single factor affecting their success (Harmer, 1991:3).
According to Harmer, motivation is of two kinds: 1. extrinsic motivation and 2.
intrinsic motivation.
1. Extrinsic motivation is concerned with factors outside the classroom and can be
either a.) integrative motivation (learners are attracted by the culture of the target
language community and they wish to integrate themselves into that culture), and b.)
instrumental motivation (which describes a situation in which students believe that
mastery of the target language will be the instrument that will help them in getting a
better job, position or status).
2. Intrinsic motivation refers to what happens in the classroom and the important
effect that classroom language learning has on learners who are already extrinsically
motivated. It is here that Harmer takes into account such factors as: physical
conditions the classroom itself), method the teacher (see the next section), and
success, which affects learners intrinsic motivation.
2. Historical perspective to teaching methods
In the presentation of the various language teaching methods, we shall take into
account the views of both H.H.Stern(1983) and Diane Larsen-Freeman(1986) by
considering the principles and techniques underlying each of these methods.

2.1 The grammar translation or traditional method

A look into the theoretical background of this method shows it similar to the approach
used in classical education i.e., the teaching of Latin and Greek which became
popular in the late 18-th century. The goal of the teacher using this method is to make
students read literature in the target language and learn grammar rules and vocabulary.
In the process of teaching, the teacher uses the native language(L1) of the students
and does not aim at the students use of the second/target language (L2).The language
skills that this method emphasises are reading and writing.
The classroom techniques used in this method are: translation from and into L2,
reading comprehension questions ,the production of lists of antonyms and synonyms,
fill in the blanks exercises, the use of new words in sentences and composition.
The grammar translation method was criticised because, according to Stern (1983), it
was a cold and lifeless approach to language teaching and it was blamed for the
failure of foreign language teaching. In spite of the criticisms, the grammar
translation method has maintained itself remarkably well, as it appears to be easy to
apply from a didactic point of view.
_____________________________________________________________________
___
TASK
Think back at your experience as learners. Which of the techniques mentioned above
were you exposed to in the classroom? Do you think any of them helped you learn
better?
_____________________________________________________________________
___

2.2. The direct method

The direct method appears as a strong reaction against the grammar translation
method. It is closely linked with the introduction of phonetics into language teaching
and emphasises the use of spoken language, with focus on the phonetic transcription
of words. It was influenced by Bloomfields structuralist theories. This method
represents a shift from literary language to spoken everyday language, a goal that was
totally lacking in grammar translation. It stresses that the teacher should use L2 in the
classroom, the meaning being shown to the students through actions and pictures,
paraphrases, synonyms, demonstration or context. The language skills emphasised are
mostly listening and speaking.
The classroom techniques include: classroom presentation of a text by the teacher,
reading aloud of short texts specially constructed for foreign language learning,
questions and answers based on the text. The grammatical observations are derived
from the text and the students are encouraged to discover the grammatical principles
for themselves. Practice involves fill in the blanks exercises, dictation, map drawing,
paragraph writing, free composition.
Critics of the direct method raise such questions as: How can meaning be conveyed
without any translation into L1? What can be done to avoid misunderstanding? How
can the direct method be applied beyond elementary stages?
_____________________________________________________________________
___
TASK
Think back at your experience as learners. Which of the techniques mentioned above
were you exposed to in the classroom? Do you think any of them helped you learn
better?
_____________________________________________________________________
___

2.3. The audio-lingual method

The basis of this method is the theory and research of such sciences as behaviourist
psychology and structural linguistics.
Behaviourist psychology is connected to the name of B.F.Skinner and it applies the
Pavlovian principles of animal behaviour to human behaviour. It is also called
stimulus-response psychology.
Structural linguistics, on the other hand, is linked to Bloomfields theory which led to
several principles applied to language programmes (Moulton: 1963, cited in
Nunan:1991):
language is speech not writing
a language is a set of habits
teach the language not about the language
a language is what native speakers say, not what someone thinks they ought to say
languages are different
The audio-lingual method appeared and was mainly used in the United States. The
setting up of language laboratories in schools is due to the emphasis that this method
lays on accepted standards of pronunciation.
The classroom techniques involved in this method do not focus much on meaning but
rather on dialogue memorisation and pronunciation. The teacher usually begins with a
dialogue which the students memorise in chunks, and this leads to the sequencing of
skill development, emphasis being laid on listening and speaking, with lesser
importance attached to reading and writing. As a consequence of the techniques
already mentioned, students vocabulary is, at first, rather limited. Other techniques
include repetition drills, substitution drills, transformation drills, dialogue completion
and grammar games.

The audio-lingual method is strongly criticised by the famous linguist Noam

Chomski, who created his own transformational-generative grammar which implies
that language acquisition is basically rule-governed.
_____________________________________________________________________
___
TASK
Think back at your experience as learners. Which of the techniques mentioned above
were you exposed to in the classroom? Do you think any of them helped you learn
better?
_____________________________________________________________________
___

2.4. The cognitive method

This method appeared as a reaction to the audio-lingual method and it is based on
transformational grammar and cognitive psychology. Transformational-generative
grammar, whose representative is Noam Chomski, founded its theory on the idea that
a finite number of grammar rules (language universals) can generate an infinite
number of sentences. So, the teacher views language as rule acquisition not habit
formation and encourages students to become responsible for their own learning as
well as to become aware of the way L2 operates.
Cognitive psychology, in its turn, stresses the fact that language development is
characterised by rule-governed creativity.
By accepting the value of rules, cognitive language learning de-emphasises the role of
rote learning along with techniques of mimicry and memorisation.
The classroom techniques include: deductive presentations of the target language
items by which the teacher gives the students the rule and asks them to apply it to
several practice items or examples, or inductive presentations of the target language
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items by which the students are given a number of examples and asked to work out
the rule.

In terms of skill development, this method considers reading and writing to be as

important as listening and speaking and de-emphasises the importance of standard
pronunciation.
The cognitive method laid too much emphasis on the conscious learning of the
language, based on applying a finite number of rules and did not account for the
unconscious acquisition of a language.
_____________________________________________________________________
___
TASK:
Think back at your experience as learners. Which of the techniques mentioned above
were you exposed to in the classroom? Do you think any of them helped you learn
better?
_____________________________________________________________________
___

2.5. The total physical response method

This method was developed by Asher(cited in Nunan:1991) who places primary
importance on listening comprehension and then moving to speaking, reading and
writing. He derives his theory from models of first language acquisition. Asher
provides three principles about the nature of first language acquisition, which he
applies to second language acquisition:
1. The teacher should stress comprehension rather than production at the beginning
levels, with no demand on the students to generate the L2 structure themselves. The
students only have to observe the teachers behaviour and obey his/her commands.

2. The teacher should demonstrate actions that take place here and now, at least
during the initial stages of language learning.
3. The teacher should provide input to the students by getting them to carry out
commands. (e.g. Sit down! and the students do it).
The main classroom technique consists of giving commands which the students act
out. The method focuses on activities that are designed to be fun and to allow students
to assume active learning roles and that include language games and skits.
The method did not live long since language acquisition theories demonstrated that
comprehension does not always precede production neither in L1 nor in L2.
2.6. The community language learning method
This method aims at creating a warm and supportive community among the students
in the classroom and gradually moving them from complete dependence on the
teacher to complete autonomy. The teachers role is to act as counsellor and to set a
problem to be solved by the students. The syllabus used is learner-generated, i.e.
students choose what they want to say in the target language. The focus is on fluency
rather than on accuracy. What makes this method special is that the students are seated
in a closed circle with the teacher outside.
The classroom techniques involve recording the conversations in which students
whisper to the teacher in L1 and he/she whispers back the L2 version which the
students repeat to the group. These recordings are transcribed and then the students
and their teacher discuss on them and correct the errors.
2.7.Suggestopaedia
Suggestopaedia is a method by which the students` mental powers are tapped in order
to accelerate the process of learning. An important characteristic of the method is
the endeavour to overcome the psychological barriers which students bring with them
to the learning situation.The teachers role is to get the students to learn in a state of
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total relaxation bordering on hypnosis as a means of enhancing the acquisition of

vocabulary for example.
The classroom techniques used in this method involve relaxation, rhythmic breathing
and listening to readings by the teacher which are synchronised to music.
The method was highly criticised on grounds that experiments have revealed the fact
that students taught by traditional classroom methods can learn more vocabulary than
those taught by this method.
2.8. The silent way method
The silent way method emphasises the need to develop learner autonomy from both
the teacher and the learning situation. Thus the students are led to make use of what
they know and actively explore the language and encouraged to use self-correction
which is seen as natural and indispensable to language learning.

Teaching is

subordinate to learning and so, teachers give students only what they absolutely need
to promote learning. The teacher is silent much of the time but very active setting up
situations, listening to students, speaking only to give clues not to model speech.
Students begin with sounds introduced through association of sounds in L1 to a
sound-colour chart and are encouraged by the teacher to produce the words in L2 by
pointing coloured rods to the sounds on the chart. Consequently, the classroom
techniques the method involves include the use of sound-colour charts, coloured rods
and self-correction gestures.
All four skill areas are worked on from the beginning, pronunciation especially,
because sounds are basic and carry the melody of the language.
2.9. The communicative method
Most of the previously presented methods emphasised the acquisition of structures
and vocabulary. The adherents of the communicative method acknowledge that
structure and vocabulary are important. However, they feel that the preparation for
communication will be inadequate if only these are taught. Students may know the
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rules of language usage but they will be unable to use the language.When we
communicate we use the language to accomplish some functions, such as: arguing,
persuading, promising, etc. Moreover, we carry out these functions within a social
context. In terms of skill development, all the four skills are emphasised and even
more, the teacher aims at integrating them.
Communication is a process which implies that it is insufficient for students to simply
have knowledge of language forms, meanings and functions. They must therefore be
able to apply this knowledge in order to negotiate meaning through interaction
between speaker and listener / writer and reader, especially in real life situations. The
teacher encourages the students to use the L2 fluently but also appropriately (i.e.
depending on the social situation).
Features of the communicative method:
it is a learner-centred method helping the students to survive in the real world
the teacher is a facilitator, a task-setter who monitors activities, helps students and
gets involved in the learning process
the focus is on meaning and rather than on form, on functions rather than on
structures
emphasis on classroom interaction
the teaching-learning process centres on real-life situations and uses authentic
materials and tasks.
Among the classroom techniques used in the communicative method we could
mention pair-work, group-work, role-play, simulations, etc.
_____________________________________________________________________
___
TASK
Think back at your experience as learners. Which of the techniques mentioned above
were you exposed to in the classroom? Do you think any of them helped you learn
better?
_____________________________________________________________________
___

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NOTE that all these methods have been described here in their pure form. In actual
classroom application, there is no clear-cut distinction among various methods.
Moreover, it is the teachers role to decide which techniques to use , depending on the
context in which his/her lesson takes place.

TASK
I. Read the following descriptions of lessons and decide on the method used by the
teacher:

A.
teacher points to five blocks of colour without saying anything; the colours
represent the sounds of 5 English vowels close to 5 simple vowels in Romanian
teacher points to the first block of colour and says /a/. Several students say /e/ /I/
/o/ /u/, as the teacher points to the other 4 blocks
teacher does not model the new sounds but uses gestures to show students how to
modify the Romanian sounds
teacher works with gestures and instructions in Romanian to help students produce
the sounds
teacher points to a rod and then to 3 blocks of colour on the sound-colour chart
students respond ROD
.........
B.
the class is reading an excerpt from Mark Twains Life on the Mississippi
students translate the passage from English into Romanian

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 the teacher asks students in Romanian if they have any questions and answers in
L1
students write out the answers to the reading comprehension questions
students are given a grammar rule for the use of a direct object with two-word
verbs
........
C.
teacher introduces new dialogue
actions, pictures or realia are used to give meaning (only in English)
teacher introduces the dialogue by modelling it twice
students repeat each line of the new dialogue several times (drills)
new vocabulary is introduced through lines of the dialogue
........
D.
students read aloud a passage about US geography
teacher points to a part of the map after each sentence is read
teacher uses English to ask students if they have any questions; students ask
questions in English
teacher works with students on the pronunciation of geographical names
students fill in the blanks with prepositions practised in the lesson
.......
E.
teacher distributes handouts which have a copy of a sports column from a
newspaper
teacher tells students to underline the reporters predictions and say which ones
they think the reporter feels most certain of and least certain of
students unscramble the sentences of the article (on back of handout)
students work in groups and teacher gives each group a strip story

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 in their groups, the students predict what the next picture in the strip story will
look like
.......
(adapted from D.Larsen-Freeman,1986, Techniques and Principles in Language
Teaching,OUP)

II. Match the characteristics in column A with the corresponding method in column
B
Some characteristics may belong to more than one method:
A

1. Ss. unable to speak language taught

a. Grammar translation

2. Classroom atmosphere very important

b. Direct method

3. Emphasis on pair and group work

c. Audio-lingual

4. Teacher concentrates on correct pronunciation

d. Suggestopaedia

5. The four skills are integrated

e. Silent way

6. Great effort to avoid student errors

f.Community language learning

7. Ss. design own syllabus

g. Total physical response

8. Listening is the first skill taught

h. Communicative method

9. Ss. should use foreign language

APPROPRIATELY
10.Grammar taught from rules
11.Teacher silent most of the time
12.Emphasis on dialogues

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