MASARYK UNIVERSITY BRNO

FACULTY OF EDUCATION
Department of English Language and Literature

Teaching Grammar Points/Structures Non-existent in Czech

Bachelor Thesis
Brno 2009

Thesis Author: rka Kostelnkov

Thesis Supervisor: Mgr. Renata Janakov

Hereby I state that I have worked on this bachelor thesis on my own and that all the sources of
information I have used are listed in the bibliography.

March 30, 2009

rka Kostelnkov

My grateful thanks to Mgr. Renata Janakov for her valuable advice and comments she has
provided me while working on the bachelor thesis.

Contents
1. Introduction.

2. Part One..

2.1. The origins and history of English and Czech languages.. 7

2.1.1. The common origin of Czech and English... 7
2.1.2. History of the English language 8
2.1.3. History of the Czech language.. 9
2.2.

Structures non-existent in Czech.. 10

2.2.1. Differences in expressing past in Czech and English... 11

2.3. Teaching grammar 12
2.3.1. Grammar... 12
2.3.2. Learning vs. acquisition.... 12
2.3.3. Different methods.. 13
2.3.4. Current state in teaching grammar 14
2.3.5. Presenting grammar... 15
2.3.6. Grammar activities. 15
2.4.

Summary of Part One. 16

3.

Part Two. 17

3.1.

Introduction to the Practical Part Two 17

3.2.

My attitude to teaching grammar 17

3.3. Teaching sequences of the past simple.. 19

3.3.1. Teaching sequence 1 Presentation.. 19
3.3.2. Teaching sequence 2 Awareness 22
3.3.3. Teaching sequence 3 Controlled Drills.. 23
3.3.4. Teaching sequence 4 Meaningful Drills. 24
3.3.5. Teaching sequence 5 Guided, Meaningful Practice 26
3.3.6. Teaching sequence 6 Structure-based Free Sentence Composition 27
3.3.7. Teaching sequence 7 Structure-based Discourse Composition.. 29
3.3.8. Teaching sequence 8 Free Discourse. 30
3.4. Teaching sequences of the present perfect 32
3.4.1. Teaching sequence 9 Presentation. 32
3.4.2. Teaching sequence 10 Awareness.....

35

3.4.3. Teaching sequence 11 Controlled Drills.. 35

3.4.4. Teaching sequence 12 Meaningful Drills 36
3.4.5. Teaching sequence 13 Guided, Meaningful practice.. 37
3.4.6. Teaching sequence 14 Structure-based Free Sentence Composition 37
3.4.7. Teaching sequence 15 Structure-based Discourse Composition
and Free Discourse. 38
3.5. Teaching sequences of the past simple and present perfect..

39

3.5.1. Teaching sequence 16 Awareness..

39

3.5.2. Teaching sequence 17 Controlled Drills. 40

3.5.3. Teaching sequence 18 Guided, Meaningful Practice.. 40
3.5.4. Teaching sequence 19 Free Discourse. 41
3.6. Summary of Part Two 42
4.

Conclusion.. 43
References... 45
Appendix..... 48

1. Introduction
Czech and English differ in many ways. They both belong to the Indo-European languages.
It means that they have basically the same hypothetical common ancestor - the Proto-IndoEuropean language, but their development has happened separately and therefore differently.
Czech is a Slavic language that belongs to the synthetic language group, whereas English is a
Germanic language that belongs to the analytic language group. So it is clear that there are
both similarities and differences in these two languages.
Especially the differences, in other words features and structures non-existent in Czech, are
difficult to master for Czech students of English as a foreign language. As I am both a student
and teacher, I am interested in this issue from both sides - teaching and studying these
differences. It has resulted in my decision to choose the topic Teaching Grammar
Points/Structures Non-existent in Czech as the topic of my Bachelor thesis.
The objective of the thesis is to foreshadow the background of the rise of different
grammar points and structures in Czech and English. It tries to answer the question what lies
at the roots of the differences between Czech and English from the historical point of view.
Special attention is paid to the development of English tenses that do not exist in Czech. Also,
the thesis deals with questions whether grammar should or should not be taught and focuses
on appropriate teaching methods that could help students overcome difficulties in studying
grammar points/structures non-existent in Czech. Mainly, the thesis concentrates on teaching
various English tenses that are translated into Czech as past tense and it focuses on pupils at
primary school. The requirements for English language education are set out in the
Framework Educational Programme for Basic Education and based on the Common European
Framework of Reference for Languages. Pupils at primary schools should achieve the A2
level. They learn the past simple and present perfect tenses in the 7th, 8th and 9th grades, so the
methods in Part Two are designed for pupils of the 7th, 8th and 9th grades. The main objective
of the thesis is to devise a procedure that could be used when teaching these pupils the past
simple and present perfect. As there is not the only possible and right way how to teach these
tenses and it is always determined by a teachers preference, I try to present it from my
personal point of view. It is not meant to be accepted unreservedly, but it mirrors my
experience as a teacher, my knowledge and opinions.

The thesis is divided into two main parts. Part One is purely theoretical. It is subdivided
into three sections.
The first section substantiates differences between Czech and English caused by their
origin and history, because I find it of considerable importance for English teachers to be
aware of circumstances and background information that influence language. It helps them
comprehend the structure of language and be able to teach English better. This part traces the
history of Czech and English and takes into account their grammars, especially the
development and changes of past tenses. It leaves aside the development of phonetics,
phonology, vocabulary etc.
The second section briefly presents some grammar points and structures non-existent in
Czech. It is based on the fact that these differences come from the development of English
into an analytic language and Czech into a synthetic language.
The third section deals with grammar generally. It is concerned with questions such as
what grammar is and whether it should or should not be taught. It draws attention to the ways
grammar could be taught.
Part Two of the thesis is oriented practically. It is centred on ways, methods and techniques
that I find useful and effective for learners at a primary school to be able to grasp regularities
and rules governing the correct use of English tenses. These methods should provide practice
of the grammar structures and encourage the frequent and proper use of English tenses that
are translated into Czech as past tense. As learners find it difficult to distinguish when to use
the past simple as opposed to the present perfect, the thesis offers possible ways how to teach
these two tenses. The teaching process that I find recommendable is exemplified on teaching
sequences that focus on these two tenses.

2. Part One
2.1. The origins and history of English and Czech languages
2.1.1. The common origin of Czech and English
It is assumed that languages all over the world derive from a hypothetical common
ancestor - an ancient proto/language. It was spoken roughly 50,000 to 100,000 years ago.
English and Czech come from the same origin - the Proto-Indo-European language, so it is
clear that there can be found common features in them. They both started their development
as a highly inflecting language with eight noun cases, three genders, three numbers
singular, plural and dual, moods, voices and three tenses present, aorist and perfect about
3 000 4000 B.C. (Proto-Indo-European.). Tenses had mainly aspectual value. Their tensal
values were of lesser importance. Since the half of the first millennium B.C., when their
development split up, they both have undergone great changes. English has developed into an
analytic language and Czech into a synthetic language. They both have preserved some
features from their common ancestor, modified others and created new ones. The detached
development lies at the roots of differences between English and Czech.

INDO-EUROPEAN

Greek languages
Greek
Tsakonian

Celtic languages
Welsh
Irish Gaelic
Scots Gaeli

Italic languages

Armenian language

Italian
French
Portuguese

Armenian

Albanian languages
Albanian
Tosk
Gheg

Germanic languages
English
German
Danish

Indo-Iranian languages
Classical Sanskrt
Hindi
Punjabi

Balto-Slavic languages
Czech
Russian
Polish

Fig. 1. The Indo-European language family1

The graph above illustrates the development of the Indo-European language family into modern languages.
There are ten major branches of the family. As Anatolian and Tocharian languages are extinct, they are not
included into the graph and there are only a couple of examples of modern languages from each branch. The
graph is inspired by List of Language Families (Wikipedia).

2.1.2. History of the English language

English belongs into Germanic languages, which form one branch of the Indo-European
language family and is classified as a West Germanic language. Proto-Germanic is dated to
the latter half of the first millennium B.C. Proto-Germanic branched into five groups, one of
which is the West Germanic, by 250 B.C.
Proto-Germanic had only two tenses - preterit and present. The preterit (past tense) was
derived from the Proto-Indo-European aorist and perfect. The Proto-Germanic lost some
tenses present in the Proto-Into-European. Its inflectional system was reduced, especially in
the tense system of the verbs. These languages added endings /d/ or /t/ to verbs to indicate
past tense. It was a new type of past form. Irregular verbs, where the past tense is formed by
vowel alternations, come from the Proto-Indo-European stative aspect.
The first appearance of English is connected with arrival of Germanic tribes in Britain in
the fifth century A.D. English of that time is called Old English. The past forms of verbs were
of two kinds weak (regular) and strong (irregular). Barbara Fennel states:
The infinitive of verbs ended in -an. In the present tense, all verbs had markers for number and person. The
weak past tense added -de, while the strong past tense usually involved a vowel change. Old English also had
many more strong verbs than modern English.

The ending de to create the past form was a principally new creation, because it had not
existed in the Proto-Indo-European language. The past form by means of a vowel change was
the reminder of the Proto-Indo-European stative aspect. The syntax of Old English was more
changeable than it is today and the word order was of less importance.
There was no difference between modal and main verbs in the early Middle English and
questions were formed by inversion of a subject and tensed verb. In the later Middle English
the periphrastic do appeared and modals became auxiliaries. The continuous aspect was
introduced. Barbara Fennel indicates:
Verb infinitives dropped the -an ending, and used "to" before the verb to signify the infinitival form. The
third person singular and plural was marked with -(e)th; but the singular also competed with -(e)s from the
Northern dialect. More strong (irregular) verbs became weak (regular) as well.

New compound tenses, such as the perfect tenses, have appeared and syntax started being
stricter, but double negation, more than one negative in an English sentence, was used.
8

Modern English dates from the fifteenth century. Other strong verbs became weak,
progressive and auxiliary verbs were used less than today and the ending s marked the third
person form of verbs. Verbs were followed by negatives and it was possible to use more than
one negative in a sentence. The use of progressive tenses has increased. Grammar was more
or less fixed.
English has not preserved much of the inflectional morphology found in the Proto-IndoEuropean language. It has changed into an analytic type of language. It means that it uses
specific grammatical word or particles, rather than inflection, to express syntactic relations
within sentences ("Analytic language").
2.1.3. History of the Czech language
Czech belongs to Slavic languages, which form another branch of the Indo-European
language family. The Proto-Slavic language was spoken to the middle of the first millennium
A.D. By the seventh century it split up and various dialects developed independently. Czech
belongs to the West Slavic branch. Over the centuries it has developed into the synthetic
language, in which syntactic relations within sentences are expressed by inflection (the
change in the form of a word that indicates distinctions of tense, person, gender, number,
mood, voice and case) ("Synthetic language").
Slavic languages differ from Germanic languages in many ways. They have persisted in
using of endings, prefixes and vowel alternations to differentiate grammatical meanings. They
inherited these features partly from the Indo-European language; partly it resulted from their
peculiar linguistic process over centuries. These languages borrowed from the Indo-European
language two past tenses - the aorist and imperfect, but now they have almost no traces of the
Indo-European perfect tense. They use inflections to show present and past tenses and verb
aspect is shown overtly. One form of a verb expresses completed and the other uncompleted
aspect.
The past tense in the Proto-Czech was expressed by four different tenses, which were
called aorist, imperfect, perfect and plusquamperfect. The verbal aspect was not fully
developed. The ending t as a marker of the infinitive originated in that time.
The future tense was introduced and affixes became the common part of the way of
expressing the perfective and imperfective aspects in the time of Old Czech. Consequently,
Czech lost aorist and imperfect tenses. They were superseded by the perfect tense. In modern
9

Czech it is called preterit and it is the only past tense in Czech. The history of Czech, such as,
dates back to the eleventh century. The most changes, which separated Czech from other
Slavic languages, occurred from the tenth to sixteenth century.
100.000 50.000BC 4,000 3,000 B.C.

An ancient protolanguage

The Proto-Indo-

500 B.C. 200 B.C.

Proto-Germanic
Proto-Slavic

500 A.D.

900 A.D.

1066

1 100

The Old Church

Slavonic
language

Old English

West Germanic

Middle English

1 500

Old Czech

Modern English

European
language

Fig.2. The time line of the chronological order of the development of English and Czech.

2.2. Structures non-existent in Czech

As English is an analytic Germanic language and Czech is a synthetic Slavic language, their
grammars differ greatly. There are a lot of grammar points and structures existent in English,
but non-existent in Czech. It would not be possible or beneficial to the purpose of this thesis
to list them all here. Therefore, there are only in short mentioned those of them that are related
to teaching past tenses, which are the main focus of the thesis.
Czech has remained an inflecting language. It uses a system of conjugation and declension.
Therefore, the word order is of less importance. Czech lost the Indo-European aorist and
imperfect tenses and superseded them by the perfect tense (the only past tense in Czech).
English has mostly lost the inherited features of the original inflecting language. The
changes have generally meant simplification, although it has led to the emergence of new
tenses. It was caused by the fact that English has abandoned the use of affixes to modify
verbs. Consequently, different grammatical aspects are expressed by means of auxiliary verbs,
pronouns and prepositions, hence the need for new tenses. As English neither declines nouns
nor conjugates verbs, the word order has become crucial and the syntax has become strict.
The syntax is not flexible and the word order is fixed in English, unlike in Czech. An
English sentence comprises a subject and a predicate, which is heterogeneous and consists of
other constituents a verb, an object, adverbials and a complement. At least a subject and a

10

verb must be mostly present in an English sentence and the position of the sentence elements
is strictly given. Whatever tenses are taught, teachers should keep on raising students
awareness about the word order in an English sentence and alert them to differences between
Czech and English syntax. Furthermore, English uses auxiliary verbs to form various tenses,
questions and negatives.
2.2.1. Differences in expressing past in Czech and English
As Czech employs only one past tense, it does not matter when the action or state
happened in the past or whether the action is completed. There is a complex system of
conjugation in Czech and different grammatical aspects are expressed in one verb by
changing its structure. The past participle ending varies in accordance with the number and
gender of the subject. The past participle ends in -l (-la, -lo, -li, -ly, -la). The past tense
consists of the present tense form of the verb bt and the past participle of the corresponding
verb and in the third person it is only the past participle (Czech Grammar)
English uses a lot of different verb forms to refer to past time. According to Greenbaum
and Quirk, because of the fact that tense in English is realized by verb inflection, English
distinguishes only present and past tense. The way in which the action of a verb is viewed
with respect to time is called aspect. There are two aspects in English the perfect and the
progressive, which may combine in a complex verb phrase and are marked for present or past
tense (Greenbaum and Quirk 51). Swan maintains that English verbs can refer to future,
present or past time and that for each kind of time, there are three possibilities with most
verbs: simple, progressive and perfect (5). He also states that there is not a direct
relationship between verb forms and time, because past forms of verbs may refer not only to
past events, but also to present or future events. English tenses that refer to past time are the
past simple, past continuous (progressive), present perfect simple, present perfect progressive,
past perfect simple and past perfect progressive. In addition to these tenses, English uses the
auxiliary verbs used and would to express past activity or state and habits. English tenses are
related to time. It matters whether it refers to a point of time or then, to time before or until
then, before or until now and so on. For the purpose of this thesis the past simple and present
perfect tenses have been chosen.

11

2.3. Teaching grammar

2.3.1. Grammar
Yule defines grammar as the analysis of the structure of phrases and sentences (243),
whereas Swan defines grammar as the rules that show how words are combined, arranged or
changed to show certain kinds of meaning (xix). Traditionally, grammar is associated with
analysis at the level of the sentence, thus it gives prominence to sentence grammar. However,
some grammarians, for example Thornbury in his Grammar, distinguish between word,
sentence and text grammar. Teaching English past tenses is associated mainly with sentence
grammar. Sentence grammar is comprised of syntax and morphology. Syntax is concerned
with the rules that determine the way words can be combined to make well formed
sentences, whereas morphology involves knowing how to construct verb phrases
(Thornbury, Grammar 39). Thornbury maintains that the main preoccupation of sentence
grammar has always been with verb phrase (Grammar 39). It contains not only the right
forms, but also intended meaning of sentences. Changes of the form of verbs, types of verbs,
parts of speech, word classes etc. belong to word grammar. Word grammar deals with the fact
that not only sentences, but also words have their own grammar. Furthermore, most
grammatical features can be interpreted only by reference to a larger context (Thornbury,
Grammar 103). This perspective on grammar is called text grammar.
Apart from this, it should be differentiated between written and spoken grammar.
English that is taught at schools is based on written grammar. It is mainly due to the fact that
written grammar is considered to be neutral without regional or cultural features.

2.3.2. Learning vs. acquisition

Teaching grammar has always been a controversial topic and opinions vary greatly.
Theorists make distinction between learning and acquisition. It is based on the fact that
children acquire their mother tongue (L1) subconsciously. Yule describes acquisition as the
gradual development of ability in a language by using it naturally in communicative situations
with others who know the language, whereas learning is a more conscious process of
accumulating knowledge of the features, such as vocabulary and grammar, of a language,
typically in an institutional setting (163). He maintains that at the age of five, when the
greater part of the basic language acquisition process is completed (159), children are

12

prepared to learn a foreign language (L2). The question arises how much the experience with
acquisition of L1 could be copied in second language learning.
Stephen Krashen, an American applied linguist, gives prominence to acquisition. He
suggests in Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning that acquisition
requires meaningful interaction in the target language natural communication in which
speakers are concerned not with the form of their utterances but with the messages they are
conveying and understanding (1). He does not find error correction and explicit teaching of
rules pertinent to language acquisition. Language learning should be only used to check and
correct utterances that have been uttered.
However, it is assumed that the ability to acquire language easily tends to deteriorate with
age (Harmer 47). Harmer maintains that learning a foreign language happens under different
condition than acquisition of a mother tongue. Children acquire language gradually from oneword utterances to complex sentences. Their exposure to language takes place all the time and
in real-life situations. Children are highly motivated and have opportunities to try language
out and use it. Furthermore, learners of English have perfectly good reasoning power and
may want to think consciously about how language works (Harmer 47).
Ur contributes to the debate with opinion that teaching and learning grammar really helps
learners learn a foreign language, provided it is taught consistently as a means to improving
mastery of the language, not as an end in itself (77-78). Swan holds to opinion that it is not
possible to get the natural conditions of language acquisition (full-time exposure at an early
age) in the language classroom (Sorry, but youve got to have a grammar syllabus). He
claims that methods involving study of grammar have proved successful and that it is
impossible to teach everything at once. He supports the idea of necessity of a grammar
syllabus.
2.3.3. Different methods
Teaching English as we know it today is the result of theories and practical activities,
different opinions, a lively debate and both arguments for and against teaching grammar.
There have been many different approaches to language teaching. They set themselves apart
from one another by their attitude to teaching grammar. Much has been written about the
grammartranslation method, the audio-lingual method, communicative approaches or for
example task-based learning. Advantages of every single approach are numerous, yet much
13

can be said against them. It is vital for teachers to familiarize themselves with these
approaches, as well as with modern teaching trends, to be able to reach a sensible decision on
which method or combination of methods best suit their personal teaching preference.
Elements from the grammar-translation method are still relevant. Short grammar rules and
word lists are presented and students try to use them in translation exercises. Harmer agrees
that students can learn a lot about a foreign language by comparing parts of it with parts of
our own mother tongue (49), but one of the disadvantages of this method is that it may leave
students ignorant of functions of the language in conversation. The audio-lingual method uses
drill, which is still considered a useful technique to use, especially with low-level students
(Harmer 49). Grammatical structures are presented from simple to complex and students
repeat them and use different words in them. It is based on the belief that the fluent use of a
language is essentially a set of habits that can be developed with a lot of practice (Yule 165).
Elements from both methods mentioned above are included in the modern method called PPP,
which means Presentation, Practice and Production (Harmer 49-50). The context and
situation are presented and both meaning and form of a new structure are explained. Students
try to make the new structure in controlled practice and then they try to use it in
communication. Communicative approaches are all based on a belief that the function of
language should be emphasized rather than the forms of the language (Yule 166). The main
focus of the task-based learning is the task itself. The task is completed and then students
check and analyze the language they used.
2.3.4. Current state in teaching grammar
It is not necessary to adopt a certain approach as a whole. It is easy to combine various
features from different approaches, modify and improve them, so as to be able to suit teachers
and learners personal teaching and learning needs. However, to avoid the lack of coherence
or philosophy of our teaching practice, Harmer recommends a principled eclecticism (51).
It means that teaching sequences are comprised of Engage, Study and Activate elements
(52).
Engage means that teachers awaken learners curiosity. As learners need to satisfy their
curiosity about what is going to be taught, they are involved in the teaching process, they pay
attention, they are interested in it and they remember more. Students gain benefit from being
engaged, so it is the teacher s responsibility to captivate their minds. Activities expedient to
captivate students minds are games, music, pictures, quizzes, making predictions or using
material related to students lives.
14

Study means presentation and practice of certain constructions, for example verb tenses. It
may comprise techniques from PPP procedure. The meaning, form and the context of the new
grammar items are explained and demonstrated or students may be asked to work out rules
from examples of a new structure. There is a seemingly endless variety of different ways how
study goals can be achieved. Harmer offers for instance explaining a new grammatical
pattern, time lines or diagrams, repeating elements of the structure separately, reading a text
while concentrating on structures that are going to be taught, listening activities etc. (52).
Activate element embraces communicative and free usage of the absorbed knowledge in
real-life situations. It does not focus on the accuracy of specific bits of language (Harmer
53). Learners are encouraged to talk about themselves (personalisation), make dialogues, roleplays, debates, write stories, comprehend the reading and listening texts or read and listen for
pleasure. Simply, they try to use language as freely as possible.
2.3.5. Presenting grammar
Ur suggests that grammar should be presented in a way that is clear, simple, accurate and
helpful (81). She recommends that for effective grammar presentation teachers should set the
context of a new grammatical structure first and present both oral and written form and both
form and meaning (82). It is absolutely vital to check whether learners understand the
meaning and provide them with a lot of examples. Visual materials are advisable. Teachers
should make presentation clear, appropriate and interesting and use terminology carefully
with respect to learners age and level. The same applies to the decision whether the
explanation should be in learners mother tongue or in English or in the combination of both.
Ur maintains that explanation should be reasonably accurate, which means that a simple
generalization, even if not entirely accurate, is more helpful to learners than a detailed
grammar-book definition (82-3). As far as rules about a new grammatical structure are
concerned, teachers have to decide whether inductive or deductive method will be more
effective for learners. Deductive approach starts with presentation of a rule and examples
follow, whereas inductive approach starts with examples and learners may be asked to work
out the rule themselves. Also, teachers should be able to refer learners to appropriate grammar
reference books.
2.3.6. Grammar activities
Practice activities should be planned so that they go from very much controlled to free
ones and should be graded from simple to complex. Ur recommends that grammar practice
15

activities should be designed so that they help learners make the leap from form-focussed
accuracy work to fluent, but acceptable, production (83). Both practices form-focussed and
meaning-focussed should be included. Ur offers seven basic types of grammar practice from
accuracy to fluency. The first type is Awareness. After presentation of a new structure learners
look for the structure within a discourse and concentrate on the form and meaning of it.
Controlled and Meaningful Drills follow. Learners try to make examples of the structure.
Examples are either predetermined or learners have a limited choice. Guided, Meaningful
Practice means that learners form sentences of their own according to a set pattern , but
exactly what vocabulary they use is up to them (Ur 84). Learners compose their own
responses on visual or situational cue in activities that Ur calls Free Sentence Composition.
Discourse Composition embraces activities, in which learners are asked to use a new structure
as much as possible within a given task. Activities where learners use a new structure
independently Ur calls Free Discourse.

2.4. Summary of Part One

To sum up, the theoretical Part One traces the development of different structures in
English and Czech from the historical point of view. It concentrates on structures that refer to
past time, which are the main focus of this thesis. It embraces various opinions about teaching
grammar and describes miscellaneous approaches to teaching grammar. Also, it presents
recommendable methods and techniques that should be used when teaching grammar
explicitly. These methods serve as a basis of the practical Part Two. The use of these methods
is illustrated on teaching sequences, in which the past simple and present perfect tenses are
taught.

16

3. Part Two
3.1. Introduction to the Practical Part Two
I have been teaching at a primary school for four years, so I have decided to design
practical activities in a way that is suitable for pupils at primary school. The teaching
sequences were taught to pupils in the 7th, 8th and 9th classes. These pupils, as I have
experienced them, find it difficult to cope with the fact that there are many more tenses in
English than in Czech. The biggest difficulty for them is to distinguish when to use the
present perfect as opposed to the past simple. The activities in Part Two are designed so that
they could help pupils overcome difficulties with these two tenses and are based on
recommendable principles that Jeremy Harmer and Penny Ur suggest to use when teaching
grammar. All the methods and techniques are described in the theoretical part of the thesis.
The teaching sequences are graded from simple to complex. They start with Presentation and
advance from what Ur describes as Awareness to Free Discourse. The teaching sequences
include ESA elements. There are three types of the sequences the first type embraces
teaching the past simple, the second one teaching the present perfect and the third type
compares the past simple and present perfect. The teaching sequences of the past simple are
described in great details to illustrate the way all three elements of a successful teaching
sequence can be included in the sequences. All sequences consist of Procedure and
Comments. The past simple and present perfect are first dealt with separately and then in
combination. Having studied these two tenses separately, pupils should have an opportunity
to compare them in activities that embrace them both. Both the past simple and present
perfect can be translated into Czech as past tense, so they are not only related, but also easily
confused for Czech learners. Teaching sequences described in the third section could fine-tune
pupils understanding of these two tenses. As I try to base the thesis on my teaching
experience, I describe here only those teaching sequences that I really use and that have
proved successful. The teaching sequences are accompanied by handouts for learners. All the
handouts I have created myself.

3.2. My attitude to teaching grammar

I have presented miscellaneous opinions and approaches to teaching grammar in Part One.
Teaching grammar is a very controversial topic and opinions vary not only among experts, but
also among teachers. I identify myself with experts, teachers and trainers who support the idea

17

of the necessity of a grammar syllabus and who can see more advantages in explicit teaching
grammar rules than in not doing so. I believe that teaching grammar plays an irreplaceable
role in studying and teaching English and that there is no compensation for systematic
studying and accumulating knowledge and increasing awareness of grammar, provided that,
as Ur maintains it is taught consistently as a means to improving mastery of the language,
not as an end itself (77-78). I find grammar the central and crucial point, from which
studying grammar should unfold and issue. However, it should not dominate teaching. I am
aware of the fact that there are a lot of people who have learnt a second language without
conscious studying its grammar. However, there are special conditions in the classroom.
Pupils at primary schools have three or four lessons of English per week. They do not have
enough exposure to language and the conditions in the classroom are artificial. Secondly,
pupils are beginners, they start learning English, they build their learning strategies and habits
gradually and their autonomy is not as high as for example the autonomy of students at
university. The use of tenses that are translated into Czech as past tense do not exist in Czech,
so pupils need and appreciate clear rules that help them comprehend and master these tenses.
Also, there are children with mixed abilities in the classroom, so teachers at primary schools
should take it into account and choose methods and techniques that suit the majority of pupils.
I tend to believe that with respect to pupils age and level it is useful and justifiable to teach
form and meaning of English tenses explicitly.

18

3.3. Teaching sequences of the past simple

3.3.1. Teaching sequence 1 Presentation
Procedure
Step 1
The teacher prepares handouts for pupils with a short text which contains the past simple.
The extract that I have chosen is taken from Jules Vernes book 20,000 Leagues under the Sea
(see Appendix 1).
Step 2
Before handing out the text, the teacher tells the class that they are going to read the extract
from Jules Vernes book 20,000 Leagues under the Sea. Learners are asked to read the extract
silently, underline all verbs that occur in the text and try to identify whether the extract refers
to past, present or future time. The teacher helps them with unknown vocabulary. Pupils check
their answers and underlined verbs in pairs and then the teacher checks them in open class.
Once the teacher has established that the extract refers mostly to the past time, he/she
acquaints pupils with the fact that Czech has only one past tense that refers to past time,
whereas English uses several structures to refer to past time. The past simple tense that is used
in the extract is one of them and the first one they are going to deal with. It is necessary to
know when to use it. The teacher explains and writes on the board that the past simple is used
to refer to
a) specified time in the past
b) completed actions, events and states
Step 3
The teacher draws learners attention to the rule of form:
T: You have underlined all the verbs in the extract. How do you know that these words are
verbs?
S: The English word order follows a subject verb pattern.
T: Right. The past simple is formed from a subject and a past form of a verb. It is similar to
the present simple.

19

The teacher writes on the board:

PAST SIMPLE
SUBJECT + PAST FORM OF A VERB + ..TIME EXPRESSION
Step 4
Pupils are asked to find examples of the past simple in the text and the teacher writes two
examples on the board. There should be one sentence with an irregular and one with regular
verb form. The teacher explains that there are two types of verbs in English regular and
irregular. Past tense forms of regular verbs end in ed. Past tense forms of irregular verbs do
not end in ed. There is a list of them and they should be gradually learnt by heart. Pupils are
asked to find examples of past forms of regular and irregular verbs in the extract and write
them into two columns on the board.
Step 5
The teacher draws learners attention to the time expression used in the text and tries to
elicit its right position in a sentence. Also, he invites learners to think of other time
expressions that could be used with the past simple. Then he/she writes on the board learners
suggestions and adds other expressions typical for the past simple (last month, three weeks
ago...).
Step 6
The teacher invites learners to try to make their own sentences with one of the verbs
written on the board and one of the time expressions elicited or added in Step 5.
Comments
There are two contrasting ways of grammar presentation. I have chosen a deductive
approach that starts with the presentation of a rule and is followed by examples (Thornbury
29). I use the explanation, because it gets straight to the point (Thornbury 30) and it is a
quick and clear way, which seems to me more suitable for pupils at primary school. The past
simple is the first structure referring to past time that they study, so I find an inductive
approach and elicitation quite demanding and challenging for most of them, although more
able pupils might master it even in this level.

20

The main disadvantage of the deductive approach may be that it encourages a teacherfronted, transmission-style classroom (Thornbury 30) and that the explanation can be
difficult to remember for some pupils. To avoid the disadvantages, I incorporate all three
elements recommended by Harmer Engage, Study and Activate into the teaching sequence. I
set the context first and use the authentic text, which should awaken learners curiosity and
captivate their minds. They are interested and involved in the teaching process.
The Study element in this teaching sequence is the explanation. There are two stages of the
explanation. Both the rule of form and rule of use are explained. The rules are exemplified,
the teacher checks regularly that pupils understand it and learners are involved even in the
explanation, they are not passive. The teacher asks them and sometimes tries to elicit the right
answers. The rules are clear, simple, true and based on what learners have learnt. For
example, when learners study the past simple, they have already learnt the present simple, so
they have been familiar with the word order of English sentences and therefore they are able
to identify verbs in the extract that includes forms of past tense verbs. Nevertheless, this part
is the most problematic area of this teaching sequence. I use this text with my pupils and
when I invite them to ask me about unknown vocabulary (in Step 2), they ask about the
meaning of forms of past tense irregular verbs (said, saw, came, was, were, got), because they
have never heard or seen them before. Also, as this is an authentic text that was not written for
teaching purposes, there are not only verbs in the past form, which can be confusing for some
pupils. Nevertheless, originally, I bought the book to my son, who is of the same age as my
pupils are. The idea to teach the presentation of the past simple with the support of this extract
occurred to me when I used it for the first time to teach my son the past simple and it worked.
It captivated his mind and he was interested in it. It worked with my pupils in the same way as
it worked with him. Both oral and written forms are presented. Pupils have the handouts; the
teacher writes on the board and asks questions. There are a lot of examples in the text and
learners can see the grammar structure in context. Although the terminology is used carefully,
it is justifiable to use pupils mother tongue when minor problems occur during the
explanation.
The Activate element in this teaching sequence is covered in Step 6. However, this
sequence is meant to be only the first familiarization of pupils with the new grammar structure
that they have never experienced before. It is presentation of the structure. Its main aim is to
acquaint pupils with the rules of form and use of the past simple. It would not be sufficient for
learners to grasp regularities of the structure and be able to use it properly. Other stages such
as Awareness, Controlled and Meaningful DrillsFree Discourse, have to follow.
21

As the presentation serves as a basis for further development of pupils knowledge of the
past simple, I devote nearly the whole lesson to it, which means 45 minutes.
3.3.2. Teaching sequence 2 Awareness
This activity is inspired by Scott Thornburys activity Disappearing Sentences described in
his book Grammar.
Procedure
The teacher prepares a dialogue in advance that incorporates examples of the targeted
structure, in this case, the questions of the past simple tense. The teacher prepares a slide or
poster with two figures and writes the dialogue into speech bubbles, so that he/she can project
an overhead transparency of it or display the poster on the board (see Appendix 2 and 3).
The teacher sets a context first by introducing the two figures as friends talking about
holidays. The first one is curious and asks a lot of questions, the other one is a man of few
words and uses only one or two-word utterances. The teacher invites pupils to guess or think
of questions and answers that they might expect in the dialogue.
Having established the context, the teacher displays the poster, projects the slide or writes
the dialogue on the board. Learners are asked to read the dialogue aloud and practise it in
pairs. Then the teacher erases one or two words from the dialogue. The teacher asks
individual pupils to read the dialogue, including the words he/she has erased. The teacher
continues erasing parts of the dialogue and asking different learners to try and recall the whole
dialogue, having to remember more and more of the disappearing dialogue, until the whole
dialogue has been erased. The teacher should start erasing words from the questions, so that
the answers serve as cues for the questions.
As pupils know the dialogue by heart, the teacher can ask two of them to perform it in
front of the class. Also, this stage should be used to revise previously presented forms of the
past simple questions. The teacher elicits the right answers.
Once the original dialogue has been learnt and practised, the teacher distributes the
worksheets with empty bubbles. Pupils are invited to adapt it by changing some key
information but retaining the basic outline. Pupils write their own variations of the dialogue.
Comments
Awareness is a type of grammar practice that gives learners opportunities to encounter a
new grammatical structure within a discourse. This activity focuses pupils attention
22

especially to the form of past simple questions. It alerts pupils to features of previously
introduced structures and provides interactive review of a pre-taught grammar item. The main
objective of this teaching sequence is to raise learners awareness about a specific grammar
structure, in this case the form of the past simple questions.
The activity is simple, playful and entertaining. It uses pictures. These visuals are
motivating for pupils and help them remember better. This is why I created the two figures. I
named one of them man of few words. As he uses only one or two-word utterances and the
teacher erases the questions first, these utterances serve as cues for pupils, which is of a great
help for them. The original activity uses one or two longer sentences or even a shorter text,
however, I find the dialogue more suitable to my pupils. Pupils are actively involved from the
start. Both oral and written forms are practised. However, some pupils can find it challenging
to remember the whole dialogue. What more, some of them can be reluctant to perform the
dialogue in front of the class, so they can practise it only in pairs.
All the three elements of a successful teaching sequence are present. Pupils are motivated
and engaged. When pupils have to remember and retrieve from their memory the erased
words, they study the forms of the questions. Also, these forms are revised and elicited. The
Activate stage appears when pupils write their own variations of the dialogue.
3.3.3. Teaching sequence 3 Controlled Drills
Procedure
The teacher finds or writes an exercise or a short text that refers to past time and verbs of
which have been removed and provided separately in their bare infinitive at the end of the
sentences. The exercise can be selected from a course book, grammar study book or the
teacher can write it himself/herself. The exercise that I use is inspired by the exercise 11.3.
from Murphys book Essential Grammar in Use and adopted (see Appendix 4).
The teacher distributes the handouts to learners. He/she tells them that it is about his/her
journey to London. He/she asks pupils in pairs to think of and list verbs that they might expect
to find in the text. These are written on the board and the teacher uses this stage to revise past
forms of regular and irregular verbs. Learners are asked to read the exercise and underline
verbs in brackets. They use for example a green colour for regular verbs and a yellow colour
for irregular verbs. They check it in pairs and then the teacher checks the task in open class.
Learners are invited to put the verbs in the correct form. They check it again in pairs and
the task is checked in open class.
23

Comments
This teaching sequence is a type of Controlled Drills. Pupils produce examples of the past
simple that are predetermined by the exercise. These examples have clear and close-ended
cues verbs in the bare infinitive in brackets at the end of each sentence. Pupils have been
acquainted with the form and meaning of the past simple, but the Presentation and Awareness
are not sufficient for learners to be able to use it properly in communication. The purpose of
practice activities such as Controlled Drill is to target precision at applying the system
(accuracy) and automatisation of the system (fluency) (Thornbury, How to Teach Grammar,
91). This teaching sequence draws learners attention to the form of the past simple and
therefore its main objective is to focus on accuracy. In this stage of practice, it is advisable to
correct learners. In other words, learners need feedback when they make mistakes that
threaten intelligibility (Thornbury, How to Teach Grammar, 92) in this stage.
This teaching sequence comprises of Engage, Study and Activate elements. Pupils are
engaged by the teacher introducing the topic and by being asked to predict verbs that might
occur in the exercise. They are actively involved. The Study stage embodies the underlining
the verbs and revision of forms of regular and irregular verbs. Activate element is covered,
when learners put the verbs into the right forms.
This activity is clear, simple and quite straightforward. Learners work and check tasks in
pairs, which gives them chances to cooperate and therefore everybody can succeeded and
complete the task. As they use colours to distinguish regular and irregular verbs, the visual
cues help them complete the task successfully. However, the activity can be too easy for some
learners and for some of them even boring.

3.3.4. Teaching sequence 4 Meaningful Drills

This activity is inspired by Thornburys lesson Practising the present perfect using a
personalisation task described in his book How to Teach Grammar.

24

Procedure
The teacher writes the table with the targeted structure on the board:
One of us
Two of us

tennis
+ played + football

Three of us

golf

None of us

ice-hockey

+ last week.

The teacher informs pupils that they are supposed to talk about themselves. He/she provides
an example of the sentence and elicits from learners to which time the sentence refers. He/she
uses this stage to revise the form and meaning of the past simple sentences (elicitation). As
they will need to find out how many of them played sports last week, they will have to ask
each other. Therefore, the teacher also elicits the form of past simple questions and writes an
example of such a question on the board.
The teacher divides the class into groups with the instruction to produce true sentences
about their group using the rubric on the board. They are supposed to ask each other questions
beginning with did to find out the answers. Learners are given a time limit to generate the
sentences about their group and asked to write them down.
The teacher monitors the class during the activity and provides help when needed. Then
he/she checks the task in open class and asks pupils from different groups to report on the
sentences. He/she can invite other pupils to guess who is being referred to by asking questions
such as Who from this group played football last week? Did Peter play football last week?
Then learners are asked to write sentences about pupils in their class based on the activity.
Comments
This teaching sequence is an example of Meaningful Drills. Learners have a limited choice
of possible answers and the answers are very controlled. They compose true statements about
pupils from their group according to the model sentences written on the board. The activity
provides personalized review of the past simple. As it incorporates an element of
personalisation, pupils are engaged and the targeted structure is more memorable. The Study
element is included, when the teacher revises and elicits from learners rules of form and use
of the past simple. Activate element takes place when learners work in groups, ask each other
and complete the task.

25

There is a lot of repetition of the targeted structure in this teaching sequence, which
provides learners with chances to practice the past simple questions and statements. Pupils
work in groups, so the teaching sequence is student-centred and pupils have chances to
practice their own speaking. They work cooperatively and participate actively. Although
learners sometimes tend to use Czech instead of English when they are asked to complete the
task in groups, it is easy for the teacher to avoid this by going around the class, monitoring the
groups and encouraging them to use English.
Drilling is traditionally associated with the form of the targeted structure and this teaching
sequence has features of a pattern practice drill, too. Nevertheless, it focuses also on fluency
as the teacher asks additional questions and learners create meaningful sentences about their
classmates.
3.3.5. Teaching sequence 5 Guided, Meaningful Practice
Procedure
A teacher plans a situation that generates several examples of the targeted structure, in this
case past simple questions. He/she prepares a picture with a figure and cues. The picture with
cues is included in the Appendix (see Appendix 5).
The teacher displays the picture, but covers the cues. He/she establishes the situation using
the picture of the figure and introducing her as Helen. The teacher informs pupils that Helen
did a lot of things yesterday. There are cues for eight of them in the bubbles. Their task is to
find out what Helen did yesterday by asking yes/no questions. The teacher uses this stage to
revise the form of the past simple questions by eliciting it from the pupils. The teacher writes
the beginning of the questions on the board: Did sheyesterday?
The teacher provides an example of the question and answer so that he/she can uncover the
first bubble.
Pupils are invited to ask yes/no questions to find out what Helen did yesterday. The teacher
answers and uncovers the cues, when pupils are right. The activity continues until all the cues
have been uncovered.
Pupils are asked to write sentences about Helen, based on the activity or they may write
about themselves (whether they did the same as Helen) to make the task more personalized.

26

Comments
This teaching sequence is a type of Guided, meaningful practice. Learners are given a cue
and form their own questions according to the pattern. The vocabulary they use is up to them.
The activity is playful and amusing. It is easy to use and it can be adapted to any grammar
structure. It uses visuals, so it is memorable. Furthermore, the picture is funny and my pupils
really like it. The picture that I use was drawn by children from a nursery school in Krom,
which is the town I live in. I found it on the Internet. I use Helen for teaching the present
simple, the past simple, the present perfect and even for future tenses. Learners are actively
involved and interested in the lesson. They talk a lot. The teacher sets the context first,
instructions are clear and the model question is written on the board. The Study element
embraces the teachers examples of the questions and the elicitation of the right form of the
past simple questions, although it is not always necessary to use the elicitation and draw their
attention to the form of the questions. As they have been familiar with the form of questions,
they are mostly able to ask question even without it in this stage. Activate element takes place
during the whole teaching sequence, when pupils ask questions as they try to find out the right
answers. The situation generates several possible examples of the targeted structure, so pupils
have to ask many questions and therefore there is a lot of repetition. As there is seemingly
endless variety of possible activities Helen did, it gives pupils numerous chances to practise
the past simple questions. As I have experienced this activity, its main disadvantage is that
some pupils dominate and ask a lot of questions while others stay silent.
This teaching sequence focuses on both accuracy and fluency. Although it is still
controlled, it allows learners to work more freely and independently. Both oral and written
forms are included; however, the main emphasis is on speaking.

3.3.6. Teaching sequence 6 Structure-based Free Sentence Composition

This activity is inspired by activity 16.1. Really?, which comes from a resource book of
multi-level skills activities Speaking Extra.
Procedure
The teacher prepares a set of cards with questions in the past simple that encourages
storytelling. The cards for the game are included in the Appendix (see Appendix 6).
The teacher informs learners that they are going to play a storytelling game. Their task is to
talk about their past events and to guess if the stories of their classmates are true or false. The
27

teacher provides the first story from his/her past. It is advisable to change the story in exciting
and interesting ways so that it is not completely true. He/she then asks pupils whether they
believe it or not. The teacher uses this stage to elicit or explain any difficult vocabulary from
cards (for example surprise, strangest) and reminds learners that they will talk about past
events, which means that they are supposed to use the past simple.
The teacher puts learners in groups of three or four and gives each group a set of cards face
down. The teacher explains rules:
1. Who starts, takes one card.
2. He/she must tell the group the story on the card (from 5 to 10 sentences).
3. The other pupils then decide if the story was true or false.
4. If the speaker succeeded in telling from 5 to 10 sentences and the other pupils guess
was not right, the speaker wins and keeps the card. Otherwise the speaker loses and
puts the card on the bottom of the file.
5. The winner is the person with most cards at the end of the game.
Learners play the game. The teacher monitors, helps and corrects pupils where necessary.
Comments
This teaching sequence is a type of activity that Ur describes as Structure-based Free
Sentence Composition. Learners are provided with a cue and compose their own responses.
The teacher directs them to use the targeted structure the past simple. The main aim of this
teaching sequence is to provide learners with opportunities to use the past simple in
conversation and as freely as possible. The emphasis is on speaking (fluency).
Pupils enjoy games, so their involvement in the study and activation stages is very high.
This teaching sequence embraces elements of personalisation, which is highly motivating for
learners. The Study element occurs, only if it is necessary. He/she helps, encourages or
corrects only individual pupils. The main emphasis is on the Activate element.
The main advantage of this teaching sequence is that pupils are exposed to English all the
time and they talk a lot. What more, they are highly motivated and engaged. Games are
amusing and interesting for them. Also, I create my own set of cards to be sure that the
questions cover topics and vocabulary that we have covered during our lessons. Furthermore,
the original activity suggests encouraging the other learners in the groups to interrupt the
speaker during his/her speech. They should ask a lot of questions to stop the speaker finishing
and to find out whether the story is true or not. I find it confusing and disruptive for learners
at a primary school, so I have adapted the activity so that it suits best to my pupils.
28

One of the main disadvantages of this teaching sequence is that pupils with lower lever of
knowledge in English do not feel comfortable with such an independent task. When they are
asked to produce their own sentences, they need more teachers or their peers support.

3.3.7. Teaching sequence 7 Structure-based Discourse Composition

This sequence is inspired by the activity 16.2 I was really scared from a resource book of
multi-level skills activities Listening Extra. The listening is taken from the same source.
Procedure
The teacher informs pupils that they are going to deal with ghost stories and invites them
to predict words that may occur in the story. The teacher adds the key words that pupils may
not know. He/she elicits, explains or translates the meaning of the words.
The teacher tells pupils that they are going to listen to the conversation between a teacher
and his students and gives them handouts with listening comprehension questions (see
Appendix 7 and 8). The teacher invites learners to answer the questions. He/she plays the
recording twice. Pupils check the answers in pairs and then the task is checked in open class.
The teacher asks pupils additional questions connected with the topic. Then pupils are
asked to prepare their own story about a strange event or a ghost story. The story can be one
they have read or heard or they can make up their own stories. They are allowed and
encouraged to use dictionaries. Also, they are directed to describe the story as if it happened
to them, so they are directed to include the targeted structure the past simple.
Comments
This teaching sequence describes Structure-based Discourse Composition. Learners write
stories according to a given task. They are directed to use at least some examples of the
structure within the discourse (Ur 84).
The main aim of this teaching sequence is to provide learners with a situation that
encourages a frequent and proper use of the targeted structure. Learners use it as freely as
possible. The sequence demonstrates that it is possible to incorporate the targeted grammar
structure into a lesson that is a skills one. The primary focus is the development of listening,
speaking and writing skills. Although the main aim of the sequence is grammar, it offers a
language-rich and engaging way of experiencing it in the context.

29

Pupils are highly motivated and engaged. They are actively involved from the very
beginning. The Study element is incorporated into the listening part of the sequence. Although
neither rules of form, nor rules of use are taught explicitly, learners are provided with
opportunity to encounter the past simple in a real-life situation. The past simple is experienced
rather than learnt consciously. No attempt is made to deal with grammar as such. Stories are
meaningful and great means of experiencing the language. The creative writing embraces the
Activate element. It promotes the development of both writing skills and a proper use of the
targeted structure.
The creative writing is the main focus of this teaching sequence. It fulfils the requirements
of grammar practice that Penny Ur describes as Structure-based Discourse Composition. As
far as I am concerned, I encourage my pupils to begin writing their own stories at school so
that I am able to help when needed. Then they finish the task at home. As I have experienced
them, they need more time to finish it successfully and satisfactorily and they feel more
comfortable when allowed to write it at home. There are also students in every class whose
level of knowledge in English is lower. They struggle with this task and make quite a lot of
mistakes. They appreciate more help from the teacher, for example questions that help them to
built up a story. Also, they need to be encouraged not to worry so much about mistakes they
make.

3.3.8. Teaching sequence 8 Free Discourse

Procedure
The teacher introduces the topic by telling the class that they are going to talk about
famous non-living people. The teacher informs pupils that he/she has chosen a non-living
person and is going to introduce himself/herself as if he/she was the person. Their task is to
guess who the person is. The teacher introduces the person (see Appendix 9).
The teacher asks pupils questions based on the introduction and elicits the meaning of
unknown vocabulary. Then he/she asks questions about other non-living people that pupils
know or admire and invites pupils to choose one famous non-living person. Pupils are asked
to find out basic information about him/her and prepare 10 sentences about the person for next
lesson, but not to tell anybody else who the person is. The teacher informs learners that they
will have a party next lesson. They will act the person there and meet other famous people.

30

Next lesson the teacher tells pupils that they are going to the party. He/she reminds them
that they should act the person they have chosen. Their task is to introduce themselves to
other guests and meet as many other people at the party as possible. Of course, they must not
introduce themselves by saying the name. Other guests are supposed to ask questions to find
out the name of the person. The teacher puts learners in small groups and the party can start.
The teacher goes around joining in the conversation as a guest and getting the activity going.
The teacher finishes the activity by asking guests who they met at the party and what they
can remember about them. Pupils can be asked to write a short essay about one famous nonliving person from the party.
Comments
This teaching sequence is a type of grammar practice that Ur describes as Free Discourse.
It is a task-based activity. It is similar to Structure-based Discourse Composition, but learners
are not directed to use the past simple. However, the situation is chosen so that the targeted
structure is highly probable to appear. For practising the past simple, the famous non-living
people as the theme serve the purpose.
The main aim of this activity is to encourage the frequent use of the past simple in a gametype activity. Pupils are engaged and highly motivated. The past simple is not taught
explicitly, however when the teacher introduces himself/herself as the famous person, pupils
encounter the structure in context. Also, the Study stage appears when the teacher asks
questions based on his/her introduction and about other famous non-living people. The
teacher can use this stage to correct pupils or elicit rules of form or use if necessary. The
Activate element is the main focus of this teaching sequence. Pupils prepare the introductions,
find out information, for example on the Internet, they ask questions during the party and
introduce themselves. The Activate stage is based on role play. Learners imagine themselves
in a situation outside the classroom.
This activity suits best pupils who feel self-conscious, are confident and cooperative.
Pupils who are more inhibited or simply shy may find role play quite demanding or even
difficult. Pupils prepare their introduction at home, which helps them feel more confident.
However, this activity is highly motivating and interesting for pupils. They talk a lot and
participation is even. Everybody gets a chance to speak.

31

3.4. Teaching sequences of the present perfect

3.4.1. Teaching sequence 9 Presentation
This teaching sequence is inspired by Lesson 2: Teaching used to using translation from
Thorburys book How to Teach Grammar.
Procedure
Step 1
The teacher writes on the board: Prostel jsem stl. He/she asks for an English translation.
If it is not forthcoming or it is wrong as pupils translate it as I set the table, the teacher
supplies: I have set the table. The teacher explains that the sentence is an example of a new
English tense that is translated into Czech as past tense. Then the teacher asks pupils how they
would translate into Czech a number of English sentences, provided orally. They should
include only verbs, whose past participle forms do not differ from past forms. Then the
teacher elicits English translations for Czech sentences and again these sentences should
include only regular verbs or irregular verbs whose past participle forms do not differ from
past forms.
Step 2
The teacher writes a Czech sentence on the board. It should include an irregular verb
whose past participle differs from past form, for example pst: Petr napsal 10 knih. The
teacher asks for translation. Pupils will probably assume that the present perfect is formed
with subject + has/have + past tense form of a verb and will attempt to translate the sentence
as Peter has wrote 10 books. The teacher explains that this is wrong, because we form the
present perfect with subject + has/have + past participle. He/she writes the diagram on the
board:
SUBJECT + HAS/HAVE + PAST PARTICIPLE
He/she follows up by eliciting the ways of forming the past participle of regular and irregular
verbs. As pupils have been provided with examples and have previously studied the past
simple, they are able to assume that the past participle of regular verbs end in ed and past
participle of irregular verbs should be learnt by heart.

32

Step 3
The teacher explains and writes on the board in Czech that we use the present perfect
simple that is translated into Czech as past tense to refer to
a) a finished action or event that is connected with the present
b) unspecified time in the past
c) repetition up to now
The teacher accompanies it by examples.
Step 4
The teacher writes two sentences on the board, for example Dnes jsem vypila 2 lky kavy
and Petr byl nedvno v Africe. He/she asks pupils, whether they would translate them as the
present perfect. Pupils will probably assume that these sentences should be translated as the
past simple, because the time is specified. The teacher explains (again in Czech) that when we
talk about finished events with words that mean at some/any time up to now (like ever,
before, yet, recently, lately, already) (Swan, 440), we use the present perfect. With definite
expressions of time such today, this week, the present perfect is used when we are
thinking of the whole period up to now (Swan, 443).
Comments
Translation is associated with deductive approach and with Grammar-Translation method.
I am aware of the fact that Grammar-Translation has fallen from favour (Thornbury, How
to Teach Grammar, 29). Such lessons were conducted in students mother tongue and students
were supposed to translate sentences out of and into the target language. Grammar was taught
as an end itself. However, this teaching sequence is not an example of Grammar-Translation
as such. It only incorporates some elements from this method into the presentation.
There are several reasons for my decision to choose translation as a means of the
presentation. Firstly, the present perfect does not exist in Czech. The majority of pupils at a
primary school, as I have experienced them, are confused by the number of tense forms we
use for expressing past time in English. Also, most of them find rules of use particularly
complex. They appreciate and need clear rules, a long time and enough exposure to English to
be able to use the present perfect properly. The presentation is their first familiarization with
the present perfect, so the occasional and sensible use of Czech seems to me justifiable here.
As far as rules of form are concerned, pupils make mistakes mainly in past participle forms of
irregular verbs, but the form itself is quite straightforward for pupils. For this part of the
33

presentation, English is used and the teacher elicits the rules of form from pupils. Secondly,
pupils at a primary school mostly do not have sufficient metalanguage and may not be able to
understand the concept involved. The use of their mother tongue helps them overcome such
difficulties. Also, the explanation of rules of use in Czech is very economical. Then there is
more time for practice. Thirdly, the presentation serves only as a basis for further development
of pupils knowledge. Other stages of grammar practice will follow. Therefore, the
presentation should provide learners with clear and simple rules, which should afford pupils
an opportunity to encounter a grammar structure that does not exist in Czech.
I am aware of the fact that there are many presentation techniques that have proved
successful are not considered to be controversial. However, I have decided to try to
demonstrate that when used carefully, thoughtfully and reasonably, the translation can be
included into teaching grammar.
Also, I try to base my thesis on my personal experience from practice and design the
teaching sequences so that they are suitable for my pupils. I teach at a typical primary
school. There are not only pupils, whose autonomy is high and for whom different types of
presentation would be more suitable. There are also pupils with mixed abilities and different
levels of English. As Thornbury maintains it often seems inappropriate not to use translation,
given its speed and efficiency, and especially at elementary level where explanation in the
target language may be over the head of the students (How to Teach Grammar, 41). Ur is
inclined to believe that whether the structure is explained in the students mother tongue
depends on teachers own situation and judgement (82).
To avoid possible disadvantages in this teaching sequence, all three ESA elements are
present. Pupils are involved in this teaching sequence from the very beginning. The teacher
asks all the time and makes them invest mental effort in the translation. Also, the teacher
informs them that the present perfect is another tense that is translated into Czech as past
tense, that there is a difference between Czech and English, which arouses their curiosity. The
Study element emerges mainly in Steps 2, 3 and 4. The teacher is aware of the risks of
translation and takes it into account. So, drawing learners attention to the fact that the form of
verbs used here is not the past tense form of a verb is important. The teacher deliberately sets
a trap for the learners. He presents only examples in which the forms of past tense and past
participle are identical. This trap-setting technique has been shown to be effective teaching
strategy (Thornbury, How to Teach Grammar, 40). The same applies for Step 4. The teacher
encourages pupils to overgeneralize rules of use (unspecified time in the past). Therefore,

34

he/she anticipates an error that many pupils make. The Activate element occurs when the
teacher attempts to involve learners at each stage.

3.4.2. Teaching sequence 10 Awareness

Procedure
I attended Kurz praktick metodiky pro uitele anglitiny in 2006. I got familiar with
BINGO thank to Sylvie Dolkov, who headed the course. The teacher prepares grids with
nine squares for pupils and writes there past participles of irregular verbs (see Appendix 10).
Comments
Bingo is a widespread activity. Although it is very simple, I find it very useful. Pupils, as I
have experienced them, struggle with the past participles of irregular verbs. This teaching
sequence gives them an opportunity to encounter past participle forms of irregular verbs in a
game. Ur describes this type of practice as Awareness. It focuses on spelling and
pronunciation of past participles.
All three ESA elements are present. It is a game-type activity, so pupils are interested in it
and enjoy it. The Study element appears as this activity can be used to revise the form of the
present perfect and the way we form past participles. The Activate element can be included
when the teacher decides to make Bingo more challenging and reads out verbs in their base
forms, but pupils are asked to cross out the appropriate past participle. Also, pupils can be
asked to write sentences using past participles from their grids.

3.4.3. Teaching sequence 11 Controlled Drills

Procedure
This teaching sequence is based on a questionnaire. Pupils answer the questions and talk
about events that have happened in their lives up to the present. An example of the
questionnaire is included in the Appendix (see Appendix 11).

35

Comments
The basic characteristics of Controlled Drills have been described in the Teaching
sequence 3. These characteristics apply to this teaching sequence, too. The Engage element is
covered when pupils are acquainted with the topic. Also, this teaching sequence embraces
elements of personalization, which is motivating for pupils. The Study stage can be included
when the teacher draws learners attention to the rules of form and use and pupils are asked to
answer the questions and encounter the previously introduced structure in some kind of a
context. The Activate stage overlaps with the Study element in this teaching sequence. The
teacher can ask the questions in open class and pupils can write their own true sentences.

3.4.4. Teaching sequence 12 Meaningful Drills

This teaching sequence is inspired by activity 2.4 Grammaticality judgements from
Thornburys book Grammar.
Procedure
The teacher prepares worksheets for learners with a list of sentences. There are two
possibilities for some words in the sentences (see Appendix 12). Pupils working in pairs
decide which words fit best into the sentences.
Comments
This teaching sequence is an example of Meaningful Drills. The main objective of the
sequence is to draw learners attention to the form of the present perfect simple. Responses
are very controlled and pupils have to decide between two possibilities. To make it more
challenging, the teacher could offer pupils more than two possibilities (multiple-choice). The
activity encourages pupils to reflect on common errors. Thornbury suggests in the original
activity to use sentences, some of which are well formed and others which are not and pupils
are asked to identify the correct ones. However, the activity that I use here fulfils better
requirements of grammar practice that could be entitled Meaningful Drills.
The Engage element appears as the sentences are produced by learners themselves and pair
work encourages pupils to participate more actively. The Activate stage appears when pupils
circle the right words and discuss their opinions in pairs. The Study element can be
represented when pupils have to defend their choice and justify it.

36

3.4.5. Teaching sequence 13 Guided, Meaningful practice

This activity is inspired by 2.24 Output Flood from Thornburys book Grammar.
Procedure
The teacher designs sentence starters that encourage learners to produce the present
perfect several times (see Appendix 13). Pupils write their own texts using the sentence
starters as a model.
Comments
This teaching sequence encourages frequent production of the present perfect in a creative
context, but the responses are still controlled. There is a pattern and pupils make sentences
with vocabulary that is available to them. This sequence has the same features as the teaching
sequence 5.
All three elements of a successful teaching sequence are present. The sequence embraces
elements of personalization, which engages pupils. The Study element can include the
elicitation of rules of form and use and correction provided by the teacher when pupils fulfil
the task. As the teacher can provide learners with his/her own sentences first, pupils have an
opportunity to study the present perfect. Also, the teacher can ask pupils to remember as much
as possible about events that have or have not happened in his/her life and reconstruct from
memory what he/she has done to activate their knowledge.

3.4.6. Teaching sequence 14 Structure-based Free Sentence Composition

Procedure
The teacher prepares two pictures showing the same room, but the first room is in a
mess, whereas the other has been cleaned (see Appendix 14). I use pictures that I received
in an English course four years ago, but there is seemingly endless variety of pairs of
pictures that encourage the frequent use of the present perfect simple and can be used in
teaching the present perfect. Pupils are asked to write sentences answering the question:
What has Helen done today?

37

Comments
This teaching sequence is an example of grammar practice that Ur describes as
Structure-based Free Sentence Composition. The main focus of this sequence is to give
learners opportunities to explore how the present perfect simple is used in real situations.
Pupils attention is drawn mainly to the rules of use. This teaching sequence uses visuals,
which is motivating for pupils. Such a visual cue encourages them to compose their own
responses. Pupils are directed to use the present perfect simple, but the vocabulary used is
up to them.
The Engage element includes visuals, working in pairs and elements of
personalization. It comprises the Study element as pupils attention is drawn to the rules of
use. The Activate element appears when pupils describe pictures in pairs and look for the
differences. Also, it emerges when they are asked to answer the question What has Helen
done today?.
3.4.7. Teaching sequence 15 Structure-based Discourse Composition and Free
Discourse
This teaching sequence is inspired by activity 1.2 Life Map from the book Speaking
Extra.
Procedure
The teacher prepares worksheets for pupils with a life map and questions. An
example of such a worksheet is included in the Appendix (see Appendix 14). Pupils work
in pairs, ask questions and talk about their lives and experiences.
Comments
This teaching sequence can be used as an example of both Structure-based Discourse
Composition and Free Discourse. As the teacher directs pupils to use at least some
examples of the present perfect, it fulfils requirements of Structure-based Discourse
Composition. However, if pupils are given no specific direction to use it, it can be used as
grammar practice that Ur describes as Free Discourse. The task is such that the present
perfect simple is likely to appear.
This teaching sequence requires quite advanced vocabulary and higher learners
autonomy. To help pupils overcome possible difficulties, the teacher should pre-teach new
words, monitor the class and help when necessary. Nevertheless, pupils study the present
38

perfect in the 9th class, so they are quite independent learners and are able to fulfil the task
successfully. What more, they work in pairs and help each other. On the other hand, as I
have experienced them, they tend to use Czech rather than English in the pairs when there
is something they are not sure about. Also, they are sometimes reluctant to answer
personal questions or, simply, have nothing to say.
There are included all three ESA elements in this sequence. It uses visuals, which
motivates learners, learners work in pairs and elements of personalization are present. The
Study element appears when the teacher directs pupils to use examples of the present
perfect, but it is not necessary to direct them explicitly or to draw their attention to forms
of use or form directly. The Activate stage is the main focus of this sequence. The
sequence is designed to get pupils using English as freely as possible and mainly in
communication. The focus is on fluency rather than on accuracy. The objective is to use
any language that may be appropriate in the situation.

3.5. Teaching sequences of the past simple and present perfect

3.5.1. Teaching sequence 16 Awareness
Procedure
The teacher prepares sentences that contrast the past simple and present perfect (see
Appendix 16). Learners are asked to count the number of times the tenses occur, justify why
the tenses are chosen and discuss in pairs the differences in the form and meaning of them.
Comments
This teaching sequence has distinctive features of activity that Ur describes as Awareness.
Pupils are given an opportunity to encounter these two tenses within some kind of discourse.
Their attention is focused on forms and meanings of the past simple and present perfect.
To include the Engage element, the teacher should set the context first and inform pupils
about the main aim of this activity. The Study element is covered as pupils count the number
of times the tenses occur in the sentences and encounter them in the discourse. The teacher
can ask concept questions or conduct an open class feedback on the task, using this
opportunity to draw learners attention to relevant grammar rules. Also, the discussion in pairs

39

can be seen as a part of the Study element. The Activate element can be included when
learners are invited to write true sentences about themselves.
3.5.2. Teaching sequence 17 Controlled Drills
Procedure
The teacher prepares handouts with an exercise that tests learners understanding of the
difference between the past simple and present perfect (see Appendix 17). Learners work in
pairs, choose between the two contrasted forms and fill the gaps.
Comments
I got familiar with this exercise six years ago when I attended a course in Zln. I find it
extremely helpful for pupils at a primary school. It offers them chances to not only encounter
the tenses in some kind of discourse, but also be actively involved in the decision-making
about the appropriate use of them. The text is an anecdote and pupils find it funny and
amusing. The Activate element appears when pupils have to decide what tense is appropriate
to use. Learners can be asked to justify their choice and the teacher can elicit rules of form
and use of the tenses so that pupils have a chance to study these tenses repeatedly.
Although this teaching sequence is a type of Controlled Drills and the examples produced
by learners conform closed-ended cues, learners find it difficult and make quite a lot of
mistakes. It really helps when pupils are invited to justify their choice. Also, the pair work
helps them get issues connected with these two tenses clear in their minds.
3.5.3. Teaching sequence 18 Guided, Meaningful Practice
Procedure
Pupils are asked to make their own variations of the dialogues described in the teaching
sequence 16 (see Appendix 16). They practise them in pairs and then in front of the class.
Comments
This teaching sequence is a type of grammar practice that Ur describes as Guided,
meaningful practice. There is a set pattern, but pupils are invited to form their own dialogues.
The vocabulary they use is up to them.

40

Pupils have been familiar with the dialogues, so it is easy for them to cope with the task.
They are creative, so this task is highly motivating for them. What more, the Engage element
can be strengthen by personalization of the task. They can be invited to talk about themselves.
The Study element is included in the teaching sequence 16, so it is not necessary to repeat it
one more time. It is sufficient to remind learners the original dialogues and shortly direct them
to use the past simple and present perfect. The Activate element is the main focus of the
sequence. Learners make their own dialogues and perform them in front of the class. There is
a lot of repetition, so learners are allowed to encounter these two tenses in some kind of
discourse repeatedly.
3.5.4. Teaching sequence 19 Free Discourse
Procedure
The teacher plans a situation, choosing one that generates several examples of the past
simple and present perfect and prepares handouts for learners (see Appendix 18). Pupils are
asked to read the introduction and write a short essay about places that Helen has visited.
Comments
Learners are not directed to use the past simple and present perfect, but the situation is
such that these tenses are likely to appear. The sequence is meant to allow learners an
opportunity to use the tenses as freely as possible. They are supposed to deal with two easily
confused verb structures. They have not only met them separately, but also had opportunities
to deal with them in combination. Therefore, they are mostly able to cope with the task.
However, the questions used in this teaching sequence are quite challenging for children at a
primary school and probably more suitable for older learners.
The Engage element should include the introduction. Also, the sequence uses visuals,
which is motivating for pupils. What more, my pupils really like Helen, so they are looking
forward to doing activities with her. The Study element should appear only if necessary and
only with individual learners. Usually, learners with a lower level of knowledge struggle with
this task and need more support and help. The Activate element is the main focus of this
sequence. The creative writing gives learners an opportunity to use any language that is
appropriate. The main emphasis is on fluency.

41

3.6. Summary of Part Two

To sum up, there are described eighteen teaching sequences in Part Two. They are
designed so that they are convenient for pupils at a primary school. All the handouts are
accompanied by pictures, which is suitable and motivating for pupils at a primary school.
The sequences exemplify the teaching process that I find recommendable for pupils to help
them find a key to independent, confident and appropriate usage of these two tenses. I have
tried them all in practice and my experience with them is described in Comments.

42

4. Conclusion
The thesis foreshadows the background of the rise of different tenses in Czech and
English. These languages derive from the same origin the Proto-Indo-European
language, but their developments have happened separately. Czech has developed into a
synthetic language and lost some Indo-European tenses. They were superseded by the
only past tense in Czech. English has developed into an analytic language, which has led
to the emergence of new compound tenses. Therefore, there are many more tenses in
English than in Czech. As pupils at a primary school do not know these tenses from
Czech, they find it challenging, even confusing, to learn and use these tenses properly.
Various approaches to teaching grammar and methods recommendable for teaching
English are described in Part One. The principles that have proved their worth to me
when teaching the past simple and present perfect tenses are Harmers ESA elements of
a successful teaching sequence and Urs advice on presenting grammar and practice
activities. Consequently, the teaching sequences in Part Two are designed so that they
comprise of the three ESA elements and are graded from the simplest to complex ones.
The past simple and present perfect are taught separately and then compared and
contrasted jointly. Therefore, pupils familiarize themselves with these tenses gradually,
by easy stages and step by step. They advance from the presentation of the tenses to
independent and free usage of them. The deductive approach has been chosen for the
presentations, because I find it more suitable for learners at a primary school than the
inductive approach. As the teaching sequences are graded from activities that Ur
describes as Awareness to activities described by Ur as Free Discourse, pupils improve
their mastery of the tenses progressively and little by little and are more and more
positive about the proper usage of them. The teaching sequences are based on the fact
that Czech and English differ greatly. Also, the grammar of the tenses is taught
explicitly. However, grammar is not taught as an end itself. The sequences are designed
so that they illustrate the way how teaching the tenses can be incorporated into lessons
that are skills ones. It means that the main aim of the sequences is the development of all
four skills reading, speaking, listening and writing. All four skills are represented in
the teaching sequences. Furthermore, I have made the worksheets for learners myself.
Colours, pictures and clear arrangement are used, which is motivating for pupils and
which makes it easier for learners to cope with the tasks.

43

The teaching sequences are conducted in English. However, with respect to pupils
age and level, Czech can be used when minor problems occur.
To sum up, there are many options open to English teachers for teaching structures
non-existent in Czech. As professionals, language teachers have a duty to keep
themselves abreast of developments in second language acquisition research, applied
linguistics, in educational theory and practice (Thornbury, How to Teach Grammar,
145). However, as Thornbury maintains teaching methods come and teaching methods
go, but teachers intuitions that are developed and fine-tuned by years of thoughtful
classroom experience, tend to outlive these shifts in fashion (154). The teaching
sequences are based on my personal teaching experience. I have tried all of them in
practice and they have proved successful to me. I am inclined to believe that they help
pupils comprehend and master these tenses properly. When the common grounds of
Czech and English are used as a basis of teaching the tenses, when the right conditions
for grammar learning are provided and grammar is taught in order to facilitate pupils
comprehension and production of real language rather than an end itself, teaching and
studying the tenses that do not exist in Czech does not have to be difficult or challenging
for Czech pupils.

44

References
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Krashen, Stephen. Second Language Standards For Success: Out Of Touch With Language
Acquisition Research. International Journal of Foreign Language Teaching 1(2): 12-16.
2005. 20 December 2008. <http://www.sdkrashen.com/index.php?cat=6>
Schulz, Richardo. Stephen Krashens Theory of Second Language Acquisition. July 2,
2007. September 15, 2008. <http://www.sk.com.br/sk-krash.html>
Swan, Michael and Thornbury, Scott. Sorry, but youve got to have a grammar syllabus. In
K. Morrow (Ed.) The ELT Journal. 9 April, 2006. 17 October, 2008. <www.oup.com/elt>

Books
Craven, Miles. Listening Extra. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 2006.
Driscoll, Liz. Reading Extra. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004.
Dukov, Libue. et al. Mluvnice souasn anglitiny na pozad etiny. Praha: Academia
Praha, 1994.
Gammidge, Mick. Speaking Extra. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008.
Greenbaum, Sidney, Quirk, Randolph. Grammar of the English Language. Harlow: Longman,
1990.
Harmer, Jeremy. How to Teach English. Harlow: Longman, 2007.
Krashen, D Stephen. Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning.
University of Southern California: Pergamon Press Inc, 1981.
Leech, Geofrey, Deuchar, Margaret, Hoogenraad, Robert. English Grammar for Today.
London: Macmillan Press LTD, 1992.
Murphy, Raymond. English Grammar in Use. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994.
---. Essential Grammar in Use. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994.
Parrot, Martin. Grammar for English Language Teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 2006.
Swan, Michael. Practical English Usage. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008.
Thornbury, Scott. How to Teach Grammar. Harlow: Longman, 2008.
---. Grammar. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008.
Ur, Penny. A Course in Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991.

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Yule, George. The Study of Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006.

The Internet sources:

"Analytic language." Encyclopdia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopdia Britannica Online. 3
September 2008 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/22561/analytic-language>
Czech Grammar. WinCzEduc, Czech for Foreigners. 2 October 2008.
<http://mujweb.atlas.cz/www/grammarcz/>
Fabisy, Natalia. Analysis of Krashens Theory of Second Language Acquisition. 20
September 2008. <http://www.geocities.com/pan_andrew/sla.htm>
Fennel, Barbara. The History of English. 24 September 2008.
<http://www.ielanguages.com/enghist.html>
History of the English Language. Wikipedia. The Free Encyclopedia. 14 September 2008.
<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_English_language>
Ince, Tuba. Origin of English. 15 October 2008 <http://www.ingilish.com/orofeng.htm>
Indo-European Languages. Wikipedia The Free Encyclopedia. 25 August 2008.
<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-European_languages>
Kuera, Karel.Origin and History. 2001. 12 September 2008. <http://www.czechlanguage.cz/overview/origin.html>
Language acquisition. Wikipedia The Free Encyclopedia. 30 September 2008.
<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_acquisition>
Language family. Wikipedia The Free Encyclopedia. 28 August 2008.
<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_family>
List of Language families. Wikipedia The Free Encyclopedia. 28 August 2008.
<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_language_families>
Lommantzsch, Adam. Czech Verbs. Local Lingo. 14 September 2008.
<http://www.locallingo.com/czech/grammar/verbs.html>
Proto-Indo-European. 28 August 2008.
<http://www.chiark.greenend.org.uk/~marisal/ie/pie.html>
Proto-Indo-European language. Wikipedia The Free Encyclopedia. 28 August 2008.
<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language>
Schulz, Richardo. Stephen Krashen's Theory of Second Language Acquisition. July 2,
2007. 15 September 2008.<http://www.sk.com.br/sk-krash.html>

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"Slavic languages." Encyclopdia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopdia Britannica Online. 3

September 2008 <//www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/548460/Slaviclanguages/74900/Hypothetical-origins#ref=ref604090>
"Synthetic language." Encyclopdia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopdia Britannica Online. 30
Nov. 2008 <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/578706/synthetic-language>
Theories about how young children acquire and develop language. The National Literary
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The Great Melting Pot of Language: A History of the English Language. Random History.
18 September 2008. <http://www.randomhistory.com/1-50/023english.html>

47

Appendix

48

Appendix 1
20,000 Leagues under the Sea
It was 1867. Some sailors said that they saw a dangerous giant monster living in the cold
waters of the ocean. Some ships tried to find and kill it, but they never returned. People said it
looked like a whale.
It was 300 feet long!
Water came out of its back. It was like a big, underwater explosion!
The largest whale was only 180 feet long and if these men were right, this was even larger.
I was famous because I was the writer of a book called The Mysteries of the Great Ocean
Depths. When the captain of the American ship the Abraham Lincoln decided to leave and
look for the monster, he asked me to go with them as an expert.
The idea was very exciting. I invited my faithful assistant and good friend Conseil to go
with me. He always helps me to organize the names and places of the wonderful strange sea
creatures that we find in the oceans of the world. He accepted the invitation and we got ready
to go.

The picture is taken from http://www.obrazky.cz/?from=21&step=20&colours=&size=&filter=1&q=Nautilus

49

Appendix 2

The original dialogue

Where did you spend your last

holiday?
In London.

When did you go there?

A month ago.

How long did you stay there?

A week.

Who did you go with?

With my friend.

Did you like it?

Yes.
50

Appendix 3
Write your own variation of the dialogue.

51

Appendix 4
Read about my journey to London. Put the verbs in the correct form.
Last Tuesday I _____ (fly) from Brno to London. I _____ (get) up at 7
oclock in the morning and _____ (have) a shower. Then I _____ (have)
breakfast. At 7.30 I _____ (leave) home and _____ (drive) to the airport.
When I _____ (arrive), I _____ (park) my car and _____ (go) to the airport
caf where I _____ (have) a cup of coffee. Then I _____ (go) through passport
control and _____ (wait) for my flight. The plane _____ (depart) on time and
_____ (land) in London an hour later. I _____ (take) a taxi from the airport to
my hotel in the centre of London.

The picture is taken from http://www.obrazky.cz/?from=201&step=20&colours=&size=&filter=1&q=Big

%20Ben

52

Appendix 5

SHE HAD
BREAKFAST.

SHE MET
FRIENDS.

SHE WENT
TO THE
CINEMA.

SHE HAD A
SHOWER.

SHE DID HER

HOMEWORK
.
SHE
PLAYED
TENNIS.

SHE
BOUGHT A
NEW TSHIRT.

SHE
WATCHED
TV.

The picture is taken from http://www.obrazky.cz/?from=33&step=16&colours=&size=&filter=1&q=holka

53

Appendix 6

54

Appendix 7

I was really scared!

1. When did it happen?

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------2. Whose house it was?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------3. Where is the house?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------4. Who heard the noise?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------5. Where did the noise come from?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------6. Who went upstairs?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------7. Where was the furniture when they entered the room?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------8. What was on the other side of the room?
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------The picture is taken from http://www.obrazky.cz

55

Appendix 8
Recording script of the listening activity
Martin: OK! Thats the end of the class. Dont forget your homework for tomorrow!
Student A: Wow. I liked that ghost story! Do you think its true?
Student B: Oh, no, I dont think so. Its just a book.
Student A: Lets ask him. Do you believe in ghosts, Martin?
Martin: Oh, er WellI did have a strange experience once.
Student A: Really?
Martin: Yesabout seven years agoa friend of mine and I were sitting in my
grandmothers lounge, talking.
Student A and B: Oh, yes?
Martin: My grandmother has a big, old house near Londonand, anyway, she was
in the garden and my friend a I were in the lounge and suddenly we heard a
noise upstairs. It wasnt a big noise. We thought maybe a mouse or something.
Anyway, we went upstairs andit seemed to be coming from my
grandmothers bedroom.
Students A and B: Did you go in?
Martin: Yes, we went inside and well, it was amazing really. All the furniture in my
grandmothers bedroom was on the left side of the room, and the carpet was
neatly rolled up on the other side of the room.
Students A and B: Oh!
Martin: And this furniture is really heavy a very heavy wardrobe, chest of drawers,
bed these things would take four men to lift. It was really scary!
Students A and B: Wow!
Martin: And all we heard was a tiny noisefor no more than around a minute. My
grandmother said it happened once before, too. The really scary thing isshe
she didnt seem to mind!

Answer key: 1. about seven years ago

2. the teachers grandmothers house
3. near London
4. the teacher and his friend
5. the teachers grandmothers bedroom
6. the teacher and his friend
7. on the left side of the room
8. a carpet

56

Appendix 9

Who am I?
Let me introduce myself. I was born on 7 September 1533. I became queen at the
age of 25. I reigned in England from 1558 to 1603. My fathers name was Henry
VIII and my mothers name was Anne Boleyn. People called me The Virgin Queen,
because I refused to get married. When the first colony in America was founded,
they called it Virginia in honour of me. Elizabethan age is called after me, too.
William Shakespeare lived in the same century as me. I died in 1603. What is my
name?

The picture is taken from http://www.obrazky.cz/?q=Elizabeth+I&step=20&filter=1&s=&size=

57

Appendix 10

BINGO
Pupils grids

written
spoken

stolen
burnt

given
taken

hidden
left

sold
burnt

thought
broken

got

spelt

said

cut

got

spelt

been
caught

read
spent

said
found

had
spent

taken
taught

got
spoken

learnt

seen

given

stood

read

driven

had
brought

found
built

taken
got

taken
had

thought
brought

cut
stolen

left

driven

understood

written

found

said

bought
stood

run
eaten

gone
seen

read
gone

run
caught

spelt
cost

hidden

driven

written

done

seen

sold

Teachers chart
written

done

been

gone

cost

sold

got

thought

had

learnt

left

cut

spoken

taught

caught

hidden

understood

burnt

read

brought

bought

spent

stood

broken

driven

found

seen

spelt

built

stolen

eaten

broken

run

given

said

taken

58

Appendix 11

Questionnaire
Write short answers:
1. Have you ever been to Africa?
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------2. Have you ever eaten pizza?
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------3. Have you ever played tennis?
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------4. Have you ever driven a car?
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------5. Have you ever studied French?
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------6. Have you ever written a book?
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------7. Have you ever met a famous person?
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------8. Have you ever seen a whale?
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------9. Have you ever traveled by train?
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------10. Have you ever played a computer game?
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

The picture is taken from http://www.obrazky.cz/?q=po%C4%8D%C3%ADta%C4%8D

59

Appendix 12
Choose the correct word in each sentence and circle it:

1. Peter has/have been to Paris.

2. I have saw/seen an elephant.
3. My parents has/have worked in England.
4. The dog has bit/bitten me.
5. My daughter has buy/bought a green skirt.
6. I has/have written the letter.
7. I/He has read the book.
8. These children has/have studied French.
9. My father has find/found the wallet.
10. My mother has/have cut her finger.
11. Helen has burn/burnt her hand.
12. I have teach/taught you that.
13. The burglar has/have stolen the car.
14. He has work/worked in a bank.
15. They have understand/understood it.

The picture is taken from http://www.obrazky.cz/?from=41&step=20&colours=&size=&filter=1&q=Eiffel

%20Tower

60

Appendix 13
Use the rubric as a model and write your own text:
1. I have never ____________________ .
I have never ____________________ .
I have never ____________________ .
I have never ____________________ .
But I have always wanted to.
2. I have ____________________ .
I have ____________________ .
I have ____________________ .
I have ____________________ .
But I have never wanted to.
3. I havent ____________________ .
I havent ____________________ .
I havent ____________________ .
I havent ____________________ .
But I have always wanted to.

The picture is taken from http://www.obrazky.cz

61

Appendix 14

Possible answers: Helen has emptied the dustbin.

She has watered the plants.
She has fed her cat.
She has cooked dinner.
She has ironed the clothes.
She has brushed her hair.
She has made her bed.
She has lit the candles.
She has laid the table.
She has arranged the books on the shelf.
She has bought food.

62

Appendix 15
THE LIFE MAP

1. What is the biggest success that you have had?

2. What is the strangest thing you have ever seen?
3. What is the most interesting place you have ever visited?
4. Have you ever met a famous person?
5. What is the most useful thing you have ever learnt?
6. What has changed since you were 10?
7. What have you always wanted to?
8. Have you ever had a dream that has come true?
9. What is the best present you have ever received?
10. What are you most proud of?
The picture is taken from the photocopiable book Speaking Extra.

63

Appendix 16
Read the dialogues and make similar ones.
1. A: Have you been to Scotland?

2. A: Have you driven a bus?

B: Yes, I have.

B: Yes, I have.

A: When were you there?

A: When did you drive it?

B: I was there last year.

B: I drove the bus two months ago.

3. A: I have cut my finger.

4. A: Has Peter read the newspaper?

B: When did you cut it?

B: Yes, he has.

A: I cut it a minute ago.

A: When did he read it?

B: He read it yesterday.

5. A: I havent seen Peters new car.

6. A: Has Helen watered the plants?

B: No? I have. I saw it last week.

B: Yes, she has.

A: When did she water them?
B: She watered the plants in the
morning.

7. A: Have your parents seen the film?

8. A: Have your friends visited you?

B: Yes, they have.

B: Yes, they have.

A: When did they see it?

A: When did they visit you?

B: They saw it two days ago.

B: They visited me last week.

Yes, they

Have your
friends
visited you?

have.

The picture is taken from http://www.obrazky.cz

64

Appendix 17

The Sad Story of a Sad Man

One Saturday evening, two men (1)_______(meet) in a London pub. One of
the men was very unhappy.
Life is terrible, everything in the world is really boring, he said.
Dont say that, said the other man. Life is wonderful! The world is so
exciting! Think about Italy. Its a wonderful country. (2)_______ you ever
_______(be) there?

it.

Oh, yes. I (3)_______(go) there last month and I (4)_______(not like)

Well, (5)_______ you _______(be) to Sweden? (6)_______ you ever

_____ (see) the midnight sun?"
Oh, yes. I (7)_______(go) there for my honeymoon and we
(8)_______(see) the midnight sun. I (9)_______(not enjoy) it.
Well, I (10)_______ just _______(return) from a safari in Africa.
(11)_______ you _______(visit) Africa yet?
Yes, I (12)_______(go) on a safari in East Africa last year and I
(13)_______(climb) Mount Klimanjaro. It was really boring.
Well, said the other man, I think that you are very ill. Only the best
psychiatrist in London can help you. Go to see Dr Greenbaum in Harley Street.
But I am Dr Greenbaum, answered the man sadly.

The picture is taken from http://www.obrazky.cz

65

Appendix 18

Helen travelling abroad

Helen is only 8, but she has visited a lot of countries. She has seen a lot of
interesting places and met a lot of interesting people. Also, she has done a lot of
things. For example, she visited Spain in 2005 and dived there. However, she
didnt like scuba diving, because the sea was too cold. On the other hand, she
really liked Spanish food. What countries has she been to, do you think? Write
these countries into the boxes. What places has she visited there? When was
she there? What did she do there? Did she like it? Write a short essay about
Helens trips.

Spain

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