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Truck

This article is about cargo transport vehicles. For other uses, see Truck (disambiguation).
"Lorry" redirects here. For other uses, see Lorry (disambiguation).
The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide view of
the subject. Please improve this articleand discuss the issue on the talk
page. (September 2010)

Jingle trucks on Karakoram Highway in Pakistan

A truck (US, CA, AU, NZ) or lorry (UK and Ireland) is a motor vehicle designed to transport cargo.
Trucks vary greatly in size, power, and configuration, with the smallest being mechanically similar to
an automobile. Commercial trucks can be very large and powerful, and may be configured to mount
specialized equipment, such as in the case of fire trucks and concrete mixers and suction
excavators. Modern trucks are largely powered by diesel engines exclusively, although small to
medium size trucks with gasoline engines exist in America. In the European Union vehicles with
a gross combination mass of less than 3,500 kilograms (7,716 lb) are known as light commercial
vehiclesand those over as large goods vehicles.

Terminology

Etymology
The word "truck" might come from a back-formation of "truckle" with the meaning "small wheel",
"pulley", from Middle English trokell, in turn from Latin trochlea. Another explanation is that it comes
from Latin trochus with the meaning of "iron hoop". In turn, both go back to Greektrokhos ()
meaning "wheel" from trekhein (, "to run"). The first known usage of "truck" was in 1611 when
it referred to the small strong wheels on ships' cannon carriages. In its extended usage it came to
refer to carts for carrying heavy loads, a meaning known since 1771. With the meaning of "motorpowered load carrier", it has been in usage since 1930, shortened from "motor truck", which dates
back to 1916.[1][2]
"Lorry" has a more uncertain origin, but probably has its roots in the railway industry, where the word
is known to have been used in 1838 to refer to a type of truck (a freight caras in British usage, not
a bogie as in the American), specifically a large flat wagon. It probably derives from the verb lurry (to
pull, tug) of uncertain origin. With the meaning of "self-propelled vehicle for carrying goods" it has
been in usage since 1911.[3][4]

Before that, the word "lorry" was used for a sort of big horse-drawn goods wagon.

International variance

ALMA antenna transporters are huge vehicles that drive on 28 tires, are 10 meters wide, 20 meters long and 6
meters high, weigh 130 tonnes, and have as much horsepower as twoFormula 1 engines, although with many times
as much torque.

For more details on this topic, see List of truck types.


In the United States, Canada, and the Philippines "truck" is usually reserved for commercial vehicles
larger than normal cars, and includes pickups and other vehicles having an open load bed. In
Australia, New Zealand and South Africa, the word "truck" is mostly reserved for larger vehicles; in
Australia and New Zealand, a pickup truck is usually called a ute (short for "utility"), while in South
Africa it is called abakkie (Afrikaans: "small open container"). In the United Kingdom, India, Malaysia,
Singapore, Ireland and Hong Kong lorry is used instead of truck, but only for the medium and heavy
types.
In American English, the word "truck" is often preceded by a word describing the type of vehicle,
such as a "tanker truck". In British English these would be referred to as a "tanker" or "petrol tanker".
In Australia and New Zealand, the term ute (short for coup utility) is used to describe a pickup truck
with an open cargo carrying space but a front similar to a passenger car, and which requires only a
passenger car licence to drive. The concept was developed in 1933 by Lewis Bandt of the Ford
Motor Company in Geelong following a request from a Gippsland farmer's wife for a vehicle that they
could go to church in on Sunday without getting wet and also use to take the pigs to market on
Monday.

Driving

Inside a Mack truck

In the United States, a commercial driver's license is required to drive any type of commercial
vehicle weighing 26,001 lb (11,794 kg) or more.
The United Kingdom and the rest of Europe now have common, yet complex rules (see European
driving licence). As an overview, to drive a vehicle weighing more than 7,500 kilograms (16,535 lb)
for commercial purposes requires a specialist licence (the type varies depending on the use of the
vehicle and number of seats). For licences first acquired after 1997, that weight was reduced to
3,500 kilograms (7,716 lb), not including trailers.
In Australia, a truck driver's license is required for any motor vehicle with a Gross Vehicle
Mass (GVM) exceeding 4,500 kilograms (9,921 lb). The motor vehicles classes are further expanded
as:

LR: Light rigid: a rigid vehicle with a GVM of more than 4,500 kilograms (9,921 lb) but not
more than 8,000 kilograms (17,637 lb). Any towed trailer must not weigh more than 9,000
kilograms (19,842 lb) GVM.

MR: Medium rigid: a rigid vehicle with 2 axles and a GVM of more than 8,000 kilograms
(17,637 lb). Any towed trailer must not weigh more than 9,000 kilograms (19,842 lb) GVM. Also
includes vehicles in class LR.

HR: Heavy Rigid: a rigid vehicle with three or more axles and a GVM of more than 8,000
kilograms (17,637 lb)). Any towed trailer must not weigh more than 9,000 kilograms (19,842 lb))
GVM. Also includes articulated buses and vehicles in class MR.

HC: Heavy Combination, a typical prime mover plus semi-trailer combination.

MC: Multi Combination e.g., B Doubles/road trains.

There is also a heavy vehicle transmission condition for a license class HR, HC, or MC test passed
in a vehicle fitted with an automatic or synchromesh transmission, a drivers license will be restricted
to vehicles of that class fitted with a synchromesh or automatic transmission. To have the condition
removed, a person needs to pass a practical driving test in a vehicle with non-synchromesh
transmission (constant mesh or crash box).
In 2006 the US trucking industry employed 1.8 million drivers of heavy trucks.[10] There are around
5 million truck driv

Anatomy of a truck

Scania R470 flat nose truck

Almost all trucks share a common construction: they are made of a chassis, a cab, an area for
placing cargo or equipment, axles, suspension androadwheels, an engine and
a drivetrain. Pneumatic, hydraulic, water, and electrical systems may also be pressent. Many also
tow one or moretrailers or semi-trailers.

Cab
The cab is an enclosed space where the driver is seated. A "sleeper" is a compartment attached to
the cab where the driver can rest while not driving, sometimes seen in semi-trailer trucks.
There are several possible cab configurations:

"Cab over engine" (COE) or "flat nose"; where the driver is seated above the front axle and
the engine. This design is almost ubiquitous in Europe, where overall truck lengths are strictly
regulated, but also widely used in the rest of the world as well. They were common in North
America, but lost prominence when permitted length was extended in the early 1980s. To reach
the engine, the whole cab tilts forward, earning this design the name of "tilt-cab". This type of
cab is especially suited to the delivery conditions in Europe where many roads follow the layout
of much more ancient paths and trackways which require the additional turning capability given
by the short wheelbase of the cab over engine type. The COE design was invented by Viktor
Schreckengost.

Conventional cabs are the most common in North America and Australia, and are known in
the UK as "American cabs" and in the Netherlands as "torpedo cabs". The driver is seated
behind the engine, as in most passenger cars or pickup trucks. Conventionals are further divided
into large car and aerodynamic designs. A "large car" or "long nose" is a conventional truck with
a long (6-to-8-foot or 1.8-to-2.4-metre or more) hood. "Aerodynamic" cabs are very streamlined,
with a sloped hood and other features to lower drag.

Cab beside engine designs also exist, but are rather rare and are mainly used
inside shipping yards, or other specialist uses that require the vehicle to carry long loads such as
pipes, metal rods, flat iron and other construction materials. This type is often custom made from
a regular cabover truck that gets the upper half of its cab removed on the passenger side and
replaced by an extended section of the bed.

A further step from this is the side loading forklift that can be described as a specially fabricated
vehicle with the same properties as a truck of this type, in addition to the ability to pick up its own
load.

Engine

Cummins ISB 6.7L medium duty truck diesel engine

The oldest truck was built in 1896 by Gottlieb Daimler.[13] Most small trucks such as sport utility
vehicles (SUVs) or pickups, and even light medium-duty trucks in North America and Russia will
use gasoline engines (petrol engines), but many diesel engined models are now being produced.
Most of the heavier trucks use four stroke diesel engine with a turbocharger and aftercooler. Huge
off-highway trucks use locomotive-type engines such as a V12 Detroit Diesel two stroke engine.
Diesel engines are becoming the engine of choice for trucks ranging from class 3 to 8 GVWs.

North American manufactured highway trucks often use an engine built by a third party, such
as CAT, Cummins, or Detroit Diesel, but bothMack and Navistar offer their own engines.
In the European Union, all new lorry engines must comply with Euro 5 emission regulations.

Drive train

A truck rear suspension and drive axles overview

Eaton Roadranger 18 speed "crash box" with automated gearshift

Small trucks use the same type of transmissions as almost all cars, having either an automatic
transmission or a manual transmission with synchromesh (synchronizers). Bigger trucks often use
manual transmissions without synchronizers, saving bulk and weight, although synchromesh
transmissions are used in larger trucks as well. Transmissions without synchronizers, known as
"crash boxes", require double-clutching for each shift, (which can lead to repetitive motion injuries),
or a technique known colloquially as "floating", a method of changing gears which doesn't use the
clutch, except for starts and stops, due to the physical effort of double clutching, especially with non
power assisted clutches, faster shifts, and less clutch wear.
Double-clutching allows the driver to control the engine and transmission revolutions to synchronize,
so that a smooth shift can be made; for example, when upshifting, the accelerator pedal is released
and the clutch pedal is depressed while the gear lever is moved into neutral, the clutch pedal is then
released and quickly pushed down again while the gear lever is moved to the next higher gear.
Finally, the clutch pedal is released and the accelerator pedal pushed down to obtain required
engine speed. Although this is a relatively fast movement, perhaps a second or so while
transmission is in neutral, it allows the engine speed to drop and synchronize engine and
transmission revolutions relative to the road speed. Downshifting is performed in a similar fashion,
except the engine speed is now required to increase (while transmission is in neutral) just the right

amount in order to achieve the synchronization for a smooth, non-collision gear change. "Skip
changing" is also widely used; in principle operation is the same as double-clutching, but it requires
neutral be held slightly longer than a single-gear change.
Common North American setups include 9, 10, 13, 15, and 18 speeds. Automatic and semiautomatic transmissions for heavy trucks are becoming more and more common, due to advances
both in transmission and engine power. In Europe, 8, 10, 12 and 16 gears are common on larger
trucks with manual transmission, while automatic or semi-automatic transmissions would have
anything from 5 to 12 gears. Almost all heavy truck transmissions are of the "range and split" (double
H shift pattern) type, where range change and so-called half gears or splits are air operated and
always preselected before the main gear selection.

Frame
A truck rear frame (chassis) section view

A truck frame consists of two parallel boxed (tubular) or C-shaped rails, or beams, held together
by crossmembers. These frames are referred to as ladder frames due to their resemblance to a
ladder if tipped on end. The rails consist of a tall vertical section (two if boxed) and two shorter
horizontal flanges. The height of the vertical section provides opposition to vertical flex when weight
is applied to the top of the frame (beam resistance). Though typically flat the whole length on heavy
duty trucks, the rails may sometimes be tapered or arched for clearance around the engine or over
the axles. The holes in rails are used either for mounting vehicle components and running wires and
hoses, or measuring and adjusting the orientation of the rails at the factory or repair shop.
The frame is almost always made of steel, but can be made (whole or in part) of aluminum for a
lighter weight. A tow bar may be found attached at one or both ends, but heavy trucks almost always
make use of a fifth wheel hitch.

Environmental effects[
See also: Diesel exhaust

DAF tractor with an auto-transportsemi-trailer carrying koda Octaviacars in Cardiff, Wales

Trucks contribute to air, noise, and water pollution similarly to automobiles. Trucks may emit lower air
pollution emissions than cars per equivalent vehicle mass, although the absolute level per vehicle
distance traveled is higher, and diesel particulate matter is especially problematic for health.[16] With
respect to noise pollution, trucks emit considerably higher sound levels at all speeds compared to

typical car; this contrast is particularly strong with heavy-duty trucks. [17] There are several aspects of
truck operations that contribute to the overall sound that is emitted. Continuous sounds are those
from tires rolling on the roadway, and the constant hum of their diesel engines at highway speeds.
Less frequent noises, but perhaps more noticeable, are things like the repeated sharp-pitched
whistle of aturbocharger on acceleration, or the abrupt blare of an exhaust brake retarder when
traversing a downgrade. There has been noise regulation put in place to help control where and
when the use of engine braking retarders are allowed.
Concerns have been raised about the effect of trucking on the environment, particularly as part of
the debate on global warming. In the period from 1990 to 2003, carbon dioxide emissions from
transportation sources increased by 20%, despite improvements in vehicle fuel efficiency.[18]

Volvo's subsidiary Renault Magnumtruck.

In 2005, transportation accounted for 27% of U.S. greenhouse gas emission, increasing faster than
any other sector.
Between 1985 and 2004, in the U.S., energy consumption in freight transportation grew nearly 53%,
while the number of ton-miles carried increased only 43%.
According to a 1995 U.S. government estimate, the energy cost of carrying one ton of freight a
distance of one kilometer averages 337 kJ for water, 221 kJ for rail, 2,000 kJ for trucks, and nearly
13,000 kJ for air transport.[21] Many environmental organizations favor laws and incentives to
encourage the switch from road to rail, especially in Europe.
The European Parliament is moving to ensure that
charges on heavy-goods vehicles should be based in part on the air and noise pollutionthey
produce and the congestion they cause, according to legislation approved by the Transport
Committee.[23] The Eurovignette scheme has been proposed, whereby new charges would be
potentially levied against things such as noise and air pollution and also weight related damages
from the lorries themselves.

Sales and sales issues

Truck market worldwide


Largest truck manufacturers in the world as of 2010, over 16 tons GVW in 2010.

Pos

Make

Daimler AG (Mercedes-Benz, Freightliner Trucks, Sterling Trucks, Unimog, Western


Star, Fuso, BharatBenz)

Units

478,535

Volvo Group (Volvo, Mack, Renault, UD Nissan Diesel)

438,95

Dongfeng Motor

341,875

Volkswagen Group (Scania, Volkswagen Commercial Vehicles, MAN)

203,102

Tata Group (Tata Motors, Daewoo Commercial Vehicle)

159,237

Hyundai Kia Automotive Group (Hyundai)

Toyota Group (Hino Motors, Isuzu)

129,107

Fiat Group (Iveco, Magirus, Astra, Seddon Atkinson, Yuejin)

127,542

PACCAR (DAF Trucks, Kenworth, Peterbilt, Leyland Trucks)

126,960

Largest truck manufacturers in the world as of 2011

157,781
]

Po

makes

units

447,35

Isuzu

Volvo Group (Volvo, Mack, Renault, UD Nissan Diesel)

Toyota Group (Hino Motors, Toyota)

Tata Group (Tata Motors, Daewoo Commercial Vehicle)

PACCAR (DAF Trucks, Kenworth, Peterbilt, Leyland Trucks)

Navistar International (Mahindra Navistar)

79,362

Fiat Industrial (Iveco, Irisbus, Astra)

67,170

Daimler AG (Mercedes-Benz, Freightliner Trucks, Unimog, Western


Star, Fuso, BharatBenz)

Ford

10 Ashok Leyland

300,49
4

214,37
5

176,58
4

121,23
5

70,726

66,790

65,280

11 Nissan

51,811

12 GAZ

29,779

Largest truck manufacturers in the world as of 2012, by Annual reports

Po

makes

units

Daimler AG (Mercedes-Benz, Freightliner Trucks, Unimog, Western

461,954

Star, Fuso, BharatBenz)

Volvo Group (Volvo, Mack, Renault, UD Nissan Diesel)

224,000

Volkswagen Group (Scania, Volkswagen Commercial Vehicles, MAN)

203,102

Comparison by country
Showing semi-tractor, large rigid, and medium rigid by the same manufacturer when possible.

Belarus
MAZ-MAN 4X2 Semi tractor

Belarus
MAZ-MAN 4X2 Dump

China
FAW semi tractor

China
FAW 4X2 dump

France
Renault AGV 6X4 Semi tractor-trailer

France
Renault Kerax 410 8X4 Mixer

Japan
Hino Profia ASV 4X2 semi tractor

Japan
Hino Dutro 130MD-L 4X2 Box

Netherlands
DAF CF 8X4 tipper

Netherlands
DAF LF 4X2 Box

Russia
Kamaz 55111 6X4 dump

Manufacturers
Main article: List of truck manufacturers

Operations issues

Commercial insurance
Primary liability insurance coverage protects the truck from damage or injuries to other
people as a result of a truck accident. This truck insurance coverage is mandated by
U.S. state and federal agencies, and proof of coverage is required to be sent to them.
Interstate trucks in the U.S. are required to have a minimum of $75,000 in liability insurance.
This includes motor carriers operating vehicles with a gross weight rating in excess of
10,000 lbs (which transport non-hazardous materials). All motor carriers operating vehicles
transporting materials classified as hazardous, and which have a gross weight rating in
excess of 10,000 lbs must have a minimum of $1,000,000 in liability insurance. All motor
carriers operating vehicles such as tanks or hopper-type cargo vehicles with a capacity in
excess of 3,500 water gallons must have a minimum of $5,000,000 in liability insurance.
Pricing is dependent on region, driving records, and history of the trucking operation.
Motor truck cargo insurance protects the transporter for his responsibility in the event of damaged or
lost freight. The policy is purchased with a maximum load limit per vehicle. Cargo insurance
coverage limits can range from $10,000 to $100,000 or more. Pricing for this insurance is mainly
dependent on the type of cargo being hauled.

Trucking accidents
Trucking accident at Elst (Netherlands) 2012-03-23

In 2002 and 2004, there were over 5,000 fatalities related to trucking accidents in the United States.
The trucking industry has since made significant efforts in increasing safety regulations. In 2008 the
industry had successfully lowered the fatality rate to just over 4,000 deaths. But trucking accidents
are still an issue that causes thousands of deaths and injuries each year. Approximately 6,000
trucking accident fatalities occur annually in the United States. Fatalities are not the only issue
caused by trucking accidents. Here are some of the environmental issues that arise with trucking
accidents:

14.4% of trucking accidents cause cargo to spill

6.5% cause open flames

The USDOT 2009 Large Trucks in Fatal Crashes with Passenger Vehicles with Driver-Related
Factors figures show that in 22% of crashes the large truck driver was a factor, while 80.5% of
passenger vehicle drivers were. Alcohol or drugs among heavy truck drivers were a factor in .31% of
crashes, among passenger vehicle drivers they were a factor in 11.75% of crashes.

[30]

Truck shows
In the UK, three truck shows are popular - Shropshire Truck Show in Oswestry Showground during
May, The UK Truck Show held in June at Santa Pod Raceway, and FIA European Drag Racing
Championships from the home of European Drag-Racing. The UK Truck Show features drag-racing
with 6-tonne trucks from the British Truck Racing Association, plus other diesel-powered
entertainment.
In Mexico, the ANPACT Autotransporte - Truck Show is well known as one of the biggest of the
region; 2013 edition features trucker celebrity Lisa Kelly.
Truck shows provide operators with an opportunity to win awards for their trucks.

Gallery

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the article subject are discouraged; please improve or remove the section accordingly,
moving freely licensed images to Wikimedia Commons if not already hosted there.

Hino Motors truck

Mercedes-Benz truck

UD Nissan lorry

Cargo ship
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this
article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and
removed. (August 2008)

The Colombo Express, one of the largest container ships in the world (when she was built in 2005), owned and
operated by Hapag-Lloyd of Germany

Cargo fleet in 2006

A cargo ship or freighter is any sort of ship or vessel that carries cargo, goods, and materials from
one port to another. Thousands of cargo carriers ply the world's seas and oceans each year; they
handle the bulk of international trade. Cargo ships are usually specially designed for the task, often
being equipped with cranes and other mechanisms to load and unload, and come in all sizes. Today,
they are almost always built of welded steel, and with some exceptions generally have a life
expectancy of 25 to 30 years before being scrapped. [citation needed]
Contents
[hide]

1 Types

2 History

3 Piracy

4 Definitions

5 Vessel prefixes

6 Famous cargo ships

7 Controversies

8 See also

9 References

10 External links

Types[edit]

Loading of a general cargo vessel in 1959

Cargo ships/freighters can be divided into five groups, according to the type of cargo they carry.
These groups are:
1. General cargo vessels
2. Tankers
3. Dry bulk carriers
4. Multi-purpose vessels
5. Reefer ships
General cargo vessels carry packaged items like chemicals, foods, furniture, machinery, motor- and
military vehicles, footwear, garments, etc.
Tankers carry petroleum products or other liquid cargo.
Dry bulk carriers carry coal, grain, ore and other similar products in loose form.
Multi-purpose vessels, as the name suggests, carry different classes of cargo e.g. liquid and
general cargo at the same time.
A Reefer (or Refrigerated) ship is specifically designed[1] and used for shipping perishable
commodities which require temperature-controlled, mostly fruits, meat, fish, vegetables,dairy
products and other foodstuffs.

Specialized types of cargo vessels include container ships and bulk carriers (technically tankers of
all sizes are cargo ships, although they are routinely thought of as a separate category). Cargo ships
fall into two further categories that reflect the services they offer to industry: liner and tramp services.
Those on a fixed published schedule and fixed tariff rates are cargo liners. Tramp ships do not have
fixed schedules. Users charter them to haul loads. Generally, the smaller shipping companies and
private individuals operate tramp ships. Cargo liners run on fixed schedules published by the
shipping companies. Each trip a liner takes is called a voyage. Liners mostly carry general cargo.
However, some cargo liners may carry passengers also. A cargo liner that carries 12 or more
passengers is called a combination or passenger-cum-cargo line.

History[edit]
The earliest records of waterborne activity mention the carriage of items for trade; the evidence of
history and archaeology shows the practice to be widespread by the beginning of the 1st millennium
BC, and as early as the 14th and 15th centuries BC small Mediterranean cargo ships like those of
the 50 foot long (15 - 16 metre) Uluburun ship were carrying 20 tons of exotic cargo; 11 tons of raw
copper, jars, glass, ivory, gold, spices, and treasures from Canaan, Greece, Egypt, and Africa. The
desire to operate trade routes over longer distances, and throughout more seasons of the year,
motivated improvements in ship design during the Middle Ages.
Before the middle of the 19th century, the incidence of piracy resulted in most cargo ships being
armed, sometimes quite heavily, as in the case of the Manila galleons and East Indiamen. They were
also sometimes escorted by warships.

Piracy[edit]
Further information: Piracy
Piracy is still quite common in some waters, particularly in the Malacca Straits, a narrow channel
between Indonesia and Singapore / Malaysia, and cargo ships are still commonly targeted. In 2004,
the governments of those three nations agreed to provide better protection for the ships passing
through the Straits. The waters off Somalia and Nigeria are also prone to piracy, while smaller
vessels are also in danger along parts of the South American, Southeast Asian coasts and near
the Caribbean Sea.[2][3]

Definitions[edit]

A Delmas container ship unloading at the Zanzibar port in Tanzania

The words cargo and freight have become interchangeable in casual usage. Technically, "cargo"
refers to the goods carried aboard the ship for hire, while "freight" refers to the compensation the
ship or charterer receives for carrying the cargo.
Generally, the modern ocean shipping business is divided into two classes:
1. Liner business: typically (but not exclusively) container vessels (wherein "general cargo" is
carried in 20 or 40-foot containers), operating as "common carriers", calling a regularly
published schedule of ports. A common carrier refers to a regulated service where any
member of the public may book cargo for shipment, according to long-established and
internationally agreed rules.
2. Tramp-tanker business: generally this is private business arranged between the shipper and
receiver and facilitated by the vessel owners or operators, who offer their vessels for hire to
carry bulk (dry or liquid) or break bulk (cargoes with individually handled pieces) to any
suitable port(s) in the world, according to a specifically drawn contract, called a charter
party.
Larger cargo ships are generally operated by shipping lines: companies that specialize in the
handling of cargo in general. Smaller vessels, such as coasters, are often owned by their operators.

Vessel prefixes[edit]
A category designation appears before the vessel's name. A few examples of prefixes for naval ships
are "USS" (United States Ship), "HMS" (Her/His Majesty's Ship), "HMCS" (Her/His majesty's
Canadian Ship) and "HTMS" (His Thai Majesty's Ship), while a few examples for prefixes for
merchant ships are "RMS" (Royal Mail Ship, usually a passenger liner), "MV" (Motor Vessel,
powered by Diesel), "MT" (Motor Tanker, powered vessel carrying liquids only) "FV" Fishing Vessel
and "SS" (Steam Ship, now seldom seen, powered by steam). "TS", sometimes found in first position
before a merchant ship's prefix, denotes that it is a Turbine Steamer. (For further discussion,
see Ship prefixes.)

Famous cargo ships[edit]


Famous cargo ships include the Liberty ships of World War II, partly based on a British design.
Liberty ship sections were prefabricated in locations across the USA and then assembled by
shipbuilders in an average of six weeks, with the record being just over four days. These ships

allowed the Allies to replace sunken cargo vessels at a rate greater than the Kriegsmarine's Uboats could sink them, and contributed significantly to the war effort, the delivery of supplies, and
eventual victory over the Axis powers.
Lake freighters built for the Great Lakes in North America differ in design from "salties" because of
the difference in wave size and frequency in the lakes. A number of these boats are so large that
they cannot leave the lakes because they do not fit into the locks on the Saint Lawrence Seaway.
Cargo ships are categorized partly by capacity, partly by weight, and partly by dimensions (often with
reference to the various canals and canal locks they fit through). Common categories include:

Dry Cargo

Small Handy size, carriers of 20,000 long tons deadweight (DWT)-28,000 DWT

Handy size, carriers of 28,000-40,000 DWT

Seawaymax, the largest size that can traverse the St Lawrence Seaway
Handymax, carriers of 40,000-50,000 DWT

Panamax, the largest size that can traverse the Panama Canal (generally: vessels
with a width smaller than 32.2 m) Limited to 52,000 DWT loaded, 80,000 DWT empty.

New Panamax, Upgraded Panama locks with 55m beam, 18M depth, 120,000
DWT[4]

Capesize, vessels larger than Panamax and Post-Panamax, and must traverse
the Cape of Good Hope and Cape Horn to travel between oceans

Chinamax, carriers of 380,000-400,000 DWT with main dimensions limited by port


infrastructure in China

Wet Cargo

Aframax, oil tankers between 75,000 and 115,000 DWT. This is the largest size
defined by the average freight rate assessment (AFRA) scheme.

Suezmax, the largest size that can traverse the Suez Canal
VLCC (Very Large Crude Carrier), supertankers between 150,000 and
320,000 DWT.

Malaccamax, the largest size that can traverse the Strait of Malacca

ULCC (Ultra Large Crude Carrier), enormous supertankers between 320,000 and
550,000 DWT

Controversies[edit]
Due to its low cost, most large cargo vessels are powered by bunker fuel also known as Heavy Fuel
Oil which contains higher sulphur levels than diesel. [5] This level of pollution is accelerating:[6] with
bunker fuel consumption at 278 million tonnes per year in 2001, it is projected to be at 500 million
tonnes per year in 2020.[7] International standards to dramatically reduce sulphur content in marine
fuels and nitrogen oxide emissions have been put in place. Among some of the solutions offered is
changing over the fuel intake to clean diesel or marine gas oil, while in restricted waters and Cold
Ironing the ship while it is in port. If the various requirements are enforced, the International Maritime
Organization's marine fuel requirement will mean a 90% reduction in sulphur oxide emissions;
[8]

whilst the European Union is planning stricter controls on emissions.[9]

Cruise ship
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Majesty of the Seas

A cruise ship or cruise liner is a passenger ship used for pleasure voyages, where the voyage
itself and the ship's amenities are a part of the experience, as well as the different destinations along
the way. Transportation is not the prime purpose, as cruise ships operate mostly on routes that
return passengers to their originating port, so the ports of call are usually in a specified region of a
continent. There are even "cruises to nowhere" or "nowhere voyages" where the ship makes 2-3 day
round trips without any ports of call.[1]

By contrast, dedicated transport oriented ocean liners do "line voyages" and typically transport
passengers from one point to another, rather than on round trips. Traditionally, an ocean liner for the
transoceanic trade will be built to a higher standard than a typical cruise ship, including
high freeboard and stronger plating to withstand rough seas and adverse conditions encountered in
the open ocean, such as the North Atlantic. Ocean liners also usually have larger capacities for fuel,
victuals, and other stores for consumption on long voyages, compared to dedicated cruise ships.
Although often luxurious, ocean liners had characteristics that made them unsuitable for cruising,
such as high fuel consumption, deep draught that prevented them from entering shallow ports,
enclosed weatherproof decks that were not appropriate for tropical weather, and cabins designed to
maximize passenger numbers rather than comfort (such as a high proportion of windowless suites).
The gradual evolution of passenger ship design from ocean liners to cruise ships has seen
passenger cabins shifted from inside the hull to the superstructure with private verandas. The
modern cruise ships, while sacrificing qualities of seaworthiness, have added amenities to cater
to water tourists, and recent vessels have been described as "balcony-laden floating
condominiums".

Cruise ships in Tallinn Passenger Port of Tallinn,Estonia - a popular tourist destination

The distinction between ocean liners and cruise ships has blurred, particularly with respect to
deployment. Differences in construction remain. Larger cruise ships have also engaged in longer
trips such as transoceanic voyages which may not return to the same port for months (longer round
trips).[2] Some former ocean liners operate as cruise ships, such as Marco Polo. This number is
diminishing. The only dedicated transatlantic ocean liner in operation as a liner (as of December
2013) is the Queen Mary 2 of the Cunard fleet. She also has the amenities of contemporary cruise
ships and sees significant service on cruises.[3]

Cruising has become a major part of the tourism industry, accounting for U.S.$29.4 billion with over
19 million passengers carried worldwide[4] in 2011. The industry's rapid growth has seen nine or
more newly built ships catering to a North American clientele added every year since 2001, as well
as others servicing European clientele. Smaller markets, such as the Asia-Pacific region, are
generally serviced by older ships. These are displaced by new ships in the high growth areas.
The world's largest cruise ships are Royal Caribbean International's Oasis of the Seas and its sister
ship Allure of the Seas.
Contents
[hide]

1 History
o

1.1 Origins

1.2 Modern luxury cruising

2 Operators and cruise lines

3 Organization
o

3.1 Dining

3.2 Other on-board facilities

3.3 Crew

3.4 Business model

3.5 Ship naming

3.6 Cruise ships utilization

4 Regional industries
o

4.1 Caribbean cruising industry

5 Shipyards

6 Safety
o

6.1 Security

6.2 Stability

6.3 Safety record

6.4 Infections on cruise ships

6.4.1 Norovirus

6.4.2 Legionnaires' disease

6.4.3 Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC)

7 Environmental impact

8 See also

9 Notes

10 References
10.1 Sources

11 External links

12 External reading

History[edit]
Origins[edit]
The birth of leisure cruising began with the formation of the Peninsular & Oriental Steam Navigation
Company in 1822. The company started out as a shipping line with routes between England and
the Iberian Peninsula, adopting the name Peninsular Steam Navigation Company.[5] It won its first
contract to deliver mail in 1837. In 1840, it began mail delivery to Alexandria, Egypt,
via Gibraltar and Malta.[5] The company was incorporated by Royal Charter the same year, becoming
the Peninsular and Oriental Steam Navigation Company.

SS Strathaird, a P&O cruise ship of the early 20th century. The company began offering luxury cruise services in
1844.

P&O first introduced passenger cruising services in 1844, advertising sea tours to destinations such
as Gibraltar, Malta and Athens, sailing from Southampton. The forerunner of modern cruise holidays,
these voyages were the first of their kind, and P&O Cruises has been recognised as the world's
oldest cruise line.[6] The company later introduced round trips to destinations such
as Alexandria andConstantinople. It underwent a period of rapid expansion in the latter half of the
19th century, commissioning larger and more luxurious ships to serve the steadily expanding market.
Notable ships of the era include the SS Ravenna built in 1880, which became the first ship to be built
with a total steel superstructure, and the SS Valetta built in 1889, which was the first ship to use
electric lights.
Some sources mention the "Francesco I", flying the flag of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies (Italy), as
the first cruise ship. It was built in 1831 and sailed from Naples in early June 1833, preceded by an
advertising campaign. The cruise ship was boarded by nobles, authorities, and royal princes from all
over Europe.In just over three months, the ship sailed
to Taormina, Catania, Syracuse, Malta, Corfu, Patras, Delphi,Zante, Athens, Smyrna, Constantinople
and delighting passengers with excursions and guided tours, dancing, card tables on the deck and
parties on board. However, it was restricted to the aristocracy of Europe and was not a commercial
endeavour.

Prinzessin Victoria Luise was the first ship purpose-built as a cruise ship.

The cruise of the German ship Augusta Victoria in the Mediterranean and the Near East from 22
January to 22 March 1891, with 241 passengers including Albert Ballin and wife, [7] popularized the
cruise to a wider market.[n 1] Christian Wilhelm Allers published an illustrated account of it
as Backschisch (Baksheesh).

The first vessel built exclusively for luxury cruising, was the Prinzessin Victoria Luise of Germany,
designed by Albert Ballin, general manager of Hamburg-America Line. The ship was completed in
1900.[8]
The practice of luxury cruising made steady inroads on the more established market for transatlantic
crossings. In the competition for passengers, ocean liners added luxuries the Titanic being the
most famous example such as fine dining, luxury services, and staterooms with finer
appointments.[citation needed] In the late 19th century, Albert Ballin, director of the Hamburg-America Line,
was the first to send his transatlantic ships out on long southern cruises during the worst of the
winter season of the North Atlantic. Other companies followed suit. Some of them built specialized
ships designed for easy transformation between summer crossings and winter cruising. [9]
In 1896, there were three luxury liners for transportation, for the Europe to America trip. These were
European-owned. In 1906, the number had increased to seven. The British Inman Line owned
the City of Paris,[10] the Cunard Line had the Compania and Lucania.[11] The White Star Line owned
the Majestic[12] and Teutonic.[13] La Lorraine and La Savoie were owned by the French Compagnie
Gnrale Transatlantique.[14]

Modern luxury cruising[edit] With the advent of large passenger jet aircraft in the 1960s,
intercontinental travelers switched from ships to planes sending the ocean liner trade into a terminal
decline. Certain characteristics of older ocean liners made them unsuitable for cruising duties, such
as high fuel consumption, deep draught preventing them from entering shallow ports, and cabins
(often windowless) designed to maximize passenger numbers rather than comfort.
Ocean liner services aimed at passengers ceased in 1986, with the notable exception of
transatlantic crossings operated by the British shipping company Cunard Line, catering to a niche
market of those who appreciated the several days at sea. In an attempt to shift the focus of the
market from passenger travel to cruising with entertainment value, Cunard Line pioneered the luxury
cruise transatlantic service on board the Queen Elizabeth 2 ocean liner. International celebrities
were hired to perform cabaret acts onboard and the crossing was advertised as a vacation in itself.
The QE2 also inaugurated "one-class cruising" where all passengers received the same quality
berthing and facilities. This revitalized the market as the appeal of luxury cruising began to catch on,
on both sides of the Atlantic. The 1970s television series Love Boat, helped to popularize the
concept as a romantic opportunity for couples.[15] Another ship to make this transition
was SS Norway, originally the ocean liner SS France and later converted to cruising duties as the
Caribbean's first "super-ship".

Freedom of the Seas, formerly the largest cruise ship in the world

Contemporary cruise ships built in the late 1980s and beyond, such as Sovereign-class which broke
the size record held for decades byNorway, show characteristics of size and strength once reserved
for ocean linerssome have undertaken regular scheduled transatlantic crossings.
[2]

The Sovereigns were the first "megaships" to be built, they also were the first series of cruise ships

to include a multi-story atrium with glass elevators. They also had a single deck devoted entirely to
cabins with private balconies instead of oceanview cabins. Other cruise lines soon launched ships
with similar attributes, such as the Fantasy class and Crown Princess. As the veranda suites were
particularly lucrative for cruise lines, something which was lacking in older ocean liners, recent cruise
ships have been designed to maximize such amenities and have been described as "balcony-laden
floating condominiums".

Oasis of the Seas in Nassau,Bahamas.

Until 1975-1980, cruises offered shuffleboard, deck chairs, "drinks with umbrellas and little else for a
few hundred passengers." After 1980, they offered increasing amenities. As of 2010, city-sized ships
have dozens of amenities.[16]
There have been nine or more new cruise ships added every year since 2001, all at 100,000 GT or
greater. The only comparable ocean liner to be completed in recent years has been Cunard
Line's Queen Mary 2 in 2004. Following the retirement of her running mate the Queen Elizabeth 2 in

November 2008, Queen Mary 2 is the only liner operating on transatlantic routes, though she also
sees significant service on cruise routes.[3]
Queen Mary 2 was for a time the largest passenger ship before being surpassed by Royal
Caribbean International's Freedom-class vessels in 2006. The Freedoms were in turn overtaken by
RCI's Oasis-class vessels which entered service in 2009 and 2010.[17]

Operators and cruise lines[edit]

Celebrity Solstice in Port Melbourne,Australia

Operators of cruise ships are known as cruise lines. Cruise lines have a dual character; they are
partly in the transportation business, and partly in the leisure entertainment business, a duality that
carries down into the ships themselves, which have both a crew headed by the ship's captain, and a
hospitality staff headed by the equivalent of a hotel manager. Among cruise lines, some are direct
descendants of the traditional passenger shipping lines (such as Cunard), while others were founded
from the 1960s specifically for cruising.
Historically, the cruise ship business has been volatile. The ships are large capital investments with
high operating costs. A persistent decrease in bookings can put a company in financial jeopardy.
Cruise lines have sold, renovated, or renamed their ships to keep up with travel trends. The cruise
lines operate their ships virtually 24 hours a day, seven days a week, 52 weeks a year. A ship which
is out of service routine maintenance means the loss of tens of millions of dollars. If the maintenance
is unscheduled, it can result, potentially, in thousands of dissatisfied customers. [18]
A wave of failures and consolidation in the 1990s has led to many lines existing only as "brands"
within larger corporations, much as a single automobile company produces several makes of cars.
Brands exist partly because of repeat customer loyalty, and also to offer different levels of quality
and service. For instance, Carnival Corporation owns both Carnival Cruise Lines, whose former
image were vessels that had a reputation as "party ships" for younger travelers, but have become

large, modern, and extremely elegant, yet still profitable, and Holland America Line, whose ships
cultivate an image of classic elegance. In 2004, Carnival Corporation had merged Cunard's
headquarters with that of Princess Cruises in Santa Clarita, California so that administrative,
financial and technology services could be combined, ending Cunard's history where it had operated
as a standalone company (subsidiary) regardless of parent ownership. [19] However, Cunard did
regain some independence in 2009 when its headquarters were moved to Carnival House in
Southampton.[20]
Some cruise lines have specialties; for example, Saga Cruises only allows passengers over 50
years old aboard their ships, and Star Clippers and formerly Windjammer Barefoot
Cruises and Windstar Cruises only operate tall ships. Regent Seven Seas Cruises operates
medium-sized vesselssmaller than the "megaships" of Carnival and Royal Caribbeandesigned
such that 90% of their suites are balconies. Several specialty lines offer "expedition cruising" or only
operate small ships, visiting certain destinations such as the Arctic and Antarctica, or the Galpagos
Islands.
Currently the five largest cruise line operators in the world are Carnival Corporation & plc, Royal
Caribbean Cruises Ltd., Star Cruises (which owns 50% of Norwegian Cruise Line; NCL in its own
right is the third largest line), MSC Cruises, and Louis Cruise Lines. Louis Cruises has largerly grown
its fleet through purchasing older second- or third-hand ships, while the other four operators have
largely constructed their own vessels and combined own the majority of the "megaships".

Organization[edit]

Disney Magic

AIDAdiva in Izmir

Cruise ships are organized much like floating hotels, with a complete hospitality staff in addition to
the usual ship's crew. It is not uncommon for the most luxurious ships to have more crew and staff
than passengers.[citation needed]

Dining[edit]
Dining on almost all cruise ships is included in the cruise price, except on no-frills lines such
asEasyCruise.
Traditionally, the ships' restaurants organize two dinner services per day, early dining and late dining,
and passengers are allocated a set dining time for the entire cruise; a recent trend is to allow diners
to dine whenever they want. Having two dinner times allows the ship to have enough time and space
to accommodate all of their guests. Having two different dinner services can cause some conflicts
with some of the ship's events (such as shows and performances) for the late diners, but this
problem is usually fixed by having a shorter version of the event take place before late
dinner. Cunard Line ships maintain the class tradition of ocean liners and have separate dining
rooms for different types of suites, while Celebrity Cruises and Princess Cruises have a standard
dining room and "upgrade" specialty restaurants that require pre-booking and cover charges. Many
cruises schedule one or more "formal dining" nights. Guests dress "formally", however that is defined
for the ship, often suits and ties or even tuxedos for men, and formal dresses for women. The menu
is more upscale than usual.
Besides the dining room, modern cruise ships often contain one or more casual buffet-style eateries,
which may be open 24 hours and with menus that vary throughout the day to provide meals ranging
from breakfast to late-night snacks. Ships also feature numerous bars and nightclubs for passenger
entertainment; the majority of cruise lines do not include alcoholic beverages in their fares and
passengers are expected to pay for drinks as they consume them. Most cruise lines also prohibit

passengers from bringing aboard and consuming their own beverages, including alcohol while
aboard. Alcohol purchased duty-free is sealed and returned to passengers when they debark.
There is often a central galley responsible for serving all major restaurants aboard the ship, though
specialty restaurants may have their own separate galleys.
As with any vessel, adequate provisioning is crucial, especially on a cruise ship serving several
thousand meals at each seating. For example, passengers and crew on the Royal Caribbean
International ship Mariner of the Seas consume 20,000 pounds (9,000 kg) of beef, 28,000 eggs,
30,000 L of ice cream, and 18,000 slices of pizza in a week.[21]Normally, a cruise ship stocks up at
its home port. They also have special arrangements with designated suppliers at ports of call if
required.

Other on-board facilities[edit]


Most modern cruise ships feature the following facilities:

Casino Only open when the ship is at sea to avoid conflict with local laws

Spa

Fitness center

Shops Only open when ship is at sea to avoid merchandising licensing and local taxes

Library

Theatre with Broadway style shows

Cinema

Indoor and/or outdoor swimming pool with water slides

Hot tub

Buffet restaurant

Lounges

Gym

Clubs

Basketball courts

Pool tables

Ping pong tables

Some ships have bowling alleys, ice skating rinks, rock climbing walls, miniature golf courses, video
arcades, ziplines, surfing simulators, basketball courts, tennis courts, chain restaurants and/or ropes
obstacle courses.

Crew[edit]
Crew is usually hired on three to eleven month contracts which may then be renewed as mutually
agreed, which is based upon service ratings from passengers as well as the cyclical nature of the
cruise line operator. Most staff work 77 hour work weeks for 10 months continuously followed by 2
months of vacation.[22][23]
There are no paid vacations or pensions for service, non-management crew, depending on the level
of the position and the type of the contract. Non-service and management crew members get paid
vacation, medical, retirement options, and can participate in the company's group insurance plan.
The direct salary is low for North American standards,[23] though restaurant staff have considerable
earning potential from passenger tips. Crew members do not have any expenses while on board as
food and accommodation, and transportation for most employees, are included. This makes a cruise
ship career financially attractive enough to compensate for lack of employment benefits. [24]
Living arrangements vary by cruise line, but mostly by shipboard position. In general two employees
share a cabin with a shower, commode and a desk with a television set, while senior officers are
assigned single cabins. There is a set of facilities for the crew separate from that of passengers,
such as mess rooms and bars, recreation rooms, prayer rooms/mosques, and fitness center, with
some larger ships even having a crew deck with a swimming pool and hot tubs. [25]
For the largest cruise operators, most "hotel staff" are hired from under-industrialized countries in
Asia, Eastern Europe, the Caribbean, and Central America. While several cruise lines are
headquartered in the United States, the ships are registered in countries such as Bahamas,
Panama, and Liberia, a practice known as flags of convenience to take advantage of less-stringent

labour regulations.[22] Collective action is difficult due to staff being from diverse cultural and ethnic
backgrounds. The exception to this are the cruise routes around Hawaii, where operators are
required to register their ships in the United States and the crew is unionized, so these cruises are
typically much more expensive than Caribbean and Mediterranean.[26]

Business model[edit]
The "luxury cruise lines" such as Regent Seven Seas Cruises and Crystal Cruises provide "the most
all-inclusive" cruises.[27] Base fare on Regent Seven Seas ships includes most alcoholic beverages
onboard ship and most shore excursions in ports of call, as well as all gratuities that would normally
be paid to hotel staff on the ship.[28] Fare also includes one night's hotel stay before boarding[27] and
airfare to and from the cruise's origin and destination ports.[29]
Most cruise lines since the 2000s have priced the cruising experience, to some extent, a la carte, as
passengers spending aboard generates significantly more from ticket sales. [30] The passenger's
ticket includes the stateroom accommodation, room service, unlimited meals in the main dining room
and buffet, access to shows, and use of pool and gym facilities. However, there are extra charges for
alcohol and soft drinks, official cruise photos, Internet and wi-fi access, and specialty restaurants; it
has been reported that the casino and photos have high profit margins. Cruise lines earn
significantly from selling onshore excursions (keeping 50 percent or more of what passengers spend
for these tours) offered by local contractors.[30] In addition, cruise ships earn significant commissions
for sales from onshore stores that are promoted on board as "preferred" (as much as 40 percent of
gross sales). Facilitating this practice are modern cruise terminals with establishments of duty-free
shops inside a perimeter accessible only by passengers and not locals. [30] Ports of call have often
oriented their own businesses and facilities towards meeting the needs of visiting cruise ships. In
one case, Icy Strait Point in Alaska, the entire destination was created explicitly and solely for cruise
ship visitors.[31]
Travel to and from the port of departure are the passengers' responsibility, although purchasing a
transfer pass from the cruise line for the trip between the airport and cruise terminal will guarantee
that the ship will not leave until the passenger is aboard. Similarly, if the passenger books a shore
excursion with the cruise line and the tour runs late, the ship is obligated to remain until the
passenger returns.[28]

Ship naming[edit]
Older cruise ships have had multiple owners. it is usual for the transfer of ownership to entail a
refitting and a name change. Some ships have had a dozen or more identities.

Many cruise lines have a common naming scheme they use for their ships. Some lines use their
name as a prefix or suffix in the ship name (such as the prefixes of "Carnival", "AIDA", "Disney", or
"Norwegian" and the suffix of "Princess"). Other lines use a unique word or phrase (such as the
prefix of "Pacific" for P&O Cruises Australia or the suffixes of "of the Seas" for Royal Caribbean
International or "-dam" for ships of the Holland America Line). The addition of these prefixes and
suffixes allows multiple cruise lines to use the same popular ship names while maintaining a unique
identifier for each ship.

Cruise ships utilization[edit]


Due to slower speed and reduced seaworthiness, as well as being largely introduced after several
major wars, cruise ships have never been used as troop transport vessels. By contrast, ocean
liners were often seen as the pride of their country and used to rival liners of other nations, and have
been requisitioned during both World Wars to transport soldiers and serve as hospital ships. [citation
needed]

Cruise ships and former liners often find employment in applications other than those for which they
were built. A shortage of hotel accommodation for the 2004 Summer Olympicsled to a plan to moor a
number of cruise ships in Athens to provide tourist accommodation.[citation needed]
On September 1, 2005, the U.S. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) contracted
three Carnival Cruise Lines vessels (Carnival Fantasy, the former Carnival Holiday, and the Carnival
Sensation) to house Hurricane Katrina evacuees.[32]
In 2010, in response to the shutdown of UK airspace due to the eruption of
Iceland's Eyjafjallajkull volcano, the newly completed Celebrity Eclipse was used to rescue 2000
British tourists stranded in Spain as an act of goodwill by the owners. The ship departed from
Southampton for Bilbao on April 21, and returned on April 23. [33]

Regional industries[edit]

Four ships at the cruise ship terminal in Nassau, The Bahamas

Most cruise ships sail the Caribbean or the Mediterranean. Others operate elsewhere in places
like Alaska, the South Pacific, the Baltic Sea and New England. A cruise ship that is moving
from one of these regions to another will commonly operate a repositioning cruise while doing
so. Expedition cruise lines, which usually operate small ships, visit certain more specialized
destinations such as the Arctic and Antarctica, or the Galpagos Islands.
The number of cruise tourists worldwide in 2005 was estimated at some 14 million. The main
region for cruising was North America (70% of cruises), where the Caribbean islands were the
most popular destinations.
Next was Continental Europe (13%), where the fastest growing segment is cruises in the Baltic
Sea.[34] The most visited Baltic ports are Copenhagen, St. Petersburg, Tallinn, Stockholm and
Helsinki.[35] The seaport of St. Petersburg, the main Baltic port of call, received 426,500
passengers during the 2009 cruise season.[36]
According to 2010 CEMAR[37] statistics the Mediterranean cruise market is going through a fast
and fundamental change; Italy has won prime position as a destination for European cruises, and
destination for the whole of the Mediterranean basin. The most visited ports in Mediterranean
Sea are Barcelona (Spain), Civitavecchia (Italy), Palma(Spain) and Venice (Italy).
2013 saw the entrance of the first Chinese company into the cruise market. China's first luxury
cruise ship, Henna, made her maiden voyage from Sanya Phoenix Island International Port in
late January.[38]

Caribbean cruising industry[edit]

Nearly 9,000 passengers from three Carnival ships visiting St. Thomas, US Virgin Islands; from front to
back:Carnival Liberty, Carnival Triumph and the Carnival Glory.

The Caribbean cruising industry is one of the largest in the world, responsible for over $2 billion
in direct revenue to the Caribbean islands in 2012.[39] Over 45,000 people from the Caribbean are

directly employed in the cruise industry.[39] 17,457,600 cruise passengers visited the islands in the
2011-2012 cruise year (May 2011 to April 2012.[39]) Cruise lines operating in the Caribbean
include Royal Caribbean International, Princess Cruises, Carnival Cruise Line, Celebrity
Cruises, Disney Cruise Line, Holland America, P&O, Cunard, Crystal Cruises, Pullmantur
Cruises and Norwegian Cruise Line. There are also smaller cruise lines that cater to a more
intimate feeling among their guests. The three largest cruise operators are Carnival Corporation,
Royal Caribbean International, and Star Cruises/Norwegian Cruise Lines.
Some of the American cruise lines in the Caribbean depart from ports in the United States,
"nearly one-third of the cruises sailed out ofMiami".[40] Other cruise ships depart from Port
Everglades (in Fort Lauderdale), Port Canaveral (approximately 45 miles (72 km) east
ofOrlando), New York, Tampa, Galveston, New Orleans, Cape
Liberty, Baltimore, Jacksonville, Charleston, Norfolk, Mobile, and San Juan, Puerto Rico. Some
UK cruise lines base their ships out of Barbados for the Caribbean season, operating direct
charter flights out of the UK and avoiding the sometimes lengthy delays at US immigration.
The busiest ports of call in the Caribbean for cruising in the 2011/2012 year are listed below[39]

Ran
k

Port/City

Country

Estimated Passenger Arrivals


(2012)

Bahamas
1

Nassau

Cozumel

3,052,183

Mexico

Charlotte
Amalie

2,730,000

United States Virgin


Islands

1,887,096

Phillipsburg

Sint Maarten

1,754,900

George Town

Cayman Islands

1,443,200

Ran
k

Port/City

Country

Bahamas

Estimated Passenger Arrivals


(2012)

Freeport

San Juan

Bridgetown

Belize City

Belize

731,200

10

Cockburn Town

Turks and Caicos Islands

676,647

11

Castries

Saint Lucia

671,577

12

Basseterre

Saint Kitts and Nevis

629,200

13

Saint John's

Antigua and Barbuda

594,800

14

Oranjestad

15

Falmouth

Puerto Rico

1,240,016

1,176,700

Barbados
770,600

Aruba
590,200

Jamaica

572,741

Shipyards[edit]
The construction market for cruise ships is dominated by three European companies and
one Asian company:

STX Europe of South Korea with two shipyards:

STX Finland at Perno shipyard in Turku, Finland.

STX France at Chantiers de l'Atlantique in Saint-Nazaire, France.

Mitsubishi Heavy Industries of Japan.

Meyer Werft of Germany.

Fincantieri of Italy.

A large number of cruise ships have been built by other shipyards, but no other individual yard has
reached the large numbers of built ships achieved by the four above. A handful of old ocean
liners also remain in service as cruise ships.

Safety[edit]
See also: Passenger ship Safety regulations

Security[edit]
As most of the passengers on a cruise are affluent and have considerable ransom potential, not to
mention a considerable amount of cash and jewellery on board (casino and shops), there have been
several high profile pirate attacks on cruise ships, such as on the Seabourn Spirit and MSC Melody.
[41][42]

As a result, cruise ships have implemented various security measures. While most merchant
shipping firms have generally avoided arming crew or security guards for reasons of safety, liability
and conformity with the laws of the countries where they dock, cruise ships have small arms (usually
semi-automatic pistols) stored in a safe accessible only by the captain who distributes them to
authorized personnel such as security or the master-at-arms. The ship's high-pressure fire hoses
can be used to keep boarders at bay, and often the vessel itself can be maneuvered to ram pirate
craft. A recent technology to deter pirates has been the LRAD or sonic cannon which was used in
the successful defense ofSeabourn Spirit.[42][43]

Passengers entering the cruise ship are screened by metal detectors. Explosive detection machines
used include X-ray machines and explosives trace-detection portal machines(a.k.a. "puffer
machines"), to prevent weapons and contraband on board. Security has been considerably tightened
since September 11, 2001, such that these measures are similar to airport security.
In addition to security checkpoints, passengers are often given a ship-specific identification card,
which must be shown in order to get on or off the ship. This prevents people boarding who are not
entitled to do so, and also ensures the ship's crew are aware of who is on the ship. [44]
CCTV cameras are mounted frequently throughout the ship.

Stability[edit]
See also: Ship stability
The design of cruise ships has changed dramatically during the past decades. One of the biggest
changes has been moving the passenger cabins from inside the hull to the superstructure and
adding individual balconies both due to customer demand and because, from a business standpoint,
the cruise line can charge passengers much more than for inside staterooms. This has considerably
increased the overall height of the ships, making them more susceptible to side wind and waves. As
a result, there have been concerns about the stability of modern passenger ships especially in heavy
weather. Because there is much more ship above the surface than beneath it, modern cruise ships
may appear top-heavy to some.[45][46]
Despite the large superstructure, the center of mass of modern cruise ships is relatively low. This is
due to large open spaces and the extensive use of aluminium, high-strength steel and other
lightweight materials in the upper parts, and the fact that the heaviest components engines,
propellers, fuel tanks and such are located in the lower parts of the ship. Thus, even though
modern cruise ships may appear top-heavy, proper weight distribution ensures they are not. [47]
[48]

Furthermore, large cruise ships also tend to be very wide, which considerably increases their

initial stability by increasing the metacentric height.


Although most passenger ships utilize stabilizers to reduce rolling in heavy weather, they are only
used for crew and passenger comfort and do not contribute to the overall intact stability of the
vessel. The ships must fulfill all stability requirements even with the stabilizer fins retracted. [49]

Safety record[edit]
From 2005 to the Costa Concordia disaster in 2012, out of more than 100,000,000 people worldwide
who had taken cruises, there had been 16 fatalities.[50]

Infections on cruise ships[edit]


Norovirus[edit]
Norovirus is the most common cause of gastroenteritis in developed countries and is so widespread
that only the common cold is reported more frequently.[51] Symptoms usually last between 1 and 3
days and generally resolve without treatment or long term consequences. The incubation period of
the virus averages about 24 hours.[52]
The estimated likelihood of contracting gastroenteritis from any cause on an average 7-day cruise is
less than 1%.[53] In 2009, during which more than 13 million people took a cruise, [54] there were nine
reported norovirus outbreaks on cruise ships.[55] Outbreak investigations by the U.S. Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention have shown that transmission among cruise ship passengers is
primarily person-to-person; potable water supplies have not been implicated. In 2009, ships
undergoing unannounced inspections in U.S. ports received an average CDC Vessel Sanitation
Program score of approximately 97 out of a total possible 100 points. [56] The minimum passing
inspection score is 85.[56]Collaboration with the CDCs Vessel Sanitation Program and the
development of Outbreak Prevention and Response Plans have helped to generally decrease the
incidence of norovirus outbreaks on ships.[57] The CDC states that the reasons why noroviruses are
associated with cruise ships is because "(1) Health officials track illness on cruise ships. So
outbreaks are found and reported more quickly on a cruise ship than on land; (2) Close living
quarters may increase the amount of group contact; and (3) New passenger arrivals may bring the
virus to other passengers and crew."[58] As of 15 February 2013, data for the year 2012 shows that
there were 16 reported incidents of norovirus illnesses including an outbreak on Cunard Line's
'Queen Mary 2.'[59]
Legionnaires' disease[edit]
Other pathogens which can colonise pools and spas including those on cruise ships
include Legionella, the bacteriium which causes Legionnaires' disease. Legionella, and in particular
the most virulent strain, Legionella pneumophila serogroup 1, can cause infections when inhaled as
an aerosol or aspirated. Individuals who are immunocompromised and those with pre-existing
chronic respiratory and cardiac disease are more susceptible. Legionnaires' has been infrequently
associated with cruise ships.[60][61][62] The Cruise industry Vessel Sanitation Program has specific
public health requirements to control and prevent Legionella. [63]

Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC)[edit]


Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli is a form of E. Coli and the leading bacterial cause of diarrhea in the
developing world, as well as the most common cause of diarrhea for travelers to those areas.
[64]

Since 2008 there has been at least one reported incident each year of E. Coli on international

cruise ships reported to the Vessel Sanitation Program of the Centers for Disease Control. [65] Causes
of E. Coli infection include the consumption of contaminated food and the ingestion of water in
swimming pools contaminated by human waste.[66]

Environmental impact[edit]
Main article: Environmental impact of shipping

Diesel smoke from cruise ships over Juneau, Alaska

"Cruise ships generate a number of waste streams that can result in discharges to the
marine environment, including sewage, graywater, hazardous wastes, oily bilge water,
ballast water, and solid waste. They also emit air pollutants to the air and water. These
wastes, if not properly treated and disposed of, can be a significant source of pathogens,
nutrients, and toxic substances with the potential to threaten human health and damage
aquatic life. Cruise ships represent a small although highly visible portion of the entire
international shipping industry, and the waste streams described here are not unique to
cruise ships. Particular types of wastes, such as sewage, graywater, and solid waste, may be
of greater concern for cruise ships relative to other seagoing vessels, because of the large
numbers of passengers and crew that cruise ships carry and the large volumes of wastes
that they produce. Because cruise ships tend to concentrate their activities in specific coastal
areas and visit the same ports repeatedly (especially Florida, California, New York,
Galveston, Seattle, and the waters of Alaska), their cumulative impact on a local scale could
be significant, as can impacts of individual large-volume releases (either accidental or
intentional)."[67]

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