CLASSICAL MATERIALS SCIENCE

Five categories of materials:

Metals
Polymers

Based primarily on
the nature of the
interatomic bonding

Ceramics
Semiconductors

on materials conductivity

Composites

on materials structure

Definitions:
Metals both pure and alloyed, consist of atoms held together
by the delocalized electrons that overcome the mutual repulsion
between the ion cores.
Polymers are macromolecules formed by covalent bonding of
many simpler molecular units called mers.
Ceramics are usually associated with mixed bondinga
combination of covalent, ionic, and sometimes metallic. They
consist of arrays of interconnected atoms.
Semiconductors are the only class of material based on a
property. They are usually defined as having electrical
conductivity between that of a good conductor and an insulator.
Composites are combinations of more than one material or
phase. Ceramics are used in many composites, often for
reinforcement.

Classification of solids
-----solid is dimensionally stable and has a volume of its own.
A) Bonding type
Primary bonds

Secondary bonds

ionic

dipole-dipole

covalent

london dispersion

metallic

hydrogen

van der waals

B) Atomic arrangement
Ordered

Disordered

Atomic arrangement

regular

random

Order

long range

short range

Name

crystalline

amorphous

(crystal)

(glass)

The electronegativity values for the elements.

Metallicity, Size

Metallicity,
Size
mass

lanthanides

actinides

Electronegativity
mass

Electr
onegat
ivity

Definitions:
a)Metallicity can be defined as the tendency of an atom to donate electrons to
metallic or ionic bonds.
-- increases when binding strength between valence electrons
diminishes
-- nuclear charge decreases, binding force decreases with increasing
metallicity
-- valence electron-nuclear separation is greater, binding force
diminishes due to screening of nuclear charge by core electrons
b) Electronegativity the tendency of an atom to attract an electron. According to
Pauling, E is scaled between 0 and 4, specifically Fluorine has 4 as the highest
and Cesium the lowest equals 0.7
c) Size and Mass
-- ions shrink with increasing positive charge and expand with increasing
negative charge
-- mass increases with atomic number

Note: Periodic trends are not absolute.

Classification of the elements

-- metallic elements and metal-metal combinations form metallically bonded solids
-- non-metallic elements and nonmetal-nonmetal combinations are covalently
bonded
-- bonds between metals and nonmetals are either ionic or covalent depending on
the electronegativity difference

Paulings expression for the ionicity fraction of a bond:

f > 0.5 (x > 1.7) , the bonds are predominantly ionic

f < 0.5 (x 1.7) , the bonds are predominantly covalent
For ternary or more complex compounds, the fractional ionicity can
be determined by using stoichiometry weighted averages for the values
of xm and xnm.
After defining the bonding type, the type of atomic structure and properties that the
solid might have can also be inferred.

Knowledge of periodicity allows one to distinguish elements as metals or

nonmetals and to gauge relative electronegativities and sizes.
Based on this, it is possible to assign a bonding type.
From knowledge of the bond type, characteristic structures and properties can be
inferred.

Band gap is the separation in energy, between the highest filled

electron energy level in the crystal and the lowest filled empty electron
energy level.
-- radiation energy Eg will be absorbed by the solid and promote
electrons to higher energy unfilled states.
-- quantitative parameter that influences the appearance of the solid
-- nondefective solids with Eg > 3 transmit all visible light (1.7 to 3 eV.)
and are thus transparent and colorless
-- solids with Eg < 1.8 are opaque
-- solids with 0 < Eg < 1.7 are black

-- band gap increases with ionicity and the compounds with greater
than 50% ionicity should have large band gap and are colorless

Selected properties of three isoelectronic polar-covalent solids

Groups

material

Ionicity (f%) Band gap

(eV)

Tm oC

IV

Ge

0.7

1231

III-V

GaAs

1.4

1510

II -VI

ZnSe

15

2.6

1790

I-VIII

CuBr

18

492

% ionicity increases with increasing bandgap

Simple bonding models and typical properties

a) Metallic bonding model -- assumes that positively charged
ion cores are arranged periodically in a sea of free electrons
(formed by valence electrons)
Group IA and IIA are metals, the S levels are filled (Alkali or
Alkaline earth metals)
B-group or transition metal series d-levels are filled
Lanthanide and actinide series f-levels are filled
Classification of metals
a)Elemental substance (Cu, Ag, Au, Al, Fe, Pb, etc..)
b)Intermetallic compounds (Ni3Al, NiAl, CuZn, cuZn3)
c)Random solid solutions or alloys (AxB1-x, both A and B are
metallic elements)

Typical properties of metallic materials

a)High reflectivity (when polished), high electronic and thermal
conductivity, low to intermediate melting temperatures, high ductility at
temperature less than half of their melting points
b) Intermetallic compounds and refractory metals
-- very high melting points and ductility at room temperature
B) Ionic bond model assumes that charge is transferred from the more
metallic atom to the less metallic atom forming oppositely charged species

F12 = kq1q2/r212
Electronegativity difference > 1.7
Sample materials: salts (NaCl and CaCl2) and ceramics (MgO, ZrO2, TiO2)

Properties: transparent and colourless, electronically and thermally insulating,

intermediate to high melting temperature, brittle at ambient temperature, and
soluble in polar solvents or acids.

Covalent bonding model assumes that electrons are shared between atoms
and that electron charge density accumulates between relatively positively
atomic cores.
Two types of materials
a)3-D covalent networks Si, SiC, GaAs, BN
-- there is a covalently bonded path between any two atoms in solid

Covalently bonded networks

high melting points and nonreflective insulating and brittle
Si3N4 and SiO2

b) Molecular solids or polymeric solids

-- atoms within each molecule are linked by covalent bonds, but the molecules
that make up the crystal are held together only by the weak interactions known
collectively by weak interactions (van der Waals, dipolar, hydrogen bonds)
Not all atoms are connected by a path of strong covalent bonds
Example materials: N2, O2, H2O, C60, polyethylene
Low melting temperatures and transparent, insulating, soft, and soluble

Ketalaars triangle illustrates that there is a continuum of bonding types between

the three limiting cases

The substances listed on the

lateral edges of the triangle are
merely examples chosen based
on periodicity; all materials can
be located on this triangle.

most nearly ideal metallic bond to be Li

CsF and F2 to have the most nearly ideal ionic and covalent bonds,
respectively

Most substances exhibit characteristics associated with more than one

type of bonding and must be classified by a comparison to the limiting
cases.

(c) 2003 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson

Learning

Classification of materials based on the type of atomic order.

Amorphous Materials: Principles

and Technological Applications
Amorphous materials - Materials, including
glasses, that have no long-range order, or
crystal structure.
Glasses - Solid, non-crystalline materials
(typically derived from the molten state) that
have only short-range atomic order.
Glass-ceramics - A family of materials typically
derived from molten inorganic glasses and
processed into crystalline materials with very
fine grain size and improved mechanical
properties.

(The dependence of repulsive,

attractive, and net forces on
interatomic separation for two
isolated atoms.
(The dependence of repulsive,
attractive, and net potential
energies on interatomic
separation for two isolated atoms.

Example problem

Ketelaar's Triangle
Ketelaar's Triangle finds different structure types in different
regions i.e. according to the electronegativities of A and B,
delta X
Van Arkel
Ketelaar

Orbital hybridization in covalent structures

Covalent structures are formed from atoms that have both
s and p valence electrons.
>>>>in effect, those on the righthand side of the periodic
chart with relatively high electronegativities.

The formation of sp hybrid orbitals results in four

equivalent sp3 orbitals directed towards the vertices of a
tetrahedron.
Examples:
>>compounds formed between group III and V atoms,
such as BN, BP, BAs, AlP, AlAs, AlSb, GaP, GaAs, GaSb,
InP, InAs, and InSb, crystallize in the zinc blende
(sphalerite) structure.
>>C (diamond), Si, Ge, and SiC

>>> s and p orbitals

of group V and VI
atoms
>> some of the ligands are
nonbonding lone pairs

a ligand is an atom, ion, or

molecule (see also:
functional group) that binds
to a central metal-atom to
form a coordination
complex

Long range order requires that the atoms are arrayed in 3-D
pattern that repeats.
The simplest way to describe this pattern is through a unit cell
representation.
Unit cell ---is defined as the smallest region in space that,
when repeated, completely describes the 3-D pattern of the
atoms of a crystal

-Only seven unit cell shapes (7 crystal systems) can be

stacked together to fill 3-D space
They are: cubic, tetragonal, orthorhombic, rhombohedral,
hexagonal, monoclinic, and triclinic
*** they are distinguished by length of cell edges and
interaxial angles (total of six parameters)

Definition of the lattice parameters and their use in cubic,

orthorhombic, and hexagonal crystal systems.

(c) 2003 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning

14 Bravais Lattices ( in ball and stick models)

The fourteen
types of Bravais
lattices grouped in
seven crystal
systems.

(c) 2003 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning

Derivations:

a) Cubic F lattice stretched (c/2) along one axis, resulting into lattice identical
to tetragonal I.
b) New lattice vectors rotated 45o with respect to original vector, defining the
tetragonal I.

An orthorhombic C cell is
formed by stretching the
tetragonal P along the face
diagonal.

Distortions of the
orthorhombic lattices
lead to monoclinic
lattices.
The different
shadings indicate
lattice points at b/2.
To preserve a
consistent coordinate
system, the structure
in (c) is labeled as an
A-type cell.

Complete description of crystal structure:

A) Symmetry of the lattice pattern
Bravais lattices 14 possible lattice arrangements that
consider the symmetry within each unit cell.
lattice- can be defined as an indefinitely extending
arrangement of points, each of which is surrounded by an
identical grouping of neighboring points.
B) Location of the atoms on lattice sites
symmetry of the basis
--defined as the atom or grouping of atoms located at
each lattice site.
--- the total number of atomic arrangement increases to
32 point groups

 There are three principle crystal structures

for metals:
(a) Body-centered cubic (BCC)
(b) Face-centered cubic (FCC)
(c) Hexagonal close-packed (HCP)

Face-centered cubic (FCC)

Example 1. Determining the Number of

Lattice Points in Cubic Crystal Systems
Determine the number of lattice points per cell in the cubic
crystal systems. If there is only one atom located at each
lattice point, calculate the number of atoms per unit cell.

Example 1: SOLUTION
In the SC unit cell: lattice point / unit cell = (8 corners)1/8 = 1
In BCC unit cells: lattice point / unit cell
= (8 corners)1/8 + (1 center)(1) = 2
In FCC unit cells: lattice point / unit cell
= (8 corners)1/8 + (6 faces)(1/2) = 4
The number of atoms per unit cell would be 1, 2, and 4, for the
simple cubic, body-centered cubic, and face-centered cubic,
unit cells, respectively.

--volume occupied by atoms/unit cell volume

Example 2
Determining the Relationship between
Atomic Radius and Lattice Parameters
Determine the relationship between the atomic radius
and the lattice parameter in SC, BCC, and FCC structures
when one atom is located at each lattice point.

(c) 2003 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson

Learning

The relationships between the atomic radius and the Lattice

parameter in cubic systems (for Example 2).

Example 2 SOLUTION
Referring to Figure 3.14, we find that atoms touch along
the edge of the cube in SC structures.

a0

2r

In BCC structures, atoms touch along the body diagonal.

There are two atomic radii from the center atom and one
atomic radius from each of the corner atoms on the body
diagonal, so

a0

4r

In FCC structures, atoms touch along the face diagonal

of the cube. There are four atomic radii along this
lengthtwo radii from the face-centered atom and one
radius from each corner, so:

a0

4r

(c) 2003 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson

Learning

Illustration of coordinations in (a) SC and (b) BCC unit cells.

Six atoms touch each atom in SC, while the eight atoms
touch each atom in the BCC unit cell.

Atomic Packing Factor

Calculate the packing factor for the FCC cell.
Example 3: SOLUTION
In a FCC cell, there are four lattice points per cell; if there is one
atom per lattice point, there are also four atoms per cell. The
volume of one atom is 4r3/3 and the volume of the unit cell is
.
3

a0

4 3
(4 atoms/cell )( r )
3
Packing Factor

a03
Since, for FCC unit cells, a 0 4r/
4 3
(4)( r )
3
Packing Factor

3
( 4r / 2 )

18

0.74

Example 4
Determining the Density of BCC Iron
Determine the density of BCC iron, which has a lattice
parameter of 0.2866 nm.
Example 4 SOLUTION
Atoms/cell = 2, a0 = 0.2866 nm = 2.866 10-8 cm
Atomic mass = 55.847 g/mol
3

Volume of unit cell = a0= (2.866 10-8 cm)3 = 23.54 10-24

cm3/cell
Avogadros number NA = 6.02 1023 atoms/mol

(number of atoms/cell)(atomic mass of iron)

Density
(volume of unit cell)(Avogadro' s number)
(2)(55.847)
3

7
.
882
g
/
cm
24
23
(23.54 10 )(6.02 10 )

(a) Illustration
showing sharing of
face and corner
atoms. (b) The
models for simple
cubic (SC), body
centered cubic
(BCC), and facecentered cubic
(FCC) unit cells,
assuming only one
atom per lattice
point.

(c) 2003 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning

Hexagonal close-packed (HCP)

--- 6 atoms
per unit cell

(c) 2003 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson

Learning

The hexagonal close-packed (HCP) structure (left) and its

unit cell.

POINT COORDINATES
-- the position of any point located within a unit cell may be
specified in terms of its coordinates as fractional multiples
of the unit edge lengths (i.e. in terms of a, b, and c)

Example: Specify point coordinates for all atom

positions for a BCC unit cell.

Problem 1:
The cubic unit cell of perovskite, CaTiO3, is drawn
below. What are the atomic coordinates of the
atoms?

A coppergold alloy has a cubic structure.

The atom positions are:

Sketch the unit cell and determine the

formula of the alloy.

CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC DIRECTIONS

Examples illustrating how directions in a crystal are

named.

HCP Crystallographic Directions

z

Algorithm

a2

a3
a1

1. Vector repositioned (if necessary) to pass

through origin.
2. Read off projections in terms of unit
cell dimensions a1, a2, or a3
3. Adjust to smallest integer values
4. Enclose in square brackets, no commas
[u'v'w']
5. Covert to 4 parameter Miller-Bravais

Adapted from Fig. 3.8(a), Callister 7e.

ex:

1, 1, 0

=>

[u'v'w']

=> [ 110 ]

Show that the c/a ratio of the ideal

hexagonal close packed structure is
1.633.

HCP Crystallographic Directions

Hexagonal Crystals
4 parameter Miller-Bravais lattice coordinates are related to
the direction indices (i.e., u'v'w') as follows.

[ u 'v 'w ' ] [ uvtw ]

a2

a3

a1
Fig. 3.8(a), Callister 7e.

t
w

1
(2 u ' - v ' ) =(1/3)(2x1-1)=1/3
3
1
(2 v ' - u ' ) =(1/3)(2x1-1)=1/3
3
- (u +v ) = -(1/3+1/3)= -2/3
=0
w'

Multiplying by 3 to get smallest integers

[ 1120 ]

Crystallographic directions for

HEXAGONAL CRYSTAL

EXAMPLE:

Projections: a(a1 axis), a( a2 axis), and c(z axis) = 1, 1, and 1 respectively

Multiplying the above indices by 3 reduces them to values for u, v,

t, and w of 1, 1, -2 and 3, respectively.
Hence the direction is,

CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC PLANES

Crystallographic Planes
z
example
1. Intercepts
2. Reciprocals
3.

Reduction

4.

Miller Indices

example
1. Intercepts
2. Reciprocals
3.

Reduction

4.

Miller Indices

a
1
1/1
1
1

b
1
1/1
1
1

1/
0
0

(110)
a
1/2
1/
2
1

a
x

b
c

1/ 1/
0
0
0
0

(100)

65

Crystallographic Planes
z
example
1. Intercepts
2. Reciprocals
3.

Reduction

a
1/2
1/
2
6

4.

Miller Indices

(634)

b
1
1/1
1
3

c
3/4
1/
4/3
4

Family of Planes {hkl}

Ex: {100} = (100), (010), (001), (100), (010), (001)

66

Miller Indices (hkl)

reciprocals

Crystallographic Planes
Determine the Miller indices for the plane shown in the
accompanying sketch (a).

Crystallographic Planes
Construct a (011) plane within a cubic unit cell.

Crystallographic Planes
(0 1 1)

_
(1 1 1)

Family of Planes
All planes that are identical are included in 1 family
denoted by { hkl}
Example {111}

(111) and (111) have equivalent

atoms

Crystallographic Planes (HCP)

In hexagonal unit cells the same idea is used
z

example
1. Intercepts
2. Reciprocals

3.

Reduction

a1
1
1
1
1

a2

1/
0
0

a3
-1
-1
-1
-1

c
1
1
1
1

a2

a3

4.

Miller-Bravais Indices

(1011)

a1
Adapted from Fig. 3.8(a), Callister 7e.

74

Crystallographic planes for hexagonal crystal

--using four index (hkil) scheme
--where i= -(h+k)
Intersections:
a1=a, a2=-a, z=c, a3=?
In terms of lattice parameters: 1,-1,1
and their reciprocals are equal. It
follows that h=1, k=-1, l=1.
i= -(1-1)=0
Therefore, the (hkil) indices are:

Atomic linear density

a fraction of line length intersected by atoms

LD= Lc/Ll
For FCC

Atomic planar density

Is simply the fraction of total crystallographic plane area that is occupied
by atoms

PD= Ac/Ap

For FCC

Atomic planar density

Is simply the fraction of total crystallographic plane area that is occupied
by atoms

Example 5 Calculating the Planar Density and Packing

Fraction
Calculate the planar density and planar packing fraction
for the (010) and (020) planes in simple cubic polonium,
which has a lattice parameter of 0.334 nm.
The planer
densities of the
(010) and (020)
planes in SC unit
cells are not
identical (for
Example 3.9).
(c) 2003 Brooks/Cole Publishing /
Thomson Learning

LINEAR & PLANAR

DENSITIES
Linear density (LD) = number of
atoms centered on a direction
vector / length of direction vector
LD (110) = 2 atoms/(4R) = 1/(2R)

Planar density (PD) = number of

atoms centered on a plane / area
of plane
PD (110) = 2 atoms /
[(4R)(2R2)] = 2 atoms / (8R22)
= 1/(4R22)

LD and PD are important

considerations during
deformation and slip; planes
tend to slip or slide along planes
with high PD along directions with
high LD

Example 5 SOLUTION
The total atoms on each face is one. The planar density
is:

atom per face

1 atom per face
Planar density (010)

2
area of face
(0.334)
8.96 atoms/nm 8.96 10 atoms/cm
2

14

The planar packing fraction is given by:

area of atoms per face

(1 atom) (r )
Packing fraction (010)

2
area of face
(a 0)
2

r 2
( 2r )

0.79

However, no atoms are centered on the (020) planes.

Therefore, the planar density and the planar packing fraction
are both zero. The (010) and (020) planes are not
equivalent!

ATOMIC PACKING FACTOR:

APF for a face-centered
cubic structure = 0.74
FCC
Metals have relatively large atomic packing factors

Close-packed directions (diagonal):

length = 4R
a = 2R 2
Unit cell contains
4 atoms/unit cell

4R
a
Adapted from
Fig. 3.1(a),

Callister 6e.

R
atoms
4
unit cell
APF =

4
3
16

R3

R3
2

= 0.74

volume
atom
volume
unit cell
10

X-ray Diffraction: Determination of Crystal Structures

-- using diffraction of x-ray, atomic interplanar distances and
crystal structures are deduced

The Diffraction Phenomenon

**Diffraction occurs when a wave encounters a series of
regularly spaced obstacles:
(1)are capable of scattering the wave
(2)have spacing that are comparable in magnitude to the
wavelength
---Diffraction is a consequence of specific phase relationships
established between two or more waves that have been
scattered by the obstacles.

-- scattered waves reinforcing one another

-- phase relationship depends upon a
difference in path length
-- difference is integral number of wavelength

-- amplitudes cancel or annul one

another or destructively interfere

Demonstration of how two waves that have the same wavelength and remain in
phase and out of phase after scattering event

Diffraction of xrays by a
periodic
arrangement of
atoms

Same (hkl)

--- Braggs Law

if this is not satisfied, the interference will be nonconstructive and yields very
low-intensity diffracted beam.
-- n is order of reflection defining any integer (1,2,3)

Interplanar spacing -- distance between two adjacent and

parallel planes of atoms, which is a function of Miller indices
(hkl) as well as the lattice parameters.
For cubic symmetry:

Diffraction will occur for unit cells having atoms positioned only at cell
corners
Scattering centers that cause of out-of-phase scattering at certain
Bragg angles

--------- face and interior unit cell positions as with FCC and BCC
resulting into absence of beams or peaks-----Condition for diffraction:
For BCC, h+k+l must be even, and FCC, the h, k, and l must all be
either odd or even

Photograph of a XRD
diffractometer. (Courtesy of
H&M Analytical Services.)

Schematic diagram of an x-ray

diffractometer;
T=x-ray source, S=specimen,
C=detector, and O=the axis around
which the specimen and detector rotate

(c) 2003 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning

Diffraction pattern for powdered lead.

The first 20 positive integers and the corresponding hkl triplets in the primitive (P),
body-centered (I) and face-centered (F) cubic lattices.

Cubic Crystals (Indexing the

Patterns)
sin2

Line
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

2
4a

k2 l2 :

sin2
0.140
0.185
0.369
0.503
0.548
0.726
0.861
0.905

(h2

k2 l2

Simple cubic:
Body-centered cubic:
Face-centered cubic:
Diamond cubic:
Simple cubic
+ k2 + l2)
2
1
2
3
4
5
6
8
9

4a 2
0.140
0.093
0.123
0.126
0.110
0.121
0.108
0.101

a lattice parameter

(h2

1,
2,
3,
3,

k2
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16

2,
4,
4,
8,

3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, etc.

6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, . . .
8, 11, 12, 16, 19, 20, . . .
11, 16, 19, 24, 27, 32, . . .

bcc
+ l2 )

4a 2
0.070
0.046
0.062
0.063
0.055
0.061
0.062
0.057

(h2

k2
3
4
8
11
12
16
19
20

fcc
+ l2) 2
4a 2
0.0467
0.0463
0.0461
0.0457
0.0457
0.0454
0.0453
0.0453

a()

hkl

3.57
3.59
3.59
3.61
3.61
3.62
3.62
3.62

111
200
220
311
222
400
331
420

Classroom quiz

Example 6
Examining X-ray Diffraction
The results of a x-ray diffraction experiment using xrays with = 0.7107 (a radiation obtained from
molybdenum (Mo) target) show that diffracted peaks
occur at the following 2 angles:

Determine the crystal structure, the indices of

the plane producing each peak, and the lattice
parameter of the material.

Example 6 SOLUTION
We can first determine the sin2 value for each peak,
then divide through by the lowest denominator, 0.0308.

Example 6 SOLUTION (Continued)

We could then use 2 values for any of the peaks to
calculate the interplanar spacing and thus the lattice
parameter. Picking peak 8:
2 = 59.42 or = 29.71

d 400

0.7107

0.71699
2 sin
2 sin(29.71)

a 0 d 400 h k l
2

(0.71699)(4) 2.868

This is the lattice parameter for body-centered cubic iron.

(c) 2003 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning

Figure 3.51 Planes in a cubic unit cell for Problem 3.54.

(c) 2003 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning

Figure 3.50 Planes in a cubic unit cell for Problem 3.53.

(c) 2003 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning

Figure 3.49
Directions in a cubic
unit cell for Problem
3.52.

(c) 2003 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning

[ u 'v 'w ' ] [ uvtw ]

1
(2 u ' - v ' )
3
1

v
(2 v ' - u ' )
3
t - (u + v )

w w'
Figure 3.53 Directions
in a hexagonal lattice
for Problem 3.56.

(c) 2003 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning

Figure 3.52
Directions in a
hexagonal lattice for
Problem 3.55.

(c) 2003 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning

Figure 3.54 Planes in a

hexagonal lattice for
Problem 3.57.

(c) 2003 Brooks/Cole Publishing / Thomson Learning

Figure 3.55 Planes in a

hexagonal lattice for
Problem 3.58.