Communication

Course Objectives:
1. Define the term communication.
2. Explain the different types of communication:

verbal and nonverbal

communication; formal informal communication.

3. Explain in detail the category of nonverbal communication with its
subcategories.
4. Present and explain the term paralanguage.
5. Offer details about formal and informal communication.
6. Communication styles: passive; aggressive, passive-aggressive and assertive.

How can we define communication?

Along the years, many specialists thrived to define the term, and that is why we are
now coping with a huge bibliography in the field, which we are trying to synthesize, coming
up with the most relevant an important points of view.
Ronald B. Adler and George Rodman, in their study Understanding Human
Communication state that communication refers to the process of human beings
responding to the () symbolic behavior of other persons.1
In fact, communication is a process that involves exchange of the flow of
information, thoughts, ideas and emotions, involving a sender who encodes and sends the
message, which is then carried via the communication channel to the receiver where the
receiver decodes the message, processes the information and sends an appropriate reply
via the same communication channel.

The channel of communication represents the means by which communication is sent,

and it can be either written (written message, presentation, email, memo, fax, etc) or oral, in
face-to-face conversations between people. Marshal McLuhan supports the idea that the
medium is the message.

Ronald B.Adler and George Rodman, Understanding Human Communications, 2nd ed. (New York: Holt,
Rinehart&Winston, 1985), p.4.

Other specialists, like Norman Sigband supports the idea that a definition of the term
communication does not exist, because it involves too many elements from function to
structure that it would simply impose some restrictions to the term.2

Types of Communication
Depending on the channels used and the style, we can talk about various types of
communication. The message can be sent through verbal communication (with the words),
a second possibility would be through non-verbal communication (which uses body
language, facial expressions and visuals diagrams or pictures), while the third possibility is
through paralanguage (voice, rhythm, tone, stress, break).

Types of Communication Based on Communication Channels

Based on the channels used for communicating, the process of communication can be
broadly classified as:
verbal communication:

a) written
b) oral

non-verbal communication: includes body language, facial expressions and visuals

diagrams or pictures used for communication.

Verbal Communication
At the basis of communication we can position the interaction between people.
Verbal communication is probably one of the most important tools, as it helps in face-to-face
communication. It has some key components, such as language, speaking, words and
sounds.
Verbal communication is further divided into written communication and oral
communication. The oral communication refers to the spoken words in the communication
process. But words alone cannot have meaning, instead, people put meaning into words,
language develops and as a result speaking appears. Nowadays in the world we can speak
about 3,000 languages and dialects, and the developments and improvements reflect
important factors such as: age, gender, group or social factors which influence daily life.
Scientists consider that nowadays we can talk about two important areas of
speaking: interpersonal and public speaking. We must learn how to communicate with
other people, to be able to interact in an efficient way, so that it can become an interpersonal

Norman B. Singband, Communication for Management and Business, 3rd edition, (Glenview, III: Scott,
Foresman, 1982).

process. That is why etiquette is very important, especially if we take into consideration the
fact that we are referring to business communication.
Oral communication can either be face-to-face communication or a conversation over
the phone or on the voice chat over the Internet. Spoken conversations or dialogs are
influenced by voice modulation, pitch, volume and even the speed and clarity of speaking.
The other type of verbal communication is written communication. Written
communication can be either via snail mail, or email. The effectiveness of written
communication depends on the style of writing, vocabulary used, grammar, clarity and
precision of language.
The category of written communication will be presented in detail in the second
course, where we will draw a clear comparison between oral and written communication,
offer examples, clues and detailed information on the topic.
Nonverbal Communication
Nonverbal communication represents that part of interpersonal relationships without
any specific training or specialization. It is acquired daily, through personal experience. In
fact, Level A. Dale and Galle P. William, in their study, support the idea that This lack of
training and awareness is one of the major distinctions between verbal and nonverbal
communication. If we are to be optimally effective in a managerial setting, we need to
complement our language skills with a grasp of what nonverbal communication is and how to
use it.3
Non-verbal communication refers to the overall body language of the person who is
speaking, which will include the body posture, the hand gestures, and overall body
movements. Facial expressions also play a major role because the expressions on a
persons face can say a lot about a persons mood, at a certain time.
Albert Mehrabian, in his study Nonverbal Communication, supports a very interesting
point of view, according to which the total impact of a message is represented by the
equation:
Impact = 0.07 verbal + 0.38 vocal +0.55 facial/body4

This equation suggests the idea that only 7% of the message is in fact verbal, the
other 93% being represented by body language, facial expressions and vocal elements.
The most important disadvantage of nonverbal communication is that it is more
limited than verbal communication, being a reflection of the senders state, feelings, likes

3
4

Level A. Dale& P. William Galle, Managerial Communication, Homewood, Illinois, 1988, p.58.
Albert Mehrabian, Nonverbal Communication, (New York: Aldine and Atherton, 1972), p. 21-22.

and dislikes. Brown and Keller, in their study, suggest the fact that nonverbal communication
supplements the verbal5 and can help answer a set of questions, such as:
What can I say about the person in front of me?
How can this conversation help us build a relationship?
What should I understand from his words?
The American specialist Mark Knapp, in his study, supports a very interesting idea
about the fact that nonverbal communication should not be studied isolated, coming up with
a set of functions.6
Nonverbal communication helps add emphasis to the verbal message, contradict, by
signaling the opposite of the verbal, can substitute, which means that it can replace the
verbal message; it can complement, by adding nonverbal values to the verbal message, and
finally, it can regulate, by keeping under control the flow of information.
1. Accenting when we communicate exact data we need an emotional response to
the information given.
For example, if a manager informs a group of employees that they will be fired, the
respective people have two possibilities: either express their anger verbally, and try
to state their case, scream, shout and verbalize a lot, or they simply accept the
situation, being aware of the fact that it was an error they made that determined the
manager to take this decision. In this case they fail to verbalize their emotions,
because at this moment words seem useless.
2. Contradicting it is known the fact that social relationships and human interaction
does not allow public expression of a certain set of emotions.
For example, if a racist person is obliged to talk to a black person in public, for sure
he will be able to disguise his inner feelings, be polite, respond adequately, smile,
shake hands, etc, but we have to be aware of the fact that the external message may
not be the most accurate and sincere all the time.
Keltner mentions in his study that when information communicated through the
nonverbal channels contradicts information communicated through the verbal

Charles Brown and P.Keller, Monologue to Dialogue, (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1973), p.97.
Mark Knapp, Nonverbal Communication in Human Interaction (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1972,
p. 21.
6

channels, the nonverbally communicated information seems to predominate in the

interpretation of the person receiving the two sets of information.7
3. Substituting it is known the fact that nowadays we are using nonverbal language
even more than verbal, for example in meetings, interviews, and boss-employee
relationships.
The way we present ourselves in front of the subordinates, how we can manage a
conflict, how we can control or not the body language can play an important role in
our managerial skills. That is why many people nowadays are extremely interested in
body language and there appeared a whole specialized literature in this respect.
4. Complementing it means that body language can make the communication more
efficient. For example, when you offer somebody instructions in the street, you will
also show the person to take first to the left, then to the right, and finally to walk
straight for 800 m. It also refers to the fact that small children show their love towards
parents by hugging them, although they do not have yet the necessary vocabulary.
5. Regulating we can nonverbally interrupt a flow of communication or we can
encourage a person to continue speaking because we are really interested in what
he says. All these can be done nonverbally, through our mimic, a sign or a hand
gesture, etc.

Categories of nonverbal communication

Researchers have developed different types of nonverbal communication, as follows:
Reusch and Kees speak about: Sign language; Action language; Object language.8
Hayes refers to: kinesics; paralanguage and proxemics9, while Goldhaber, comes
with a third division: body, voice and environment.10
As we can observe from the bibliography, these are points of view issued especially
in the 70s, a time when the communication science started being developed, and the most
fruitful studies were published.
The body the so called kinesics or action category represents the research into the
communication science by means of the body motions.

John Keltner, Interpersonal Speech Communication (Belmont, Calif. Wadsworth Publishing, 1970), p.112.
J. Ruesch and W. Kees, Nonverbal Communication, L.A.: University of California Press, 1956.
9
M. Hayes, Nonverbal Communication: Expression without Words in Readings in Interpersonal and
Organizational Communication, R. Huseman, C. Logue and D. Freshley (Boston: Holbrook Press, 1973),
10
G. Goldhaber, Organizational Communications (Dubuque, Iowa: William C. Brown, 1974).
8

Ekman and Friesen have come up with a classification of the body language into 5
categories11:
1. Emblems gestures with a pre-understood meaning: for example the sign of victory

2. Illustrators body movements that make the message more suggestive. For
example, a person might speak about and object and describe it with the hands or
fingers, so that the presentation could be more suggestive.
3. Affect displays facial motions which help reveal parts of the emotional state of the
speaker. We can offer as an example, the smiley face of an employee who has just
been promoted, or the happiness of a baby when receiving a gift. Emotions cannot
be controlled, that is why affect displays are extremely difficult to define and explain.
It is said that sometimes face can say more about a person than words, so we cannot
hide our feelings, because face will betray us.
4. Regulators head or eye movements, that can help control the conversation. For
example, by nodding we show interest in the conversation and approval of what the
other part has to say.
5. Adaptors subconscious movements that allow us to adjust emotionally to the
interpersonal climate in a given situation12. In this category we may include: a te
scratching your head, a te freca la nas, a te trage de nas, scratching a certain part of
the body, a face miscari necontrolate cu degetele, etc. Sometimes they seem

11

Paul Ekman and W. Friesen,The Repertoire of Nonverbal Behavior: Categories, Origins, Usage and
Coding, Semiotics I, (1969), p.63-93.
12 12
Level A. Dale&Galle P. William, Manageria Communication, Homewood, Illinois, 1988, p.66.

nervous ticks, but in fact they reveal a certain emotional state of a person, in a
stressful situation, or during an uncomfortable conversation.
The environment also known as the category of proxemics, according to Hayes
classification. We will discuss issues such as space, the so called vital space, customs
and clothing.
Edward Hall, refers to space by offering a classification into three categories:
1. Featured fixed space building interior;
2. Semifixed feature space that can be rearranged by moving furniture;
3. Informal space13.
Hall also takes into consideration the space zones or vital space that a person
needs in life. He considers that, when communicating, people need:
-

an intimate zone up to 45 cm.

a personal zone from 45 cm to 1, 2 m.

social space 1.2 m to 3.6 m.

public space more than 3.6 m.

When people do not take into consideration these space limits they tend to be

nervous, disagreeable or embarrassed and the communication channel is closed.

Clothing is extremely important for nonverbal communication, because it sends an

interesting message, especially if we think of women. John Molloy considers that we have
three reasons for using clothes: to protect, to obey the laws of modesty and finally to
achieve a certain status by looking good in front of other people. It is very interesting to
discuss the case of clothing for the Romanian society, where things are a little different from
the Western societies.
Case study: Romanians behavior towards clothing
Romanians have the tendency of showing off. For them clothing has a value which
goes beyond protection, but reveals a certain status that the person has in the society. From
a psychological point of view, this is the result of the long period of restrictions, when people
were not allowed, didnt have the access or simply had no money to buy certain things. For
the Romanians clothing is like a mirror of their social status. That is why sometimes people
would prefer to buy a new pair of branded shoes instead of buying something necessary at
home, because they would say: Nobody is going to see that I dont have a carpet, but

13

Edward Hall, The Hidden Dimension (Garden City, N.Y.:Doubleday Publishing, 1966).

probably my colleagues will observe my new pair of shoes. With dress we can reflect
image, mood, identity, power, wealth and authority14.
M. L. Rosencranz researched this matter and came up with the idea that we can
draw a strong relationship between womens consciousness of clothing and their social
status, level of education or intelligence15. Dressing code can help a person impose his/her
point of view or respect easier. That is why companies, and specially those where people
work at front desk, in direct contact with the public, impose a dressing code, showing respect
towards clients, and imposing a certain limit of respect between clients and employees. On
the other hand, the so called Casual Fridays, can help strengthen relationships between
people at work, giving them a chance to interact in a less formal way, but obviously this rule
does not apply to people working directly with the public.
Voice Paralanguage refers more to the way we utter things, than to what we say. G. L.
Trager developed four categories of the paralanguage, as follows:
a) voice qualities: pitch, rhythm, volume and tempo according to Davitz, a lowpitched voice indicates liking, while the high-pitch voice is an indictment of anger and
nervosity. Moderate pitch, rhythm and volume indicate frustration and disinterest16.
b) vocal characteristics: grunts, coughs, yawns, laughs, etc.c) vocal quantifiers: variations in volume and tone
d) vocal isolators: pauses and non-fluencies silence can speak as loudly as
words17.
Gestures, like a handshake, a smile or a hug can independently convey emotions.
Non verbal communication can also be in the form of pictorial representations,
signboards, or even photographs, sketches and paintings.
Other specialists, during the last period of time have found different other categories,
subcategorizing the classification produced by Reusch and Kees or Hayes. Now we can also
talk about:

14

Haptics Touch

Oculesics Eye contact

Chronemics Use of time, waiting, pausing

Olfactics Smell

Vocalics Tone of voice, timbre, volume, speed

Ibid. P.72
M. L. Rosencranz, Clothing Symbolism, Journal of Home Economics, 54, no. 12 (1962).
16
J. R. Davitz adn L. Davitz, Nonverbal Vocal Communication of Feeling Journal of Communication11, no. 1
(1961), pp. 81-86.
17
Ibid. p. 74.
15

Sound symbols Grunting, mmm, er, ah, uh-huh, mumbling

Silence Pausing, waiting, secrecy

Posture Position of the body, stance

Adornment Clothing, jewellery, hairstyle

Locomotion Walking, running, staggering, limping

Obviously of the above mentioned categories we should take into consideration

mostly body language, eye contact and posture which are the most important in
understanding cultural differences as well as conveying meaning.

Based on the style of communication, there can be two broad categories of

communication, which are formal and informal communication, having their own set of
characteristic features.
Formal Communication
Formal communication includes all the instances where communication has to occur
in a pre-established formal format. Typically this can include all sorts of business
communication or corporate communication. The style of communication in this form is
extremely formal and official.
Official conferences, meetings, written memos and corporate letters are used for
communication. We can also mention instruction manuals, procedures books, memoranda,
official meeting presentations, reports, etc. Formal communication can also occur between
two strangers when they meet for the first time. Hence formal communication is
straightforward, official and always precise and has a stringent and rigid tone to it.
One of the most important advantages of formal communication is that it can help set
hierarchical responsibility in an organization, as well as maintaining authority relationships in
an enterprise, but it is extremely time consuming, and that is why modern managers are
trying to avoid it as much as possible.
Informal Communication
Informal communication includes instances of free unrestrained communication
between people who share a casual rapport with each other. Informal communication
requires two people to have a similar wavelength and as a consequence it occurs between
friends and family. Informal communication does not have any rigid rules and guidelines, and
is built around the social relationships of members of an organization. Informal conversations
need not necessarily have boundaries of time, place or even subjects for that matter since
we all know that friendly chats with our loved ones can simply go on and on. At the same

time we no longer have that rigid framework of formality, arising due to personal needs of the
members of an organization to communicate efficiently and extremely fast. One of the main
disadvantages of informal communication is that we cannot establish accurately the level of
responsibility, as it is mostly in an oral form.

Communication styles: passive; aggressive, passive-aggressive and assertive.

Interpersonal communication can help us build and strengthen relationships with

other people, which is one of the most important tools in todays management. Efficiency in
communication depends on the way we utter words, more exactly, on the style. The style of
communication should be adequate to the situation, context and even communication
channel.
Todays manager should take into consideration different business contexts, set a list
of objectives he wants to achieve, and depending on the style of communication, he can
show flexibility, understanding, aggressiveness, etc.
According to N. R. F. Maier, we can speak about four styles of communication:
1. The blaming style
2. Information coordination
3. Determination; (convingere)
4. Problem resolution18.
It is important to understand how your communication style is interpreted by others to
avoid miscommunication and misunderstandings. The goal is to communicate with assertion
and avoid an aggressive, passive-aggressive or passive style of communication. The latest
developments in the field of communication have revealed a new classification of the
communication styles, as follows: passive, assertive, aggressive and passive aggressive
style of communication.
Christopher L. Heffner came with a very interesting chart, containing relevant
information on the four styles of communication.
Communication Styles by Christopher L. Heffner, M.S.

Definition

18

Passive

Assertive

Aggressive

Communication style in
which you put the rights
of others before your
own, minimizing your
own self worth

Communication style in
which you stand up for
your rights while
maintaining respect for
the rights of others

Communication style
in which you stand up
for your rights but you
violate the rights of
others

N. R. F. Maier, Supervisory and Executive Development, John Wiley&Sons, N.Y., 1989.

my feelings are not

Implications to important
Others
I don't matter
I think I'm inferior
Verbal Styles

Non-Verbal
Styles

apologetic
overly soft or tentative
voice

we are both important

we both matter
I think we are equal

your feelings are not

important
you don't matter
I think I'm superior

I statements
firm voice

you statements
loud voice

staring, narrow eyes

looking down or away
looking direct
tense, clenched fists,
stooped posture,
relaxed posture, smooth
rigid posture, pointing
excessive head nodding and relaxed movements
fingers

lowered self esteem

anger at self
Potential
false feelings of
Consequences inferiority
disrespect from others
pitied by others

higher self esteem

self respect
respect from others
respect of others

guilt
anger from others
lowered self esteem
disrespect from others
feared by others

Aggressive Communication
Aggressive communication always involves manipulation. Managers using this style
of communication will try to determine people to do whatever they induce them to do, by
intimidating them and using anger as a control tactics. Do it right now or I will fire you!
Although certain sports play the aggressiveness rules (boxing, K1, judo, etc), this style will
never be able to create an efficient working environment.
Those that use the aggressive style usually:

Make decisions for others.

Cannot be dishonest.

They are usually direct and forceful.

They will participate in a win-lose situation only if they are sure they catch the win
position.

They have a personal way of demanding things.

They consider themselves righteous, superior, controlling later possibly feeling

guilt.

Others feel humiliated, defensive, and resentful and hurt around them, but they will
always be perceived as angry, vengeful, distrustful and fearful.

The outcome is usually that the goal is achieved at the expense of others.
Passive Communication
Passive communication is based on compliance and hopes to avoid confrontation at

all costs. In this mode we don't talk much, question even less, and actually do very little.

Passives have learned that it is safer not to react and better to disappear than to stand up
and be noticed.

They allow others to choose and make decisions for them. That is why they do not
make very good managers.

They are emotionally dishonest; indirect and self denying, inhibited and solve
problems only accidentally.

They feel anxious, ignored, helpless, manipulated, and angry at themselves and/or
others.

The outcome is that others achieve their goals at the expense of the passive
communicator.
Passive-Aggressive Communication
Is a combination of styles, passive-aggressive avoids direct confrontation (passive),

but attempts to get even through manipulation (aggressive). This style of communication
often leads to office politics and rumor-mongering.

The passive-aggressive communicator has the ability to manipulate masses.

They appear honest; tend towards indirectness with the air of being direct.

They are self-enhancing but not straight forward about it.

In win-lose situations they will make the opponent look bad.

Passive aggressive communication is the term used to describe communication and

behavior that is:

indirect
contains messages that are driven by negative emotions, and are intended to
attack someone.
Passive aggressive communication is not limited to simple words. Non-verbal
behavior, such as sighing, rolling of eyes, and even things like hammering on the table are
passive aggressive because they are indirect ways of expressing anger and aggression.
Assertive Communication

Is the most efficient form of communication, as it is the natural way we should

express ourselves, when self-esteem is not affected, confidence is extremely strong and the
channel of communication is not affected by manipulative tactics.

Assertiveness is the ability to express opinions, feelings and attitudes in an honest

way.

Assertive people work hard and try to please the others, satisfying their needs and
wants, but on mutual grounds. They always try to position themselves on a win/win
situation, knowing their limits, but very interesting is the fact that assertiveness is the
style that people use least in a working environment.

Directness, willingness to compromise, self-respect and confidence, are only a few

of the good points of the assertive type of communicator.

The outcome is determined by above-board negotiation, peoples rights being

respected, and decisions being taken in an efficient way.

Examples of assertive communication:

So what youre saying is. . . .
I can see that this is important to you, and it is also important to me. Perhaps we
can talk more respectfully and try to solve the problem.
I think. . . I feel. . . I believe that. . . .
I would appreciate it if you. . .