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Reliability evaluation of distribution systems

considering optimal restoration sequence and


variable restoration times
P. Wang and W. Li
Abstract: Switching sequence, available restoration resources and customer reliability requirements have an important impact on customer interruption times in distribution system failure restoration. An optimal restoration sequence based on the minimum interruption cost of customers has
been proposed and incorporated in the reliability evaluation of distribution systems. A faulttraversal algorithm has been used to dynamically trace the affected areas of failure events and
the switches involved for the failure isolation and supply restoration. Multi-state models for
sequential, parallel and hybrid switching processes have been proposed to determine variable restoration times of different load points. A test distribution system is used to illustrate the technique.

Introduction

Restoration time is a very important parameter in the


reliability evaluation of distribution systems. For a distribution system, which consists of a wide variety of components connected in a complex configuration and
operating in different modes, supply restoration is a quite
complicated process that involves fault isolation, switch
allocation, decision-making, switching and repairing
actions. Restoration time for each individual load point
depends not only on the physical systems such as system
configuration, the types and locations of switches and
alternative supplies, but also on the speed of decisionmaking for restoration, available manpower for the restoration and customer reliability requirement. Therefore restoration times for different load points can be quite
different for a particular failure. The techniques used for
the service restoration have been investigated and
implemented in distribution system operation [1 4]. The
main focus of these techniques is to optimise the restoration
sequence to reduce restoration times. However, these restoration techniques have seldom been implemented in the
reliability evaluation of distribution systems. Most conventional techniques [5 7] for the reliability evaluation of distribution systems are based on the minimum cut set
approach, the failure mode and effect analysis and the
network-equivalent technique [7]. In these techniques, the
fixed switching time, repair time or replacement time are
used to approximately determine failure duration of each
load point without considering switching sequences. The
impact of the two-stage service restoration on distribution
system reliability is considered in [8]. In [9], all load
points are divided into limited classes, and the fixed restoration time for a given class is used in reliability evaluation.
# The Institution of Engineering and Technology 2007
doi:10.1049/iet-gtd:20060451
Paper first received 28th October 2006 and in revised form 18th January 2007
P. Wang is with the Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 639798,
Singapore
W. Li is with the Harbin Institute of Technology (HIT), Harbin 150001, China
E-mail: epwang@ntu.edu.sg

688

However, restoration times for customers in a practical


distribution system depend on many factors and sometimes
cannot be presented by the limited classes. Decision-making
process, available manpower for switching and customer
reliability requirements have not been considered in these
techniques. The optimal switching sequence based on customer willingness to pay for the reliability also has not been
considered.
This paper proposes a generalised technique for
reliability evaluation of distribution systems to incorporate
the optimal restoration sequence. A fault-traversal technique [9], including parent-search, offspring-search and
breadth-first-search, is applied to dynamically trace the
affected area, downstream and upstream switches. The
multi-state models have been proposed to determine the
times for the service restorations with sequential, parallel
and hybrid switching. The parallel, sequential and hybrid
restoration processes may involve single and multiple
switching actions. Customer reliability requirements in
terms of customer interruption costs are considered in the
determination of restoration sequence. An optimal restoration sequence of the affected areas based on the degree
of system automation, available manpower and customer
reliability requirements has been incorporated in the
reliability evaluation technique. Restoration times of different load points are determined based on the optimal restoration sequence and multi-state models for the restoration.
The network capacity constraints after system reconfiguration are also considered using an improved ac power flow
technique. A test distribution system is analysed to illustrate
the technique.
2

Restoration processes and models

Switching/repairing models [5] used in existing techniques


for the reliability evaluation of distribution systems and
switch stations are usually the two-state model as shown
in Fig. 1 or the three-state model as shown in Fig. 2. In
these figures, O, S and R represent operating, switching
and repairing states, respectively, and l, m and ls are component failure rate, repair (or replacement) rate and switching rate, respectively. These models are approximate
IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., 2007, 1, (4), pp. 688 695

Fig. 1 Two-state repairing model

because the complicated switching actions are either


ignored as shown in Fig. 1 or are simply presented using
a single switching state S as shown in Fig. 2.
However, when a failure occurs in a distribution system,
the system usually experiences a series of processes of fault
isolation, determination of affected area, switch allocation,
decision-making for the service restoration, switching and
repairing/replacing actions [9]. Restoration times for load
points after a failure may be different due to the failure
location, the number and type of switches involved, and
the available manpower for the restoration and the switching sequences. Some load points can be restored using automatic switching actions, whereas some may require manual
switching actions and others may wait until the failure component is repaired or replaced by spare element. Some load
points may require more switching actions than others,
which depends on the system configuration and the fault
location. The speeds of switching and repairing actions
depend on the degree of system automation and available
switching resources. Even for the same customer, the interruption time changes with the location of the failure. The
processes involved in the restoration are usually classified
into the followings.

the failed components and the service restoration to the


affected load points through network reconfigurations. The
speed of switching process depends on the number of
switches involved, the types and locations of these switches,
available resources to open or close the switches and the
switching sequences such as parallel, sequential and the
combination of both. Therefore the total switching time
for different load point may be different.
For a sequential switching, the total switching time is the
summation of switching times of all switches involved
X
TSs
TSk
(1)
k[N

where TSk is the switching time for switch k and N the set of
switches involved in switching actions.
For a parallel switching, the total switching time is the
longest one of all the switching times
TSp max(TS1 , TS2 , . . . , TSN )

For the combination of parallel and sequential switching,


the total switching time is
TSh TSs TSp

Fault isolation process

When a failure occurs, the associated protection equipment


in the protection zone will operate to interrupt all load
points affected. The duration (Ti) of this process is very
short and can be ignored in the total restoration time.
2.2

Decision-making process

After a fault, the related fault information and system configuration data are collected and analysed to find the
location of the fault and to determine the affected area
and the available switches for the restoration. The load
flow analysis is performed after the reconfiguration, and
the optimal restoration sequence is determined based on
available restoration resources and customer reliability
requirements using the optimisation technique. The duration of decision-making (Td) depends on the software
used and the complexity of the failure.
2.3

Switching actions

Switching process involves various switching actions.


These switching actions usually include the isolation of

Fig. 2 Three-state switching and repairing model


IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., Vol. 1, No. 4, July 2007

(3)

It can be seen from the analysis that switching time varies


with the switches involved and switching sequences used
and cannot be presented using the limited values for the
fixed classes [9].
2.4

2.1

(2)

Repairing and replacing process

The repair time Tr usually depends on the type of the failed


component and the available repairing resource. Different
components may require different repair times. Repair
time for a component may also be different for different failures. In reliability evaluation, the average repair time is
used for each component. Repair time for a component is
longer than its switching or replacing time. Therefore the
failed component, sometimes, is replaced using spare component. It is assumed, in this paper, that the repairing or
replacement follows the switching process.
2.5

Restoration models

Considering the processes involved, multi-state models for


the service restoration of a load point have been developed
for parallel, sequential and hybrid switching. The multistate model for the service restoration of a load point with
sequential switching action is shown in Fig. 3.
Fi and D in the figure are the fault isolation and decisionmaking states, respectively. Si is the state for switching
action i. N is the number of switches involved in the switching actions. lsk 1/Tsk , li 1/Ti , l 1/T, ld 1/Td
and m 1/Tr are the switching rate, fault isolating rate,
failure rate, the rate of decision-making for the restoration

Fig. 3 Multi-state model with sequential switching


689

the total restoration times after failure event h will not


include Thr .
2.6

Fig. 4

Multi-state model with parallel switching

and repair & replacement rate, respectively. The sequential


switching is usually used in distribution systems with
manual switches and limited restoration manpower for
manual switching. The total restoration time for load
point j after failure event h for sequential switching
actions is
X
Thj Thi Thd Thr
TSk
(4)
k[Nhj

where Nhj is the number of switches involved in the switching actions.


Fig. 4 shows the multi-state model for the service restoration with parallel switching actions. In a practical distribution system, the parallel switching can be implemented
in the area with the automated switches and sufficient manpower for manual switching. For the manual switching, the
parallel switching means that the repairing teams are sent to
the switch locations simultaneously.
The switching time in this case is mainly the time used
for the manpower to reach the switch locations. The total
restoration time for load point j after failure event h for parallel switching actions is
Thj Thi Thd Thr max{TS1 , TS2 , . . . , TSN }

(5)

hj

Fig. 5 shows the multi-state model with hybrid (sequential/parallel) switching actions. The total restoration time
for load point j after failure event h for the hybrid switching
actions is
X
Thj Thi Thd Thr
TSk max{TS1 , TS2 , . . . , TSN }
k[Nhj

Optimal switching sequence

Switching sequence depends on the degree of system automation and available manpower for the manual switches. In
a deregulated power system, the reliability for a customer
also depends on its willingness to pay. Some customers
may want to pay more for a high reliability and others
may want to pay less for a low reliability. Customer
reliability requirements can also be incorporated in the
determination of the switching sequence. There may be
many restoration sequences after considering these
factors. Therefore the optimal switching sequence has to
be determined based on available switching resources and
customer reliability requirements. This will be discussed
in the following section.
3

Determination of variable restoration times

From the above discussions, the determination of restoration times for different load points is a very complicated
procedure which includes the following steps:
1. to determine the affected area and load points,
2. to identify the repair sub-area, upstream sub-areas,
downstream sub-areas and the switches involved in each
sub-area,
3. to determine the optimal switching sequence for the restoration and
4. to calculate the restoration time for each load point based
on the optimal switching sequence and the processes
involved.
The procedure for determining the variable restoration
times of load points in the reliability evaluation of distribution systems can be illustrated using a small complex distribution system shown in Fig. 6.
Assume that disconnect switches S1 S11 are normally
closed, tie-switches K1 K3 are normally opened, S1 is an
automated switch and the remaining switches are manually
operated. Manpower can only be used to do parallel switching involving two switches in this example.
3.1

Affected areas and load points

hj

(6)

The affected load points after a failure can be determined


based on the system configuration and protection scheme
using the parent-search technique. When a failure occurs
in a distribution system, upstream protection devices will

It should be noticed that all the multi-state models


include the repairing/replacing process. For the load
points that do not involve the repairing/replacing process,

Fig. 5
690

Multi-state model with sequential/parallel switching

Fig. 6 Radial distribution network with different sub-areas


IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., Vol. 1, No. 4, July 2007

operate to clear the fault. In this technique, the search starts


from the parent node of the failed component, and the
upstream component connected to the parent node is
searched and examined. If the component is a breaker, the
search stops. If the component is not a breaker, the upstream
search continues until a breaker is found. The downstream
load points interrupted by the first upstream breaker will
suffer a failure and they are the affected load points. The
search procedure can be explained using the distribution
system shown in Fig. 6. If a failure occurs in feeder 15
between nodes 15 and 16, the parent node is 15. The
upstream component connected to node 15 is searched
and examined. Because the component is a feeder, the
search continues to find its parent node which is node 14.
The search stops when the first upstream breaker B2 is
found. The affected load points interrupted by breaker B2
include load points 9 35.

Table 1: Sector interruption cost ($/kW)


User sector

Interruption cost
1 min.

20 min

1.005

1.508

2.225

1.625

3.868

9.085

25.16

55.81

commercial

0.381

2.969

8.552

31.32

83.01

agricultural

0.060

0.343

0.649

2.064

residential

0.001

0.093

0.482

4.914

15.69

govt. & inst.

0.044

0.369

1.492

6.558

26.04

office

4.778

9.878

3.3

Optimal restoration sequence

The customer reliability requirements are very important for


determining optimal restoration sequence. It is usually difficult to directly evaluate customer reliability requirements.
Customer reliability requirements can be indirectly assessed
using customer damage functions obtained from the survey
to different customers.
A standard industrial classification can be used to divide
customers into large user, industrial, commercial, agriculture, residential, government & institutions and office &
buildings categories. Postal surveys conducted by the
University of Saskatchewan have been utilised to estimate
the customer interruption losses for the seven different customer sectors [10, 11]. The surveys show the cost of an
interruption depends on the type of customer interrupted
and on the magnitude and the duration of the interruption.
The survey data have been analysed to give the sector customer damage functions (SCDFs) which are used as the customer interruption cost models. The SCDFs for different
customers are shown in Table 1.
The customer damage functions have been used in [12
14] to calculate reliability worth and unreliability cost for
different customers. The objective of the problem is to
select the optimal restoration sequence for sub-areas under
IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., Vol. 1, No. 4, July 2007

21.06

3.968

480 min.

industrial

68.83

8.240

4.120

119.2

minimum total system unreliability cost


X

Lj CDFj (dj )

(7)

j[U

Determination of restoration sub-areas

Restoration sub-areas and the involved switches can be


determined during the search procedure using a faulttraversal technique. In this technique, a distribution
system is represented using a dynamic tree data structure.
Nodes and branches in a distribution system are related to
each other through parent/offspring relationship of nodes.
Using the breadth-first-search technique, the search starts
from the failed component, and the adjacent nodes in all
directions are traversed sequentially. The first switch or
the end of feeder in each direction is found to form a
switch set S which covers repair area. The switches in S
can be further divided into the upstream and downstream
switches based on their locations. Secondly, the automated
switches in each up- and downstream are searched. The end
of each downstream feeder and tie switches are also
searched. Different sub-areas are determined by these
switches. For the fault shown in Fig. 6, the repair sub-area
I is covered by the switch set fS3 , S4 , S8g [ S. There are
two upstream sub-areas II and V, and two downstream subareas III and IV. Sub-area V covers the nodes which are not
included in other sub-areas.

240 min.

larger user

min COSTi
3.2

60 min.

where COSTi is the system interruption cost due to failure i,


U the set of affected load points, Lj the average load of load
point j, dj represents the interruption duration and CDFj(dj)
the per unit customer interruption cost for duration dj .
It should be noticed that the customer interruption cost
for a customer also depends on the time of the interruption.
The effect of an interruption at daytime on a customer may
be quite different with that at nighttime. Therefore more
detailed time-dependent CDFs should be provided in
order to include the time effect in the optimal restoration.
A practical distribution system can be divided into few
sub-areas after a failure occurs. The optimal restoration
sequence of the sub-areas can be determined based on the
involved switches, manpower for switching and customer
reliability requirements of load points in each sub-area
using optimisation techniques.
In this paper, the restoration process can be classified into
two categories based on the types of switches in each
sub-area:
1. For the sub-areas with only automated switches, the
service can be first restored in parallel.
2. For the sub-areas with both automated and manual
switches, the COSTi of each sub-area should be calculated
and compared with other sub-areas. The sub-area with the
maximum COSTi is restored first followed by the sub-area
with the less COSTi . The sub-area with least customer interruption cost should be restored lastly.
For the fault shown in Fig. 6, the optimal sequence
restores the sub-area V first by opening switch S1 and
reenergising breaker B2 . For other sub-areas, the switching
sequence depends on customer reliability requirements and
available manpower. It is assumed that the customers in
sub-area IV are willing to pay more followed by sub-areas
II and III. Thus, the restoration sequence is sub-area IV
followed by II and III. It should be noticed that the
optimal restoration based on customer reliability requirements can only be implemented for non-isolated (restorable) customers when the system has the corresponding
switching infrastructure.
3.4

Calculation of restoration times

Restoration times of load points for the failure of feeder 15


can be easily calculated based on the restoration sequence of
the sub-areas and the involved switches in each sub-area.
691

For the load points in sub-area V, the restoration time is


TV T15i T15d TS1

(8)

For the load points in sub-area IV, S4 is opened and K3


is closed in parallel. The restoration time for these load
points is
TIV T15i T15d max{TS4 , TK3 }

(9)

The restoration time for the load points in sub-areas II


and III is after sub-area IV. To restore the service for the
load points in sub-area II, S3 is opened and automated
switch S1 is re-closed, the interruption time for these load
points is given as
TII TIV TS1 TS3

(10)

To restore the service for the load points in sub-area III,


S8 is opened and K2 is closed, the interruption time for these
load points is given as
TIII TIV TS8 TK2

692

Reliability indices

The following three basic reliability indices of failure rate


lj , average annual outage time Uj and average outage
time rj are calculated for each individual load point j
X
lj
li
(13)
i[M

Uj

li Tji

(14)

i[M

rj

Uj
lj

(15)

(12)

It is assumed in the above analysis that the alternative


supply can supply all the loads after system reconfiguration.
However, the restoration of downstream supply also

Fig. 7

3.5

(11)

For the load points in sub-area I, the interruption time


TI min{TII , TIII } T15r TS3

depends on the capacity of alternative supply and voltage


levels at the nodes after reconfiguration. For each downstream sub-area connected with alternative supply, it
should be analysed using ac load flow techniques [9, 15
17] to examine network violations. If the alternative
supply cannot supply some of downstream load points,
the restoration time for these load points should be calculated using (12). The load flow technique has been incorporated to determine these load points.

where li is the failure rate of element i, M the number of


components which affect load point j and Tji the restoration
time of load point j after the failure of component i and can
be determined using the proposed technique.

Test distribution system


IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., Vol. 1, No. 4, July 2007

Other reliability indices of load points, such as EENS and


ECOST, and system reliability indices, such as SAIFI,
SAIDI, ASAI, EENS and ECOST, can easily be calculated
based on the basic load point indices [5].
4

Procedure of evaluation algorithm

The procedure to calculate reliability indices of distribution


systems using the proposed technique includes the following steps:
1. input data,
2. consider the failure of component i,
3. determine the affected area and load points using the
search techniques,
4. add the failure rate li to the load points affected,
5. determine the sub-areas and the involved switches using
the fault-traversal technique,
6. calculate the unreliability cost of each sub-area,
7. determine the optimal switching schedule for the service
restoration,
8. calculate the restoration times for the load points in each
sub-area using the related multi-state models,
9. calculate load point index Uji liTji ,
10. go to step 11 if all components have been considered;
otherwise, go to step 2,
11. calculate rj for each load point j and
12. calculate system indices.
5

System studies

A computer program has been developed using the proposed technique. A modified distribution system connected
to Bus 6 of RBTS system [18] has been evaluated using the
program. The distribution system is shown in Fig. 7.
Three alternative supplies have been added to feeders F5,
F6 and F7, respectively. All the tie-switches (TS1 TS4) are
assumed to be normally opened and the others are normally
closed. The time for decision-making is assumed to be
0.2 h. Per unit cost for the 480th minute is used for the duration larger than 480 min. Three cases have been tested
using the developed technique and the results are presented
and discussed in this section.
5.1

Case 1

Assumed that all the switches have the switching time of 1 h


and the parallel switching process is used. Reliability
indices for load points are presented in Table 2.
Reliability indices for the system and feeders are presented
in Table 3.
5.2

Case 2

Assumed that all switches have the switching time of 1h


and sequential switching process is used. The optimal restoration sequence has been used in the restoration. The
indices for the load points, feeders and system are calculated. The system and feeder reliability indices for scheme
A (F7 ! F5 ! F6) are presented in Table 4. Table 5
shows system reliability indices for the two restoration
schemes A and B (F6 ! F5 ! F7). It can be seen that
the system total interruption cost for scheme A is less
than that for scheme B. Therefore the optimal restoration
sequence has to be selected in system restoration and to
be included in reliability evaluation.
IET Gener. Transm. Distrib., Vol. 1, No. 4, July 2007

Table 2: Reliability indices for the load point


Load

l, f/yr

U, hr/yr

EENS, MW h/yr

ECOST, $/yr

point
1

0.338

1.02

0.181526

274.65

0.351

1.03

0.185586

278.75

0.348

1.06

0.187275

284.83

0.338

0.99

0.179834

271.03

0.348

1.01

0.217667

325.86

0.338

1.01

0.218659

331.32

0.377

1.07

0.177419

261.71

0.381

1.11

0.184203

275.83

0.381

1.06

0.188429

277.70

10

0.368

0.98

0.162749

236.188

11

0.377

1.11

0.200041

300.15

12

0.368

1.03

0.213159

315.01

13

0.377

1.04

0.215574

316.56

14

0.251

0.92

0.430894

4151.70

15

0.245

1.07

1.753551

12157.61

16

0.249

1.28

1.159691

7938.73

17

0.251

1.62

0.759097

7412.70

18

1.179

6.78

1.124482

1805.68

19

1.179

6.78

1.225475

1967.86

20

1.179

6.78

1.695195

783.65

21

1.179

6.78

1.784666

825.01

22

1.179

6.78

1.40306

2253.02

23

1.207

7.03

1.166577

1877.53

24

1.214

7.00

2.13888

999.84

25

1.179

10.86

1.68809

2874.67

26

1.207

11.12

3.147112

1407.34

27

1.179

10.86

1.721765

2932.01

28

1.610

5.53

0.859362

1228.08

29

1.610

5.53

0.876505

1252.58

30

1.610

5.53

1.383053

675.96

31

1.831

7.56

1.175035

1766.44

32

1.868

7.9

1.523903

726.09

33

1.831

7.56

1.198476

1801.68

34

1.831

7.56

1.891096

903.48

35

1.831

7.56

1.990906

951.16

36

1.812

7.39

1.148729

1721.58

37

1.847

7.71

1.487196

709.64

38

1.812

7.39

2.092698

1001.23

39

1.812

7.39

1.171645

1755.92

40

1.812

7.39

2.259759

1081.15

Table 3: System and feeder reliability indices


Indices

SAIFI,

SAIDI,

f/yr

h/yr

ASAI

EENS

ECOST

42.76902

68711.93

system

0.783

3.59

0.99959

F1

0.344

1.02

0.999884

1.170547

1766.44

F2

0.375

1.06

0.999879

1.341574

1983.14

F3

0.250

1.26

0.999856

4.103233

31660.75

F4

1.185

7.73

0.999118

F5

1.831

7.56

0.999137

7.779416

6148.85

F6

1.610

5.53

0.999369

3.11892

3156.62

F7

1.813

7.39

0.999156

8.160027

6269.52

17.0953

17726.62

693

Table 4: System and feeder reliability indices for


Scheme A
Indices

SAIFI,

SAIDI,

f/yr

h/yr

ASAI

EENS

ECOST

49.07815

75176.36

system

0.783

4.09

0.999533

F1

0.344

1.14

0.99987

1.315964

1981.27

F2

0.375

1.19

0.999864

1.523688

2252.19

F3

0.250

1.26

0.999856

4.103233

31660.75

F4

1.185

7.73

0.999118

F5

1.831

9.52

0.998913

9.779212

7764.69

F6

1.610

10.33

0.998821

5.825443

6552.37

F7

1.813

8.56

0.999023

9.435306

7238.47

17.0953

17726.62

Fig. 9 EENS of the load points for the three cases

Table 5: System reliability indices for the two schemes


Indices

SAIFI,

SAIDI,

f/yr

h/yr

ASAI

EENS

ECOST

scheme A

0.783

scheme B

0.783

4.09

0.999533

49.07815

75176.36

4.09

0.999533

51.01041

76122.39

Fig. 10 ECOST of the load points for the three cases


Table 6: System and feeder reliability indices for
Scheme A
Indices

SAIFI,

SAIDI,

f/yr

h/yr

ASAI

EENS

ECOST

system 0.783209 3.227943 0.999632 38.92357


0.343661 0.815478 0.999907

0.946006

1381.235

F2

0.375399 0.837584 0.999904

1.076547

1544.629

F3

0.25017

F4

1.184794 6.661124 0.99924

F5

1.831033 7.157034 0.999183

7.358561

6403.147

F6

1.61

0.999207

3.917544

4213.801

F7

1.812618 6.810334 0.999223

7.514689

6269.516

5.3

1.026012 0.999883

3.301755 24718.12
14.80847

17278.01

Case 3

In this case, all tie-switches are assumed to be operated


sequentially with the switching time of 1 h and other
switches can be operated by control centre in parallel with
the switching time of 0.1 h. In this case, the hybrid switching models with the optimal switching sequence has to be
used in the simulation. Table 6 shows system and feeder
reliability indices for the restoration scheme A.
The unavailability, EENS and ECOST for the three cases
are shown in Figs. 8, 9 and 10, respectively. It can be seen
from the figures that the multi-state switching models and
restoration sequences have significant impact on load

Fig. 8
694

Conclusions

61808.46

F1

6.946

point reliability and should be considered in the reliability


evaluation.

Unavailability of the load points for the three cases

This paper proposes a generalised technique for reliability


evaluation of distribution systems considering the optimal
switching sequence and variable restoration times.
Multi-state models have been proposed to determine variable
times for the restorations with sequential, parallel and hybrid
switching. The formulation of the optimal switching sequence
and solution method have been proposed for the service restoration of the affected areas based on involved switches,
available manpower and customer reliability requirements.
A computer program has been developed using the proposed
technique. A test distribution system is employed to illustrate
the technique. Numerical results show that different switching
models will result in different customer and system
reliabilities. The optimal restoration sequences can reduce
the total system interruption cost. Therefore the proposed
models and technique can be used in the reliability evaluation
of distribution systems. Constant failure rates and repair rates
have been used in the analysis. However, the failure rates will
change with operating condition and the repair rates depend
on the manpower for the repair. These effects should be considered in the future work.
7

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