Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Digital Information Processing, E-Business and Cloud Computing, Reduit, Mauritius 2015

Knowledge Society for Africa: Creating a Coherence Roadmap in the Science,

Technology and Innovation (STI) Pillar in Botswana
Mbiganyi Moremi
Botswana International University of Science
Technology
Private Bag 0016, Palapye, Botswana
moremim@biust.ac.bw
Gosego Garegope
Kweneng District Council
Private Bag 005, Molepolole, Botswana
ggaregope@gmail.com
Seretse Mompei
Ministry of Youth, Sports and Culture
Private Bag 00514, Gaborone, Botswana
seretsemompei@gmail.com

Keorapetse Maokaneng
Botswana College of Open and Distance
Learning
Private Bag 17, Maun, Botswana
kmaokaneng@bocodol.ac.bw
Patricia Isaac
Ministry of Education and Skills
Development
Private Bag 005, Gaborone, Botswana
isaacpo@gmail.com
Uyapo Mooketsi
Botswana College of Open and Distance
Learning
P. O. Box 46276, Gaborone, Botswana
mooketsiu@gmail.com

ABSTRACT
The paper discusses the commitment the
Botswana government places on the STI pillar
development. It is one of the pillars that drive the
country into knowledge driven economy. The
paper also highlights key stakeholders in the STI
ecosystem who are instrumental in defining the
countrys coherence roadmap in the next 10 years.
Other policies in the Education and ICT pillars
complement the STI pillar in identifying key
priority areas and themes in building future
scenarios. In order to investigate policy coherence
in the STI pillar, the following two futures
thinking methodologies/tools were used: The
Futures Wheel and Delphi Real Time
Questionnaire. These tools helped identify and

analyse gaps and opportunities in the STI pillar in

Botswana.
The paper further discusses major STI policy
priorities and initiatives. These priorities led to the
identification of four (4) major signals shaping
STI in Botswana. The findings from the futures
wheel highlight an increase in private sector
participation, increase in innovative products and
the gap in development disparity is also noted.
The Delphi results show an opportunity for
effective policy coherence in the three pillars of
Education, ICT and STI.
KEY WORDS: Policy Coherence, Knowledge
Society, Futures thinking, Ecosystem, Roadmap

1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background Information
1.1.1 General context of STI in Botswana
Botswana was one of the poorest countries at
independence in 1966 with a Gross Domestic
Product (GDP) per capita of about US$70 per
year. The country has transformed itself into
one of the fastest growing economies,
although the recent world recession has
impacted negatively on this growth, now
boasting a GDP per capita of about $16400
per year as of 2013 [1]. The growth is mainly

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attributed to the mineral sector particularly the

sale of diamonds. The government is
committed to improving the quality of life of
its citizens and making Botswana globally
competitive by investing in Research,
Science, Technology and Innovation (RSTI).
A number of policies and implementation
plans have been formulated to keep abreast
with scientific and technological changes in

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the world. Botswanas RSTI policy (2011) is

one such policy which is a response to
National Development Plan (NDP) goals,
Botswanas vision 2016, globalization and
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs).
RSTI is one of the pillars that take centre
stage in driving the country into a knowledge
driven economy. This is achieved by bringing
together all stakeholders in the RSTI
ecosystem to identify and articulate key
priority areas that define the countrys RSTI
coherence roadmap in the next 5 to 10 years.
1.2 Overview of the Research objectives
The main objectives of the research are to:
Outline main elements of policy
coherence in the STI pillar.
Identify Botswanas RSTI priority
areas.
Assess how Botswana effectively
coordinate and implement the RSTI
policy and its impact on the socio
economic development of the country.
Examine how coherent is the
implementation of RSTI policy in
Botswana.
Analyse signals and trends shaping
RSTI activities in Botswana as a basis
for developing preferable future
scenarios for the country in the next 5
to 10 years.
Identify and analyse RSTI policy
coherence gaps and opportunities in
order to make recommendations for
future development of Knowledge
Society (KS) in Botswana.
1.3 General overview of the status of STI in
Botswana
Progress towards Policy coherence can be
achieved through the three phase policy
coherence lifecycle [3, 4]. Organisation for
Economic Co-operation and Development
[OECD] advices that achieving Policy
coherence for development requires:
1.3.1

Setting and Prioritising objectives

(political commitment and policy
statements)

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Other policies in the Education and ICT

pillars which complement the RSTI policy
are: Botswanas ICT Policy (Maitlamo) which
seeks to position Botswana for sustained
growth in the digital age by serving as a key
catalyst in achieving social, economic,
political and cultural transformation within
the country [2] and Education related policies
such as Tertiary Education Policy (TEP)
which highlight research and innovation as
one of its noble goals.

It is explained that there is need to educate

and engage the public, civil working society,
research entities, and relevant international
partners to raise awareness and build support
for issues related to STI, ICT and Education.
There is also need to get political commitment
at the highest levels bringing out ICT, STI
and Education support for poverty reduction
and internationally agreed development goals.
1.3.2 Co-ordinating policy and its
implementation
(policy
coordination
mechanisms)
There is need to ensure that the informal
working practices do support effective
communication between relevant ministries in
government and other stakeholders to ensure
full cooperation and contribution towards
policy formulations in all pillars of the KS so
that they are collaborative, co-dependent and
supplement each other. There is need to
engage a diverse group of stakeholders
(domestic and international). OECD further
advocates for establishment of formal agency
at high levels of government that will actively
manage inter-ministerial policy coordination
and policy arbitration. The agency should also
proactively be engaged in discussions about
policy co-ordination.
1.3.3 Monitoring, analysis and reporting
(systems for monitoring, analysis and
reporting)
There is need to invest in effective systems
for monitoring policy coherence among all 3
pillars and other elements for KS

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development.
OECD
encourages
transparently reporting on results to enforce

accountability and drive further progress.

Setting and
prioritising
objectives:Political

commitment and
policy statements

Monitoring, analysis
and reporting:
Systems for
monitoring, analysis
and reporting

Co-ordinating policy
and its
implementation:Policy
Coordination
mechanisms

Figure 1: The Policy Coherence Life cycle

1.4 Cultivating enabling environment for

Policy Coherence
Zeigermann [5] advices that government
should consider the entire enabling
environment
for
policy
coherence
achievement and progress like the education
status and capacity building, environmental
protection, social and safety standards, well
defined laws, good governance and
infrastructure. Policy objective of three pillars
(STI, ICT and Education) of KS require a

certain environment to thrive. This includes a

cross policy perspective, and taking into
account the linkages between policy pillars
and respective challenges.
1.4.1 Policy Coherence assessment
There is need to do a detailed assessment that
will inform a way forward in terms of moving
towards a more cohesive policies. OECD [4]
states that there is a need to assess Policy
coherence in three different stages as outlined
below:

1.4.2 Baseline assessment

This entails mapping out what exists now in
terms of policy coherence among the three
policy pillars. The evidence helps in making
informed decisions regarding the extent of
incoherence.

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1.4.3 Prospective evaluation

Assessing certain initiatives and determining
the extent to which those initiatives aim to

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support and increase policy coherence among

the three pillars.
1.4.4 Retrospective evaluation
Making assessment during implementation
stages of an initiative and after it has been
completed. This type of evaluation will allow
the country to scrutinise and evaluate results
of efforts towards policy coherence among the
three pillars.
1.4.5 Redress Mechanisms

results of incoherent and incompatible public

and private policies within the three pillars to
be heard [6]. The redress mechanisms should
be designed to suit specific regional and
country level contexts with expectation of
adherence to minimum standards based on set
guidelines.
2.0 BOTSWANAS RSTI AGENDA
In order to drive its RSTI agenda Botswana
has an ecosystem that brings together all
stakeholders who are outlined in the diagram
below:

There is need to establish redress mechanisms

that will allow for voices of those affected by

Figure 2: Botswanas STI Ecosystem

The process started with the revision of the

Science and Technology (S&T) policy of
1998. According to Bok [7] this was a
response to the rapid technological evolution,
globalization,
National
Development
Goals/Plans, Vision 2016 and Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs).
The

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consultative process brought together

government, private sector, civil society
organizations, research institutions, academia,
public and benchmarking with other countries
to ensure that the policy followed the best
practices. Like other African countries,
Botswanas RSTI policy highlights areas that

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need to be addressed to take the country

forward. These areas include but not limited
to governance system, policies, legislation,
trained human resources and funding to
conduct research, exploit technology and
knowledge and improve productivity to spur
economic growth [8].
Botswana recognizes the role played by RSTI
in economic development and the need for its
integration in all sectors of the economy.
According to Botswana National Research,
Science and Technology report [9] the
country has invested 0.43% of GDP in RSTI
which is far below the recommended ration of
1% of GDP by Southern African
Development Community (SADC) and
African Union (AU). This therefore means:
a) Little investment in RSTI.
b) Failure to translate knowledge,
education and learning into activities
that promote S&T.
c) Low conversion of research outputs to
products, systems and services with
socio economic benefits.
Apart from these constraints towards KS
development, Botswana has made noteworthy
achievements. For example, the establishment
of the Ministry of Infrastructure, Science and
Technology (MIST) in 2004 to coordinate and
provide leadership in Science and Technology
(S&T), Botswana Innovation Hub (BIH), a
product of the Botswana Excellence Strategy
of 2008 intended to transform the country into
a technology-driven and knowledge-based
economy by promoting a culture of
innovation and competitiveness, among its
associated companies and knowledge based
institutions such as Botswana International
University of Science and Technology
(BIUST) which integrate education, research
and production activities in the areas of S&T.
2.1 Coordination, development and
implementation of RSTI in Botswana
Botswanas RSTI policy has been developed
and largely adopted by all the stakeholders.
The
government
has
produced
an
implementation plan for the policy. RSTI is
housed under one of the newest Government

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of Botswana ministries, namely, Ministry of

Infrastructure Science and Technology
(MIST). This ministry is made up of four
departments which are: Department of
Research Science and Technology (DRST),
Department of Radiation Inspectorate,
Department of Building and Engineering
Services (DBES) and Department of
Corporate Services. The ministry also houses
the following parastatals: Botswana Institute
of Technology, Research and Innovation
(BITRI) and the Botswana Innovation Hub
(BIH) [10]. The Department of Research
Science and Technology (DRST) was
established in 2004. Its mandate is to provide
leadership in science and technology through
the provision of an enabling policy and
legislation environment and coordination of
science and technology activities in the
country. It works with other line ministries
such as the Ministry of Agriculture (MoA),
Education and Skills Development (MoESD),
Health (MoH) etc.
Botswana has long noted that the effective use
of RSTI improves the economy because it
provides a vehicle to transform natural
resources in to value added goods and
services. The origins of research based
innovations in Botswana date back to the
1930s when the government first established
Agricultural Centres in Mahalapye and
Morale [11]. This was followed by the
establishment of the Department Agriculture
Research in 1968. However, there was no
government ministry directly responsible for
research until 2002 when the Ministry of
Communications, Science and Technology
(MCST) was set up and DRST was
established under it in 2004. The goal of the
Ministry was to transform Botswana into a
knowledge
based
economy
through
formulation of relevant RSTI and ICT
policies as well as coordinate their
implementation. It was also to oversee other
research agencies such as Botswana
Technology Centre (BOTEC) and Rural
Innovations Promotions Company (RIPCO).
Research priorities included Health, service,
industry, eco and cultural tourism,

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manufacturing, mining, Agriculture, media,

education, transport and housing.
2.2 Botswanas RSTI priorities addressed
for KS policy coherence development.

Key priority areas that have been identified

are: (a) networking and collaboration, (b)
technology, research and innovation capacity,
(c) human resources, (d) institutional capacity
and (e) knowledge base [8].

Figure 4: Botswanas RSTI priorities

2.2.1 Networking and Collaboration

The key aspects of policy coherence are
active collaboration and sharing of ideas
between various key stakeholders. There has
to be a clear roadmap and bold objectives of
which all the key stakeholders have to take
ownership and robustly champion and
support. There has to be common vision,
clearly communicated from the highest level
of government.
2.2.2 Science, Technology, Research and
Innovation Capacity
One other key aspect of RSTI that has to be
addressed is ensuring that Botswana has the
capacity to develop in areas of science,
technology, research and technology. There
has to be adequate infrastructure which will
be a foundation of this development.
goal of attaining a Knowledge Society. It is
important that citizens are equipped with
relevant and adequate skills required in the
development and sustainability of a KS. If
each stakeholder plans its human resources

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Broadband internet and access to hardware

and software in sustainable fashion has to be
in place to support development. If the
relevant stakeholders are aware of this when
developing and planning policy only then can
there be effective coherence.
2.2.3 Human Resources
The creation of the Human Resource
Development Council (HRDC) is a step in the
right direction towards policy coherence.
There is a need for a high level entity to be a
point of reference and guidance when national
human capital issues are being addressed. It is
important that policies guiding the various
stakeholders be aligned with the overall
strategy of the HRDC, with the ultimate

strategy and policy in isolation we will have a

situation where citizens dont have the
competencies and knowledge to actively
contribute to Botswanas KS aspirations.

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2.2.4 Institutional Capacity

Institutions of learning and education need to

have the capacity to actively produce
graduates who are relevant to the Knowledge
Economy (KE). For this to happen there has
to be active collaboration between institutions
of learning, government and the private

sector. Governments role will be to provide

robust funding into research and development
projects. This will be in collaboration with the
private sector, which will be supporting in
terms of providing advice for innovation, etc.

2.2.5 Knowledge Base

Management and nurturing of knowledge
bases is another key aspect of RSTI that needs
to be addressed for policy coherence. Of key
importance is the indigenous and traditional
knowledge (IK) which are important for
sustainable development. Some of the
important consideration to observe and
respect are IK dynamics. The government has
to create a viable and vibrant environment for
Indigenous Knowledge Systems (IKS). In the
3.0 METHODOLOGY

recent past, stakeholders, led by the

Department of Research, Science and
Technology, have started the development of
Indigenous Knowledge Systems policy whose
objective is to ensure that the country turns
into an intellectual and cultural centre that
draws upon national indigenous knowledge
base and promotes Botswana's social and
cultural heritage.

3.1 Futures Wheel and Delphi methods

The Futures Wheel and Delphi techniques
were used for data collection and analysis.
The futures Wheel describe the change or
impact a signal or trend can have. The signal

or trend is placed at the centre, and then the

events or impacts are positioned around it.
These are the primary impacts or
consequences.

Then the impacts arising from primary

impacts are positioned around the first
impacts. These are called secondary impacts
or consequences. These impacts, primary and
secondary are joined together by spokes to
show how they are related to the signal or
trend at the centre. The Delphi method on the
other hand is a method for facilitating a group

communication processit uses a panel of

experts to assess the probability, significance
and implications of factors, trends and events
in relation to the problem being considered
[12]. We used experts in RSTI field to
provide their opinions, forecasts and reasons
as far as the RSTI pillar is concerned in
Botswana.

4.0 RESULTS
4.1 Futures Wheels
4.1.1 Public Private Partnerships
Public Private Partnerships (PPPs) are critical
to the development of RSTI in Botswana, and

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that trend has been emerging recently

especially with the creation of the Botswana

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Innovation Hub (BIH). Politically there are

tax incentives and other instruments to make a
conducive environment for the private sector
to become more actively involved in RSTI.
This involvement results in employment
creation and the growth of local RSTI

4.1.2

companies, to a point where they have

regional presence. There is an increased
localisation of innovation and transfer of
skills. These effects help to drive demand for
innovation and result in increased awareness
of
RSTI
issues.

Increased use of sustainable energy

The signal here shows increased utilisation of

sustainable alternative sources of energy such
as solar energy, wind, sea waves and tides,
and hydroelectric power desirable over fossil
fuels due to the low environmental impact.
Energy is a key need to the Botswana society,
especially the use of sustainable sources as we
have so far been using either imported diesel
need of legislation and policy governing
energy generation. Although there would be
high start-up cost, in the long run the bills
would be reduced because of low operation
costs. The use of innovative products could

generators or coal fired thermal power station.

The
immediate
impacts
would
be
modification of buildings and other structures
to accommodate the new technology. This
type of energy harvesting also requires a large
start-up capital. There will also be an
immediate
also reduce power consumption resulting in
excess power that could be exported. Low
industrial emissions would reduce pollution
that is currently contributing to global
warming.

4.1.3 Increasing uptake of technology

What is seen here is an increase in the uptake
of technology. This would have a positive
effect on RSTI because life would be more
dependent on ICT. For instance, as the skills
to use technology develop, more research
would make use of innovative ICT tools to
improve efficiency. On the other hand there
would be a need to come up with innovative
gadgets to meet the demands of the market;
such gadgets can only be developed through
intensive research. The short term impacts of
this trend include improvement of ICT skills,
use of improved ICT devices such as smart
phones, tablets and other devices.

There will also be an immediate need for ICT

legislation to curb cybercrime that is a
consequence of increased cyber skills, but it
may also negatively interfere with RSTI. In
order to make the technology available, there
will be increased funding from both the
private and public sectors. This availability of
funds would then stimulate the development
of ICT enterprises that are likely to result in
creation of jobs and improved living
standards. Other innovative solutions such as
e-Learning and e-Health would also come
into
play.

4.1.4 Policy Developments

What emerges is one of policy development
where we see policies across various sectors
addressing issues of Research, Science,
Technology and Innovation (RSTI). This has
a number of primary and secondary effects
that will continue to influence the political,

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social, economic and technological (PEST)

landscape of the country. Legislation across
sectors will result in policy coherence as well
as increased political will. The main effect of
this
will
be
a

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conducive environment that will allow further

RSTI
development
and
continuous
improvement as well as economic benefits

such as employment creation and an increased

contribution
to
GDP.

Socially, peoples livelihood will improve as

RSTI demand and uptake increase. Another
effect will be the inclusiveness of previously
disadvantaged groups such as women and
5.0 CONCLUSION
Botswana recognises the critical role played
by RSTI in diversifying the economy from
resource based to knowledge based economy.
Strides have been made to mainstream RSTI
into development processes. In order to
harness this development potential, the
country has been making attempts to
harmonise the development of RSTI as it is
understood that incoherent policies and
activities would not lead the country to
progress. It is apparent that Botswana RSTI
priority areas include, but not limited to,
policy
development,
human
resource
development, and engaging the private sector
especially in the funding of activities and
development
of
infrastructure.
The
overarching policy structure is the science and
technology policy of 2011 whose intention is
to guide STI activities in order to harness

people living with disabilities. Innovation will

increase locally and will ultimately assist in
the attainment of a knowledge society.

However, there have been some shortcomings

that hamper the full development of the
sector. Although policy infrastructure is in
place there seems to be challenges with
implementation. For instance, though there
have been investments into ESSAy and
WACS which are intended to increase
internet speed and lower connectivity prices,
it appears there hasnt been much effect on
the consumer. Some sectors also do not have
guiding policies and legal frameworks such as
the energy sector. Lack of funding and
monitoring also cast doubt in the capacity of

the country to move forward. These gaps and

trends erode the confidence on the countrys
capacity to implement the RSTI, ICT and
Education policies thus further casting doubts
on the development of the preferable future
scenarios. Lastly, Botswana has made
attempts to have a coherent policy that drives
its RSTI sector. Nevertheless implementation
and monitoring is weak thus leading to future
scenarios that do not show much growth. The
country should thus improve its policy
coherence and strengthen its implementation
capacity.

available resources, mainstream the activity of

the private sector and create an environment
conducive for the development of the sector
by all stakeholders.
Some of the
developments
emanating
from
implementation of this policy include support
and development of BIUST and BIH as well
as the merging of RIPCO and BOTEC into
BITRI. There is a government ministry whose
mandate is to coordinate RSTI activities in the
country. Other supporting policies include the
tertiary education policy whose intention is to
create a base critical for the creation of a
knowledge society, the national ICT policy,
policy reviews for the indigenous knowledge
and intellectual property rights. These
developments symbolise political interest in
RSTI and a policy coherence attempt to create
a
desirable
future
in
Botswana.

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