SHAW / RTD HANDBOOK

ULTRASONIC EXAMINATION OF PIPELINE

GIRTH WELDS
Index
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25

Definitions and formulas

Snellss law
Sound pressure values after reflection and refraction
Critical angles
Wave length calculations
7
Near field calculations
Velocities
Mode conversion for shear wave probes
Beam size measurements
6dB Beam profile chart
Beam spread calculations
Defect position calculations
The difference between geometry and defects
Displays used with mechanized Ultrasonics
Porosity detection
Hot pass probes
Pitch / catch probes
TOFD technique
Crack detection in the root area
Relationship between amplitude and dBs
Calculations between different size flat bottom holes and notches
Zonal sizing versus Amplitude sizing
Gate start and minimum gate length of CRC / RMS welds
Gate start and minimum gate length for Stick welds
Working range Transducers

2
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26

1.

Definitions and Formulas

GEOMETRIC RATIOS

Sin = side A,
Side C

Cos = side B,

Tan = side A
side C

side B

PYTHAGOREAN THEOREM:
2

A + B = C

or

C = A + B

or

10

LOGARITHM:
10

0.3

Log 2 = 0.3

DECIMAL MULTIPLY UNITS:

-12

pico = 10

kilo = 10
-9

nano = 10

mega = 10
-6

micro = 10

giga = 10

-3

milli = 10

12

tera = 10
-2

centi = 10
-1

deci = 10

15

peta = 10
18

exa = 10

= 2

2. Snells Law
Sin 1

Sin 2

SIN A

C2

SIN B

C1
angle of incidence

V1
V2

angle of reflection

Example:
70 degree probe is built for normal steel with velocity 3230 m / sec.
What angle will this probe be in a pipeline steel with a velocity of 3325 m / sec?
Sin 1
C1

Sin 2
C2

arcsin (sin 70 * 3325)

Sin 70
3230

Sin 2
3325
o

=
4

75.3

3230

3.

Sound Pressure Values after Reflection and Refraction

Reflection at the interface steel / air for an incident compression wave

Conclusion: Angle beam compression wave probes do not function past half skip.

Reflection at the interface steel / air for an incident shear wave.

Conclusion: angle beam shear wave probes do create mode conversion if the angle of
incident is < 33.2 degrees.
5

4.

Critical Angles

Wedge angle in Lucite = arcsin 2730 * sin90 = 27.3

5950
o

In steel the angle = arcsin 3230 * sin90 = 32.9

5950

Wedge angle in lucite = arcsin 2730 * sin90 = 57.7

3230
o

In steel the angle = 90

5.

Wave Length Calculations

6.

Near Field Calculations Round Crystals

N = Deff * f
4*c

0.94 * D *f
4*c

Note: effective crystal diameter Deff = 0.97 X D

2

Deff = 0.972 * D = 0.94 * D

N = near field

(mm)

D = diameter crystal
f = frequency
c = velocity

7.

Velocities

Material

Compression Wave

Steel
Aluminum
Lucite
Rexolite
Loten (PEI)
Vespel
Celasole
Air
Oil
Water

5950
6250
2730
2341
2475
2460
2975
330
1250
1483

Shear wave
3230
3100
1180
?
?
?
?
-

Velocities in pipeline material vary between supplier.

The anistropic material used on pipelines has a significant effect on the pipe material
velocity / transducers refracted angle.
These velocities are examples of those measured in pipe material from several different
suppliers.

Pipe Supplier

Shear Wave

Shear Wave
o

Velocity 45
Ipsco
Berg
Campipe
Welland

3188 m/s
3200 m/s
3250 m/s
3141 m/s

Velocity 70
3172 m/s
3303 m/s
3295 m/s
3208 m/s

In general, transducers with smaller angles of refraction (40 55) do not change much,
compared to transducers with larger angles of refraction (60 75).

8.

Mode Conversion for Shear Wave Probes

During examination with angle beam shear wave transducers mode changes will occur if
the angle of incidence is smaller than 33 degrees.
o

32.9 = 1st critical angle (Compression wave 90 ).

o

90.0 = 2nd critical angle (Compression wave in wedge).

o

The 60 transducers shear wave converts into a compression wave mode @ a defect
perpendicular to the pipe surface.
o

Angle of incidence = 30
o

The 70 transducers shear wave will have mode conversion also, but there is enough
o

energy left for the shear wave with a 20 angle of incidence.

For energy levels, see polar diagrams in Chapter 3.

9.

Beam Size Measurements

Beam sizes for probes used on pipelines will be measured on the block sketched below.

The operator must determine the most sensitive side drilled hole to determine minimum
attenuation setting.
The workable range (focal range) of the transducer is 6dB.
(normally 1/3 before focal spot & 2/3 after focal spot)

To determine the beam diameter the operator must record the probe movement between
the 6 dB values of the targeted hole.
After connecting the probe movement values, the focal spot can be measured at the
narrowest beam profile.

10

10.

-6dB Beam Profile Chart

11

11.

Beam Spread Calculations

Sin = k *
Deff.

Deff.

=
=
=
=

angle of divergence
factor
wave length
effective crystal diameter

- dB
Border

K factor for round

crystals

-3
-6
-12
-20
-24
-41
-

0.37
0.51
0.70
0.87
0.93
1.09
1.22

Note: Table for pulse / echo only

12

12.

Defect Position Calculations

If we know S
d = S * cos
A = S * sin

If we know S
d = 2T S * cos
A = S * sin

If we know A
d = A
tan
S = A
sin

If we know d
A = d * tan

If we know A
d = 2T * A
tan
S = A
sin

If we know d
A = (2T d)

13

S = d
cos

S = 2T d
cos

13.

The Difference Between Geometry and Defects

The only reliable method to determine the difference between geometry indications and
defect indications is to compare the stand-off distance with the weld centerline
position.
If the stand-off measures past the weld centerline, the indication is most likely a
reflection from geometry.
If the stand-off measures before the weld centerline, the indication must be a
reflection from a defect.

14

14.

Displays Used With Mechanized Ultrasonics

15

15.

Porosity Detection

Porosity always has been the more difficult defect to detect with mechanized ultrasonic
systems on pipelines.
The previous generation systems only had the strip chart display where the highest peak
was displayed.
Porosity reflects ultrasound in many small amplitudes.

Raw data presentations used in most common used systems on pipelines display all these
small amplitudes.

16

16.

Hot Pass Probes

The sound beam of the Hot Pass probe reflects close to the Root Pass. If this Root Pass is
wide or has a large geometry (internal Root pass), part of the beam of the Hot Pass probe
may enter this Root Pass and reflect back to the Hot Pass probe at a sound path similar to
the expected Hot Pass defect.

17

17.

Pitch / Catch Probes

The Pitch / Catch technique used with mechanized systems to detect defects in the Fill
Passes can also be used to detect centerline cracks or other defects in that area.
At the bottom of the pipe however, the probe will receive a response of the narrow Cap
Pass, commonly seen on mechanized welded pipeline welds. This response is later in
time, but the sound finds its way back to the receiver faster than the response of the Cap
Pass normally seen in the Raw Data.

18

18.

TOFD

The TOFD technique is used in mechanized ultrasonic systems on pipelines as a safety

net.
It alarms the operator if a large crack is present in the weld, especially if the orientation is
not perpendicular to any ultrasonic beams. It confirms also the defects detected with
Pulse / Echo.
The defects detected with TOFD in pipeline welds are generated mostly through
reflection and not through diffraction.
The weaker diffraction signals are very helpful when analyzing data.

19

19.

Crack Detection in the Root Area

Crack detection in pipeline welds can best be done with ultrasound.

The technique responds very well to large planar defects.
Care must be taken with fixed probe position as in mechanized ultrasonic systems.
To receive a reflection from a crack like the crack in the picture below, 4 variables
determine the height of the response.

Probe Angle

Probe Frequency

Crack Height

Crack Orientation

The parameters of the crack are unknown.

The best way to insure crack detection is to use 2 different probe angles (60 & 70) and /
or two different frequencies (wide band).

20

20.

Relationship Between Amplitudes and dBs

Definition: Change in amplitude dB (dB) 20 log A1

A2

dB

Amplitude Ratio

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25

1.12
1.26
1.41
1.59
1.78
2
2.24
2.51
2.82
3.16
3.55
3.98
4.47
5
5.62
6.31
7.08
7.94
8.91
10
11.22
12.59
14.13
15.85
17.78

21

21.

Calculations Between Different Size Flat Bottom Holes

and Notches

Double the diameter results in 12 dB increase for flat bottom holes.

40 log * D1
D2
Sensitivity: 2 mm FBH @ 80% FSH (F.B.H.s smaller than beam width)

Flat Bottom
Hole

dB Value

Full Screen
Height @ 0
dB

Full Screen
Height @ -12
dB

0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
4.0

-24 dB
-12 dB
-6 dB
0 dB
3 dB
7 dB
12 dB

5%
20%
40%
80%
>100%
>100%
>100%

1.25%
5%
10%
20%
30%
45%
80%

An increase of 1 mm for Notches, results in 6 dB sensitivity increase.

Sensitivity: 2 mm FBH@ 80% FSH (notch longer than beam width)

Flat Bottom
Hole

dB Value

Full Screen
Height @ 0
dB

Full Screen
Height @ -12
dB

0.5 mm
1.0 mm
1.5 mm
2.0 mm
2.5 mm
3.0 mm

-12 dB
-6 dB
-3 dB
0 dB
2 dB
4 dB

40%
80%
>100%
>100%
>100%
>100%

10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
85%

22

22.

Zonal Sizing Versus Amplitude Sizing

Defect sizing with zonal concept:

Probe 1: amplitude > 100% FSH = full zone = 3.0 mm
Probe 2: amplitude > 100% FSH = full zone = 3.0 mm
Total defect height = 3.0 + 3.0 = 6.0 mm
Defect sizing using amplitude height:
Probe 1: amplitude > 100% FSH = -12 dB, 30% FSH = 1.5 mm
Probe 2: amplitude > 100% FSH = -12 dB, 30% FSH = 1.5 mm
Both probes show same signature, total defect height = 1.5 mm
Note: Full and even coverage through wall thickness in sensitivity is necessary to size
defects correctly.

23

23.

Gate Start and Minimum Gate Length of CRC / RMS

Welds

Target
Fill - 6
Fill - 5
Fill - 4
Fill - 3
Fill - 2
Fill - 1
HP 2
HP 1
LCP
Root

Gate Start

Gate Length

-5 mm from Weld Prep.

-5 mm from Weld Prep.
-5 mm from Weld Prep.
-5 mm from Weld Prep.
-5 mm from Weld Prep.
-5 mm from Weld Prep.
-5 mm from Weld Prep.
-5 mm from Weld Prep.
-5 mm from Weld Prep.
-5 mm from Weld Prep.

11.1
10.7
10.3
10.0
9.8
9.4
9.5
7.5
6.1
6.5

24

24.

Gate Start and Minimum Gate Length of Stick Welds

Target
Fill - 8
Fill - 7
Fill - 6
Fill - 5
Fill - 4
Fill - 8
Fill - 2
Fill - 1
Root / HP
Root

Gate Start

Gate Length

-5 mm from Weld Prep.

-5 mm from Weld Prep.
-5 mm from Weld Prep.
-5 mm from Weld Prep.
-5 mm from Weld Prep.
-5 mm from Weld Prep.
-5 mm from Weld Prep.
-5 mm from Weld Prep.
-5 mm from Weld Prep.
-5 mm from Weld Prep.

12.0
22.0
20.0
18.0
16.0
14.0
12.0
10.0
6.5
6.5

25

25.

Working Range Transducers

Element
Type

Frequency

Wedge
Delay

Near Field
in Steel

Beam Size
(approx)

flat
flat
3/8 flat
3/8 flat
flat
flat

5.0 MHz
7.5 MHz
5.0 MHz
7.5 MHz
5.0 MHz
7.5 MHz

7.0 mm
7.0 mm
10.0 mm
10.0 mm
12.0 mm
12.0 mm

9.6 mm
17.0 mm
25.3 mm
41.8 mm
49.5 mm
78.8 mm

1.6 mm
1.6 mm
3.0 mm
3.0 mm
5.0 mm
5.0 mm

26