Class of Steels

4.
Classification of Steels,
Welding of Mild Steels
4. Classification of Steels, Welding of Mild Steels
32
In the European Standard DIN EN

10020 (July 2000), the designations
Definition of the term steel

Steel is a material with a mass fraction if iron which is higher
than of every other element, ist carbon content is, in general,
lower than 2% and steel contains, moreover, also other
elements. A limited number of chromium steels might contain a
carbon content which is higher than 2%, but, however, 2% is the
common boundary between steel and cast iron [DIN EN 10020
(07.00)].
(main symbols) for the classification of

steels are standardised. Figure 4.1
shows the definition of the term steel
and the classification of the steel
Classification in accordance with the chemical composition:

l
unalloyed steels
stainless steels
other, alloyed steels
grades
quality classes.
- unalloyed quality steels

- unalloyed special steels
stainless steels
other, alloyed steels
accordance
with
their
chemical composition and the main
Classification in accordance with the main quality class:

unalloyed steels
in
- alloyed quality steels

- alloyed special steels
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Definition for the

classification of steels
Figure 4.1
In accordance with the chemical composition the steel grades are classified
into unalloyed, stainless and other
alloyed steels. The mass fractions of
the individual elements in unalloyed
steels do not achieve the limit values
which are indicated in Figure 4.2.
Stainless steels are grades of steel
with a mass fraction of chromium of at
least 10,5 % and a maximum of 1,2 %
of carbon.
Other alloyed steels are steel grades
which do not comply with the definition
of stainless steels and where one
alloying element exceeds the limit
value indicated in Figure 4.2.
Figure 4.2
33
As far as the main quality classes are concerned, the steels are classified in accordance with their main characteristics and main application properties into unalloyed,
stainless and other alloyed steels.
As regards unalloyed steels a distinction is made between unalloyed quality steels
and unalloyed high-grade steels.
Regarding unalloyed quality steels, prevailing demands apply, for example, to the
toughness, the grain size and / or the forming properties.
Unalloyed high-grade steels are characterised by a higher degree of purity than
unalloyed quality steels, particularly with regard to non-metal inclusions. A more
precise setting of the chemical composition and special diligence during the manufacturing and monitoring process guarantee better properties. In most cases these
steels are intended for tempering and surface hardening.
Stainless steels have a chromium mass fraction of at least 10,5 % and maximally
1,2 % of carbon. They are further classified in accordance with the nickel content and
the main characteristics (corrosion resistance, heat resistance and creep resistance).
Other alloyed steels are classified into alloyed quality steels and alloyed high-grade
steels.
Special demands are put on the alloyed quality steels, as, for example, to toughness,
grain size and / or forming properties. Those steels are generally not intended for
tempering or surface hardening.
The alloyed high-grade steels comprise steel grades which have improved properties
through precise setting of their chemical composition and also through special manufacturing and control conditions.
34
The European Standard DIN EN 10027-1 (September 1992) stipulates the rules for
the designation of the steels by means of code letters and identification numbers.
The code letters and identification numbers give information about the main application field, about the mechanical or physical properties or about the composition.
The code designations of the steels are divided into two groups. The code designations of the first group refer to the application and to the mechanical or physical
properties of the steels. The code designations of the second group refer to the
chemical composition of the steels.
l S = Steels for structural steel engineering
e.g. S235JR, S355J0
According to the utilization of the
l P = Steels for pressure vessel construction

e.g. P265GH, P355M
steel and also to the mechanical or
l L = Steels for pipeline construction

e.g. L360A, L360QB
physical properties, the steel grades

of the first group are designated with
l E = Engineering steels
e.g. E295, E360
different main symbols (Fig. 4.3).
l B = Reinforcing steels
e.g. B500A, B500B
l Y = Prestressing steels
e.g. Y1770C, Y1230H
l R = Steels for rails (or formed as rails)
e.g. R350GHT
l H = Cold rolled flat-rolled steels with higher-strength
drawing quality
e.g. H400LA
l D = Flat products made of soft steels for cold reforming
e.g. DD14, DC04
l T = Black plate and tin plate and strips and also specially
chromium-plated plate and strip
e.g. TH550, TS550
l M = Magnetic steel sheet and strip
e.g. M400-50A, M660-50D
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Classification of steels in accordance

with their designated use
Figure 4.3
35
An example of the code designation structure with reference to the usage and the
mechanical or physical properties for steels in structural steel engineering is explained in Figure 4.4.
Figure 4.4
36
For designating special features of the steel or the steel product, additional symbols
are added to the code designation. A distinction is made between symbols for special demands, symbols for the type of coating and symbols for the treatment condition. These additional symbols are stipulated in the ECISS-note IC 10 and depicted
in Figures 4.5 and 4.6.
Symbol1)2)
Coating
+A
+ AR
+ AS
+ AZ
+ CE
+ Cu
+ IC
+ OC
+S
+ SE
+T
+ TE
+Z
+ ZA
+ ZE
+ ZF
+ ZN
hot dipped
aluminium, cladded by rolling
coated with Al-Si alloy
coated with Al-Tn alloy (>50% Al)
electrolytically chromium-plated
copper-coated
inorganically coated
organically coated
hot-galvanised
electrolytically galvanised
upgraded by hot dipping with a lead-tin alloy
electrolytically coated with a lead-tin alloy
hot-galvised
coated with Al-Zn alloy (>50% Zn)
electrolytically galvanised
diffusion-annealed zinc coatings (galvannealed, with diffused Fe)
nickel-zinc coating (electrolytically)
1
2
) The symbols are separated from the preceding symbols by plus-signs (+)
) In order to avoid mix-ups with other symbols, the figure S may precede,
for example +SA

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Symbols for the coating type
Figure 4.5
Symbol1)2)
treatment condition
+A
+ AC
+C
softened
annealed for the production of globular carbides
work-hardened (e.g., by rolling and drawing), also a distinguishing
mark for cold-rolled narrow strips)
cold-rolled to a minimum tensile strength of nnn MPa/mm
cold-rolled
thermoformed/cold formed
slightly cold-drawn or slightly rerolled (skin passed)
quenched or hardened
treatment for capacity for cold shearing
solution annealed
untreated
+ Cnnn
+ CR
+ HC
+ LC
+Q
+S
+ ST
+U
) The symbols are separated from the preceding symbols by plus-signs (+)
) In order to avoid mix-ups with other symbols, the figure T may precede,
1
2
for example +TA

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Symbols for the treatment condition
Figure 4.6
37
Figure 4.7 shows an example of the novel designation of a steel for structural steel
engineering which had formerly been labelled St37-2.
Figure 4.7
Steel
Stahl
S355J0
(St 52-3)
S500N
(StE500)
P295NH
(HIV)
S355J2G1W
(WTSt510-3)
S355G3S
(EH36)
Steel
Stahl
Si
Mn
Cr
Al
Cu
Mo
Ni
Nb
0,20
0,55
1,60
0,040
0,040
0,009
0,1 - 0,6 1 - 1,7
0,035
0,030
0,30
0,020
0,20
0,020
0,1
0,05
0,22
0,05
0,05
0,25 0,5
0,30
0,65
0,02 0,12
0,21
0,26
0,35
0,6
0,15
0,50 0,5 - 1,3 0,035
0,035
0,40 0,80
0,18
0,1 0,7 - 1,5 0,05

0,35
0,05
impact
energy AVV
Kerbschlagarbeit
[J]
0C
-20C
Tensile
strength
Zugfestigkeit
RmRm
[N/mm]
yield point ReeHH

Streckgrenze
[N/mm]
elongation
after fracture
Bruchdehnung
A A
[%]
510-680
355
20-22
27
27
610-780
500
16
31-47
21-39
460-550
285
>18
510-610
355
22
400-490
355
>22
S355J2G3
(St 52-3)
S500N
(StE500)
P295NH
(HIV)
S355J2G1W
(WTSt510-3)
S355G3S
(EH36)
49 (bei +20C)
76 (bei -10C)
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Chemical composition and mechanical

parameters of different steel sorts
Figure 4.8
Figure 4.8 depicts the chemical composition and the mechanical parameters of different steel grades. The figure explains the influence of the chemical composition on
the mechanical properties.
38
The steel S355J2G2 represents the basic type of structural steels which are nowadays commonly used. Apart from a slightly increased Si content for desoxidisation it
this an unalloyed steel.
S500N is a typical fine-grained structural steel. A very fine-grained microstructure
with improved tensile strength values is provided by the addition of carbide forming
elements like Cr and Mo as well as by grain-refining elements like Nb and V.
The boiler steel P295NH is a heat-resistant steel which is applied up to a temperature
of 400C. This steel shows a relatively low strength but very good toughness values
which are caused by the increased Mn content of 0,6%.
S355J2G1W is a weather-resistant structural steel with mechanical properties similar
to S355J2G2. By adding Cr, Cu and Ni, formed oxide layers stick firmly to the workpiece surface. This oxide layer prevents further corrosion of the steel.
S355G3S belongs to the group of shipbuilding steels with properties similar to those
of usual structural steels. Due to special quality requirements of the classification
companies (in this case: impact energy) these steels are summarised under a special
group.
39
The steel grades are classified into four subgroups according to the chemical composition (Fig. 4.9):
Unalloyed steels (except free-cutting steels) with a Mn content of < 1 %
Unalloyed steels with a medium Mn content > 1 %, unalloyed free-cutting
steels and alloyed steels (except high-speed steels) with individual alloying
element contents of less than 5 percent in weight
Alloyed steels (except high-speed steels), if, at least for one alloying element
the content is 5 percent in weight
High-speed steels
The unalloyed steels with Mn contents of < 1% are labelled with the
code letter C and a number which
complies with the hundredfold of the
mean value which is stipulated for the
carbon content.
Unalloyed steels with a medium Mn
content > 1 %,
unalloyed free-
cutting steels and alloyed steels

(individual alloying element contents < 5 %) are labelled with a number which also complies with a
hundredfold of the mean value which
is stipulated for the carbon content,
the chemical symbols for the alloying
elements, ordered according to the
decreasing contents of the alloying
Figure 4.9
elements and numbers, which in the

sequence of the designating alloying
elements give reference about their content. The individual numbers stand for the
medium content of the respective alloying element, the content had been multiplied
40
by the factor as indicated in Fig. 4.9 / Table 4.1 and rounded up to the next whole
number.
The alloyed steels are labelled with the code letter X, a number which again complies with the hundredfold of the mean value of the range stipulated for the carbon
content, the chemical symbols of the alloying elements, ordered according to decreasing contents of the elements and numbers which in sequence of the designating
alloying elements refer to their content.
High-speed steels are designated with the code letter HS and numbers which, in the
following sequence, indicate the contents of elements:: tungsten (W), molybdenum
(Mo), vanadium (V) and cobalt (Co).
The European Standard DIN EN 10027-2 (September 1992) specifies a numbering

system for the designation of steel grades, which is also called material number
system..
The structure of the material number is as follows:
1.
XX
XX (XX)
Sequential number
The digits inside the brackets are intended
for possible future demands.
Steel group number (see Fig. 4.10)
Material main group number (1=steel)

Figure 4.10 specifies the material numbers for the material main group steel.
Figure 4.10
41
42
The influence of the austenite grain size on the transformation behaviour has been
explained in Chapter 2. Figure 4.11 shows the dependence between grain size of the
austenite which develops during the welding cycle, the distance from the fusion line
and the energy-per-unit length from the welding method. The higher the energy-peruntil
length,
the
bigger the austenite grains in the
13
HAZ and the width
Austenite grain size index according

to DIN 50601
Energy-per-unit length in kJ/cm
11
12
18
of
36
the
HAZ
in-
creases.
Such
coarsened austenite grain decreases
the critical cooling

3
0
0,2
0,4
0,6
Distance of the fusion line
0,8
mm
1,0
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Influence of the energy-per-unit

length on the austenite grain size
time, thus increasing the tendency of

the steel to harden.
Figure 4.11
With fine-grained structural steels it is tried to suppress the grain growth with alloying
elements. Favourable are nitride and carbide forming alloys. They develop precipitations which suppress undesired grain growth. There is, however, a limitation due to
the solubility of these precipitations, starting with a certain temperature, as shown in
Figure 4.12. Steel 1 does not contain any precipitations and shows therefore a continuous grain growth related to temperature. Steel 2 contains AIN precipitations which
are stable up to a temperature of approx. 1100C, thus preventing a growth of the
austenite grain.
43
With
Grain size index according to DIN 50601
mm
1
8
6
Medium fibre length
10
8
6
-1
6 10
temperatures,
precipitations dissolve and cannot
-2
suppress a grain growth any more.
Steel 3 contains mainly titanium car-
bonitrides of a much lower grain-
refining effect than that of AIN. Steel 4
is a combination of the most effective

properties of steels nos. 2 and 3.
8
Steel 1
Steel 2
Steel 3
Steel 4
-3
12
900
1000
1100
1200
Austenitization temperature
1300
The importance of grain refinement

for the mechanical properties of a
1400
steel is shown in Figure 4.13. Pro-
Steel
%C
% Mn
% Al
%N
% Ti
0,21
1,16
0,004
0,010
0,17
1,35
0,047
0,017
0,18
1,43
0,004
0,024
0,067
0,19
1,34
0,060
0,018
0,140
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vided the temperature keeps constant, the yield strength of a steel

increases with decreasing grain size.
ISF 2004
This influence on the yield point Rel is
Austenite grain size as a function

of the austenitization temperature
specified
in
Rel = i + K
Figure 4.12
According
to
1
d
propor-
tional to the root of

the medium grain
N/mm
800
Yield point or 0,2 boundary
the yield point is
Temperature in C:
700
-193
-185
600
-170
-100
300
-40
stands for the inter-
200
diameter d.
nal friction stress of
-180
-155
500
400
+20
0
5
6
-1/2
Grain size d
grain
for
is
mm-1/2
10
Connection between
yield point and grain size
boundary
resistance K
measure
The
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material.
Hall-Petch-law:
900
law, the increase of

inversely
the
the
above-mentioned
the
these
-4
10
10-2
8
higher
Figure 4.13
the
influence of the grain size on the forming mechanisms. Apart from this increase of the
yield point, grain refinement also results in improved toughness values. As far as
44
structural steels are concerned, this means the improvement of the mechanical properties without any further alloying. Modern fine-grained structural steels show improved mechanical properties with, at the same time, decreased content of alloying
elements. As a consequence of this chemical composition the carbon equivalent
decreases, the weldability is improved and processing of the steel is easier.
The major advanSteel
type
Stahlsorte
S235JR
(St37-2)
S355J2G3
(St52-3)
S690Q
(StE690)
S890Q
(StE890)
S960Q
(StE960)
Verhltnis
Ratio
S235JR - S960Q
N/mm2
215
345
690
890
960
1:5
Plate
thickness
Blechdicke
mm
50
31
14,4
11
10
5:1
Yield
point
Streckgrenze
Weld cross-section
Nahtquerschnitt
mm2
870
370
100
60
50
17 : 1
Welding
wire 1.2
Schweidraht
1.2
mm
SG2
SG3
NiMoCr
X 90
X 96
Welding
wire costs
Schweidrahtkosten
Ratio
Verhltnis
2,4
3,2
3,3
1 : 3,3
Steel costs
Stahlkosten
Ratio
Verhltnis
1,2
1,9
2,3
2,4
1 : 2,4
Weld metal costs

Schweigutkosten
Ratio
Verhltnis
5,3
2,3
1,5
1,16
5,3 : 1
Special
weld costs
Spez. Schweinahtkosten
Ratio
Verhltnis
12
5,1
1,8
1,18
12 : 1
Costs ratio inclusive

base
Kostenverhltnis
inklusive
materials
Grundwerkstoffe
Randbedingungen:
Boundary condition:
tages of microalloyed
fine-grained
structural steels in
comparison
with
conventional structural
5:1
steels
shown
Schweiverfahren
= MAG
welding
process = MAG
in
are
Figure
Deposition
rate = 3 kg=welding
wire/h, weld /shape
X -60 X - 60
Abschmelzleistung
3 kg Schweidraht
h, Nahtform
4.14. Due to the
Costs
labour
and equipment == 60
30/h
Lohn-ofund
Maschinenkosten
DM / h
Special
costs = weld filler
materials + welding
Spez. weld
Schweinahtkosten
= Schweizusatzwerkstoffe
+ Schweien
considerably better
Berechnungsgrundlage
=szul = Re / 1.5
Calculation
base = szul = Re/1.5
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mechanical proper-
Influence of the steel selection on the

producing costs of welded structures
ties of the finegrained
Figure 4.14
structural
steel in comparison
with unalloyed structural steel, substantial savings of material are possible. This
leads also to reduced joint cross-sections and, in total, to lower costs when making
welded steel constructions.
Based
on
steels
the
alloyed
unalloyed
classification
Figure
4.2,
of
Fig-
low-alloyed
mild steel
higher-carbon steel
Hardening
Underbead cracking
ure 4.15 divides the

steels with regard
rimmed steel
to their problematic
cutting of
segregation
zones
processes
during
welding. When it
killed steel duplex killed steel
cold brittleness
(coarse-grained recrystallization
after critical treatment)
stress corrosion cracking
safety from brittle fracture
comes to unalloyed
high-alloyed
hardening
corrosion
tool steels
special properties are
resistant steels
achieved, for example:
Hardening,
special
properties
heat resistance,
are achieved
tempering resistant,
high-pressure hydrogen resistance,
toughness at low temperatures,
surface treeatment condition, etc.
ferritic
pearlitic-martensitic
austenitic
grain increase in
the weld interfaces
hardening
embrittlement
formation
of chromium
carbide
grain desintegration
stress corrosion
cracking hot cracks
(sigma phase
embrittlement)
Post-weld treatment for

highest corrosion resistance
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steels, only ingot
Classification of steels with

respect to problems during welding
Figure 4.15
45
casts, rimmed and semi-killed steels are causing problems. Killing means the removal of oxygen from the steel bath.
Figure 4.16 shows cross-sections of ingot blocks with different oxygen contents.
Rimming steels with increased oxygen content show, from the outside to the inside,
three different zones after solidification: 1.: a pronounced, very pure outer envelope,
2.: a typical blowhole formation (not critical, blowholes are forged together during
rolling), 3.: in the
centre
segregated
clearly
zone
where unfavourable
elements like sulphur and phosphorus are enriched.
0,025
0,012
During rolling, such
0,003
fully killed steel
semi-killed steel
zones are stretched
rimmed steel
Figures: mass content of oxygen in %
along the complete
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Ingot cross-sections
after different casting methods
length of the rolling

profile.
Figure 4.16
Figure 4.17 shows important points to be observed during welding such steels. Due
to their enrichment with alloy elements, the segregation zones are more transformation-inert than the
outer
envelope
and are inclined to

hardening.
In
addition, they are

sensitive
to
cracking,
as,
hotin
C
E
these zones, the

elements phosphorus
are
and
sulphur
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enriched.
Example of unfavourable (a) and

favourable (b) welds
Figure 4.17
46
Therefore, touching such segregation zones during welding must be avoided by all
means.
In the case of lowalloy
steels,
the
Microstructures
Average Brinell Hardness (Approximately)
Ferrite
80
Austenite
250
Perlite (granular)
200
welding
Perlite (lamellar)
300
observed.
Sorbite
350
Troostite
400
Cementite
600 - 650
ness
Martensite
400 - 900
various microstruc-
problem
of
HAZ
hardening
during
must
be
Figure
4.18 shows hardof
tures. The highest
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values
hardness
Hardness of Several Microstructures
values
can be found with

Figure 4.18
martensite
and
cementite. Hardness values of cementite are of minor importance for unalloyed and
low-alloy steels because its proportion in these steels remains low due to the low Ccontent.
However, hardening because of martensite formation is of greatest importance as the
martensite proportion in the microstructure depends mainly on the cooling time.
Figure 4.19 shows
the essential influHV
HRC
strength,
calculated at
max. hardness
N/mm2
root cracking
presumable
400
41
1290
70
root cracking
possible
400 - 350
41 - 36
1290 - 1125
70 - 60
no root cracking
350
36
1125
60
sufficient operational safety

without heat treatment
280
28
900
30
maximum hardness
ence of the martensite
content
in
the HAZ on the

crack formation of
welded
joints.
Hardening through
martensite
forma-
with maximum
martensite
content
%
If too much martensite develops in the heat affected zone during welding (below or next to the weld),
a very hard zone will be formed which shows often cracks.
tion is not to be
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expected with pure
Influence of Martensite Content
carbon steels up to
about
0,22%,
Figure 4.19
47
because the critical cooling rate with these low C-contents is so high that it normally
wont be reached within the welding cycle. In general, such steels can be welded
without special problems (e.g., S. 235).
In addition to carIIW
C - qu. = C +
Mn Cr + Mo + V Cu + Ni
+
+
6
5
15
Stout
C - qu. = C +
Mo Ni Cu
Mn Cr + Mn
+
+
+
6
10
20 40
Ito and Bessyo
PCM = C +
Mannesmann
C - qu.PLS = C +
Hoesch
C - qu. = C +
C ET
Thyssen
bon, all other alloy

elements are important
Si Mn + Cu + Cr Ni Mo V
+
+
+
+ + 5B
30
20
60 15 10
site
formation
in
the welding cycle,
Si + Mn + Cu + Cr + Ni + Mo + V
20
as they have sub-
Mn + Mo Cr + Cu Ni
= C+
+
+
10
20
40
stantial
PLS = pipeline steels
it
comes to marten-
Si Mn + Cu Cr Ni Mo V
+
+
+
+
+
25
16
20 60 40 15
C-qu.= carbon equivalent (%)
when
influence
on the transforma-
PCM = cracking parameters (%)

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tion behaviour of
Definition of C - Equivalent
steels
Figure 4.20
(see
Fig. 2.12 ). It is not

appropriate just
to take the carbon content as a measure for the hardening tendency of such steels.
To estimate the weldability, several authors developed formulas for calculating the
so-called carbon equivalent, which include the contribution of the other alloy elements to hardening tendency, (Fig. 4.20). As these approximation formulas are empirically determined
as
for
0,35
Tp ==750
CET
- 150- 150
Tp
750
CET
delta Tp
HD HD0,35
- 100
delta
Tp= 62
= 62
- 100
80
200
the
delta Tp [C]
and
100
250
hardening tendency
Tp [ C]
150
100
d = 30
mm
d = 30
mm
HD HD
= 4= 4
1 kJ/mm
Q = Q1=kJ/mm
0
0,2
tions
like
thickness,
40
20
50
the general condi-
60
0,3
0,4
CET
= =0,33
%
CET
0,33 %
= 30mm
mm
d =d30
kJ/mm
Q =Q1= 1kJ/mm
0
0
0,5
60
heat
15
20
25
Wasserstoffgehalt
Hydrogen
contentHD
of des
theSchweigutes
weld metal [%]
Kohlenstoffquivalent
CET [%]
Carbon aquivalent
plate
10
40
delta TpTp
= 160
tanhtanh
(d/35) (d/35)
- 110 - 110
delta
= 160
delta Tp
CETCET
- 32)-Q32)
- 53Q
CET
+ 32
delta
Tp= (53
= (53
- 53
CET + 32
20
50
CET = 0,4 %
CET = 0,2 %
CET = 0,2 %
CET = 0,2 %
CET = 0,4 %
CET = 0,2 %
delta Tp [C]
input, etc., are also
delta Tp [C]
40
30
-20
-40
20
-60
of importance, the
10
CET
0,4
CET ==0,4
%%
HD =
2 2
HD
QQ== 11kJ/mm
kJ/mm
carbon
equivalent
cannot be a com-
20
40
60
80
100
-80
d =d50
= 50mm
mm
=8
HDHD
=8
-100
0
0,5
Tp =697 CET + 160 tanh (d/35) + 62 HD
mon limit value for

the weldability.
For the determina- Figure 4.21
1,5
2,5
3,5
4,5
Wrmeeinbringen
Heat input Q [kJ/mm]
Blechdicke d [mm]
Plate thickness
br-er05-21.cdr
0,35
+ (53 CET - 32) Q - 328
Source:
Quelle: DIN EN 1011-2
Calculation of the preheating temperatures
ISF 2005
48
tion of the preheating temperature Tp, the formula as shown in Figure 4.21 is used.
The effects of the chemical composition which is marked by the carbon equivalent
CET, the plate thickness d, the hydrogen content of the weld metal HD and the heat
input Q are considered.
The essential factor
to martensite forma-
Temperature T
Tmax
tion in the welding

cycle is the cooling
time. As a measure
800
of cooling time, the

DT
time of cooling from
500
800 to 500C (t8/5) is
t8/5
defined (Fig. 4.22).

t800
t500
The
Time t
temperature
ISF 2004
br-er-05-22.cdr
range was selected
Definition of t8/5
in such a way that it

covered the most
Figure 4.22
important structural transformations and that the time can be easily transferred to the
TTT diagrams.
Figure 4.23
shows
2000
time-
temperature
distri-
butions in the vicinity of a weld. Peak

values
and
dwell
times depend obvi-
C
B
1500
Temperature T
measured
of
measurement
10mm
1000
B
500
ously on the location
the
0
0
and
50
100
150
200
are clearly strongly

determined by the
conduction Figure 4.23
conditions.
250
300
Time t
ISF 2004
br-er-05-23.cdr
heat
Temperature-time curves
in the adjacence of a weld
49
With the use of thinner plates with complete heating of the cross-section during welding, the heat conductivity is only carried out in parallel to the plate surface, this is the
two-dimensional heat dissipation.
With thicker plates, e.g. during welding of a blind bead, heat dissipation can also be
carried out in direction of plate thickness, heat dissipation is three-dimensional.
These two cases
K3
3 - dimensional:
t8 / 5 =
universal formula:
h
U I
1
1
2 p l v 500 - T0 800 - T0
are covered by the
) Uv I 5001- T
formulas given in
extended formula
For low-alloyed steel:
t8 / 5 = 0,67 - 5 10 - 4 T0
1
h N 3
800 - T0
Figure 4.24, which

K2
2 - dimensional:
t8 / 5 =
universal formula:
extended formula
For low-alloyed steel:
provide a method
2
2
2

h2
1
1
U I 1

-

4 p l r c v d 2 500 - T0 800 - T0
of calculating the
2
2
2

2
1
1
U I 1
-
h N 2
t8 / 5 = 0,043 - 4,3 10 -5 T0
2
v d 500 - T0 800 - T0
formula for the transition

thickness of low-alloyed steel:
d =
0,043 - 4,3 10 -5 T0
U I
h
0,67 - 5 10 - 4 T0
v
cooling time t8/5 of
1
1

+
500 - T0 800 - T0
low-alloyed steels.
In the case of a
ISF 2004
br-er-05-24.cdr
three-dimensional
Calculation equation for two- and

three-dimensional heat dissipation
heat
dissipation,
t8/5 it independent
Figure 4.24
of plate thickness.
In the case of two-dimensional heat dissipation it is clear that t8/5 becomes the shorter
the thicker the plate thickness d is. Provided, the cooling times are equal, the plate
thickness can be calculated from these relations where a two-dimensional heat dissipation changes to a three-dimensional heat dissipation.
Figure 4.25 shows
welding methods
the influence of the
TIG-(He)-welding
welding method on
TIG-(Ar)-welding
the heat dissipa-
MIG-(Ar)-welding
tion. With the same
MAG-(CO2)- welding
heat
the
Manual arc welding
is
SA welding
input,
energy
which
transferred to the
base
material
depends
on
0,1
0,2
0,3
0,4
0,5
0,6
0,7
0,8
0,9
Relative thermal efficiency degree h

ISF 2004
Br-er-05-25.cdr
the
Relative thermal efficiency degree

of different welding methods
Figure 4.25
50
welding method. This dependence is described by the relative thermal efficiency .

The influence of
the
groove
Type of weld
ge-
2-dimensional
heat dissipation
ometry is covered
weld factor
3-dimensional
heat dissipation
0,45 - 0,67
0,67
0,9
0,67
0,9
0,9
by seam factors
according
to
Fig. 4.26. Empirically determined,

these factors were
introduced for an
ISF 2004
br-er-05-26.cdr
easier calculation.
Weld factors for different

weld geometries
For other groove

geometries, tests Figure 4.26
to measure the
cooling time are recommended.
Fig. 4.27 shows the transition of the two-dimensional to the three-dimensional heat
dissipation for two different preheating temperatures in form of a curve according to
the equation of Fig. 4.24. Above the curve, t8/5 depends only on the energy input, but
not on the plate thickness, heat dissipation is carried out three-dimensionally.
5
cooling time t8/5 [s]
10
15
20
cm
cooling time t8/5 [s]

10
20
30
25
Plate thickness
TA=20C
40
TA=200C
3
30
40
3-dimensional
2
60
80
100
150
3-dimensional
60
100
2-dimensional
0
0
10
20
30
40
2-dimensional
50
10
20
30
40
Heat input E.h.Nn [kJ/cm]

ISF 2004
Br-er-05-27.cdr
Transition From Two to Three

Dimensional Heat Flow
Figure 4.27
50
50
51
Fig. 4.28 shows the
possible range of
20
heat input depend-
kJ/cm
ing on the elec-
-spray
arc
trode diameter. It is
clear that a rela-
Heat input
12
tively large working
-short arc
3,25 4
5
6
Manual metal arc welding
0,8 1,0 1,2 1,6

MAGC-, MAGMmethod
range is available
2,5 3,0 4,0 5,0
SA-welding
for
ISF 2004
br-er-05-28.cdr
arc
procedures.
variation
Heat Inputs of
Various Welding Methods
welding
of
A
the
energy-per-unit
Figure 4.28
length
can
be
carried out by alteration of the welding current, the welding voltage and the welding
speed.
Fig. 4.29 depicts variations of the heat
Stick electrode
(mm)
2,5
3,25
4,0
5,0
6,0
input during manual metal arc weld-
Current intensity (A)
90
135
180
235
275
ing. The shorter the fused electrode
Current intensity (A)
75
120
140
190
250
distance, i.e., the shorter the extracted length, the higher the energy-
35
per-unit length.
kJ/cm
Energy-per-unit length
25
20
6,0mm x 450mm
15
5,0mm x 450mm
10
4,0mm x 450mm
3,25mm x 350mm
5
0
2,5mm x 350mm
50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 mm 600
run-out length
br-er05-29.cdr
ISF 2004
Energy-per-unit length as a
function of the run-out length
Figure 4.29
52
In order to minimize calculation efforts in practice, the specified relations were

transferred into nomograms from which permissible welding parameters can be read
out, provided some additional data are available. Fig. 4.30 shows diagrams for twodimensional heat dissipation, where a dependence between energy-per-unit length,
cooling time and preheating temperature is given, depending on the plate thickness. .
50
40
30
T0 200C
150C
100C
20
20C
Cooling time t8/5 in s
10
d = 7,5 mm
7
50
40
30
T0 200C
150C
100C
20
20C
10
d = 10 mm
7
50
40
30
T0 200C
150C
100C
20
20C
10
d = 15 mm
7
50
40
30
T0 200C
150C
100C
20
transition to
3-dimensional
heat flow
10
7
br-er05-30.cdr
7 8 9 10
20C
d = 20 mm
15 20
30
kJ/cm 50
Heat input E
ISF 2004
Dependence of E, t8/5 and

d During SA - Welding
Figure 4.30
If a fine-grained structural steel is to be welded, the steel manufacturer presets a

certain interval of cooling times, where the steel characteristics are not too negatively
affected. The user lays down the plate thickness and, through the selection of a
welding method, a specified range of heat input E. Based on the data E and t8/5 the
diagram provides the required preheating temperature for welding the respective
plate thickness.
With the transition to thicker plates,
Transition thickness d
50
mm
40
the diagrams in Fig. 4.31 apply. The
aera of
3-dimensional
heat flow
30
T0
20
15
10
9
8
7
0 C
C 20 C
2 50
00
1
C
1 50
C
20
upper part of the figure determines

whether a two-dimensional or a threedimensional heat dissipation is pre-
area of
2-dimensional
heat flow
sent. For the three-dimensional heat

dissipation, the lower diagram applies
7 8 9 10
15 20
30
kJ/cm 50
Heat input E
where the same information can be
50
s
40
determined,
Cooling time t8/5
independent
of
thickness, as with Fig. 4.30.
30
20
15
25
0
20
15
C
10
10
9
8
7
53
7 8 9 10
C
20
15 20
30
Heat input E
br-er05-31.cdr
kJ/cm 50
ISF 2004
Dependence of
E, T0, t8/5 And d
Figure 4.31
The
relation
be35
V
voltage for MAG
30
welding is shown
in Fig. 4.32
and
the used shielding

gas is one of the
Welding voltage
tween current and
voltage
M21
M23
20
15
short arc
mixed arc
contact tube distance ~15mm
150
and
3,5
welding current, or
br-er-05-32.cdr
wire feed speed,
4,5
spray arc
contact tube distance ~19mm
200
250
Welding current
300
5,5
7,0
Wire feed
9,0
10,5
8,0
m/min
ISF 2004
Dependence of Current And Voltage During

MAG-Welding, Solid Wire, 1.2 mm
determine the type

of arc.
C1
25
parameters. Welding
gas composition:
C1 100% CO2
M21 82% Ar + 18% CO2
M23 92% Ar + 8% O2
Figure 4.32
plate
54
The diagram in Fig. 4.33 demonh'UP = 1

h'MAG = 0,85
dU max = 32 mm
dU min = 15 mm
F3 = 0,67
F2 = 0,67
t8/5 max = 30 s
t8/5 min = 6 s
Emax = 66 kJ/cm
Emin = 14 kJ/cm
ness, heat input E and cooling time
60
fillet welds
T0= 150 C
kJ/cm
30s
70
t8/5
kJ/cm
temperature of T0 = 150C. If d and
59
50
53
20s
47
41
35
30
15s
heat input can be determined with the
Heat input E
MAG - weldind
40
35
help of this diagram. The kinks of the

curves mark the transition between
29
25
10s
20
two-dimensional
and
three-
23
dimensional heat dissipation.
18
15
for fillet welds at a preheating
t8/5 are given, the acceptable range of
25s
toughness affection
45
Heat input E
SA - welding
strates the dependence of plate thick-
6s
12
10
cracking tendency
5
0
10
15
20 25
30
Plate thickness
6
mm
0
40
ISF 2004
br-er05-33.cdr
Permissible E-Range
During SA - And MAG - Welding
Figure 4.33
Fig. 4.34 shows the same dependF3 = 0,9

F2 = 0,9
t8/5 max = 30 s
t8/5 min = 6 s
Emax = 49 kJ/cm
Emin = 10 kJ/cm
60
70
butt welds
T0= 150 C
kJ/cm
kJ/cm
50
59
toughness affection
45
30s
40
53
47
25s
35
30
20s
25
41
35
29
15s
20
23
15
10s
18
10
6s
12
cracking tendency
5
0
Heat input E
MAG - welding
preparation.
h'UP = 1
h'MAG = 0,85
dU max = 34 mm
dU min = 15 mm
Heat input E
SA - welding
ence for butt welds with V groove
br-er05-34.cdr
10
15
20 25
30
Plate thickness
mm
6
0
40
ISF 2004
Permissible E-Range
During SA - And MAG - Welding
Figure 4.34
55
The curve family in Fig. 4.35 shows the dependence of the heat input from the welding speed as well as the acceptable working range. The parameters of the curves 1
to 8 in the table
curve
25
kJ/cm
20
29
27
24
22
20
19
18
17
300 275 250 225 200 175 150 125
from Figures 4.32
5.5 4.5 3.5 3.0
and 4.34 and apply
vZ(m/min) 10.5 9.0 8.0 7.0
Heat input E
15
7
10
wor
king
rang
have been taken
only
related
conditions like wire
diameter,
5
0
for
wire
feed,
10
15
20
25
30
35 40
45
Welding speed vS
50 cm/min 60
welding
voltage, etc.
MAG/ M21 (82% Ar, 18% CO)

ISF 2004
br-er-05-35.cdr
E as a Function of Welding Speed,

Solid Wire, 1.2mm
Figure 4.35
shows
Sheet
Nr. 0916).
In this example, a
24
22
20
19
18
17
59
300 275 250 225 200 175 150 125
53
47
41
30
20s
35
25
29
15s
20
10s
15
be-
27
25s
15 mm and a coolt8/5
29
35
10
time
30s
40
plate thickness of
ing
toughness affection
45
6s
cracking tendency
5
0
10
15
20 25
30
Plate thickness
mm
curve
kJ/cm
23
18
16
12 13
6
0
40
vZ(m/min) 10.5 9.0 8.0 7.0
5.5 4.5 3.5 3.0
25
kJ/cm
20
heat input E
Reference
SA - welding
(according to DVS-
70
butt welds
T0= 150 C
50
Heat input E
for such diagrams
60
kJ/cm
MAG - welding
a reading example
Heat input E
Figure 4.36
1
2
16
15
13
7
10
work
ing
rang
5
0
33
10
15
20
25
41
30
35 40
45
Welding speed vS
50 cm/min 60
ISF 2004
br-er-05-36.cdr
Determination of Welding Speed

for MAG - Welding
tween 10 and 20 s
are given. In this
case, the maximum
Figure 4.36
cooling time for MAG welding is 15 s. A solid wire with a diameter of 1.2 mm at 29V
and 300A is used.
The left diagram provides heat input values between 13 and 16 kJ/cm, based on the
given data. Using these values, the acceptable range of welding speeds can be
taken from the diagram on the right.
Fig. 4.37 presents a simplification of
800
C
the determination of the microstrucsubject to peak temperatures which
700
F
Temperature
tural composition and cooling time

occur in the welding cycle. In the
line. The point of intersection of the
P
B
500
400
M
Peak temperature
1000C
1400C
200
HV30=400
300
200
1400
Peak temperature
the point of heat input at the lower
600
300
lower diagram, the point of the plate

thickness at the top line is linked with
56
B+M
F+B
1000
Arc3
800
Arc1
linking line with the middle scale

600
represents the cooling time t8/5 .
middle diagram in which transition

field the final microstructures are
plate thickness
40
If the peak temperature of the welding

cycle is known, one can read from the
F+P
1200
30
25
three-dimensional
two-dimensional
10
20
15
10 9 8
1000
t8/5
5 mm 4
300 200 100
2 3
10
20
50 100 200 400 s 1000

0
energy-per-unit length
100
10
20
100 C
30
200
t8/5
preheating temperature
40
50 kJ/cm 70
bie5-37.cdr
formed. The advantage of the determination of microstructures compared
ISF 2004
Peak temperature/cooling time

diagram for the determination
of t8/5 and the structure
with the upper TTT diagram is that Figure 4.37

a TTT diagram applies only for exactly one peak temperature, other peak temperatures are disregarded. The disadvantage of the PTCT diagram (peak temperature
cooling time diagram) is the very expensive determination, therefore, due to the
measurement efforts a systematic application of this concept to all common steel
types is subject to failure.

Class of Steels

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Class of Steels

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4.

4. Classification of Steels, Welding of Mild Steels

In the European Standard DIN EN

Definition of the term steel

(main symbols) for the classification of

Classification in accordance with the chemical composition:

other, alloyed steels

- unalloyed quality steels

chemical composition and the main

Classification in accordance with the main quality class:

- alloyed quality steels

Definition for the

4. Classification of Steels, Welding of Mild Steels

4. Classification of Steels, Welding of Mild Steels

According to the utilization of the

l P = Steels for pressure vessel construction

steel and also to the mechanical or

l L = Steels for pipeline construction

physical properties, the steel grades

different main symbols (Fig. 4.3).

Classification of steels in accordance

4. Classification of Steels, Welding of Mild Steels

4. Classification of Steels, Welding of Mild Steels

for example +SA

Symbols for the coating type

for example +TA

Symbols for the treatment condition

4. Classification of Steels, Welding of Mild Steels

0,1 - 0,6 1 - 1,7

0,50 0,5 - 1,3 0,035

0,1 0,7 - 1,5 0,05

yield point ReeHH

Chemical composition and mechanical

4. Classification of Steels, Welding of Mild Steels

4. Classification of Steels, Welding of Mild Steels

cutting steels and alloyed steels

elements and numbers, which in the

4. Classification of Steels, Welding of Mild Steels

The European Standard DIN EN 10027-2 (September 1992) specifies a numbering

4. Classification of Steels, Welding of Mild Steels

4. Classification of Steels, Welding of Mild Steels

bigger the austenite grains in the

HAZ and the width

Austenite grain size index according

Energy-per-unit length in kJ/cm

coarsened austenite grain decreases

the critical cooling

Influence of the energy-per-unit

time, thus increasing the tendency of

4. Classification of Steels, Welding of Mild Steels

Grain size index according to DIN 50601

Medium fibre length

precipitations dissolve and cannot

suppress a grain growth any more.

Steel 3 contains mainly titanium car-

bonitrides of a much lower grain-

refining effect than that of AIN. Steel 4

is a combination of the most effective

The importance of grain refinement

steel is shown in Figure 4.13. Pro-

vided the temperature keeps constant, the yield strength of a steel

This influence on the yield point Rel is

Austenite grain size as a function

tional to the root of