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Lecture 1: Classification Review/Virology

Tuesday, January 20, 2015

10:26 PM

Classification
I. Species
A. Base Unit
B. Taxonomy - giving names
C. Binomial nomenclature (Linnaeus)
1. 2 part name
2. genus & specific epithet
3. rules
a. latin
b. italics
c. genus
- Uppercase
- Abbreviate
- Unique
d. specific epithet
- Lowercase
- Not unique
II. Classification
A. evolutionary relationships can be understood
B. species is basic unit of classification
C. phylogeny - history of species
D. systematics - process of classifying
E. hierarchal classification

III. Phylogenetic Trees


A. Branching diagrams
1. shows patterns of descent
2. not phenotypic similarities
B. Hypothesis
C. Dichotomies
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C. Dichotomies
D. Components
1. nodes - branch points
- Divergence from common ancestor (CA)
2. sister taxa
- Groups of organisms that share a common ancestor (CA)
3. roasted tree
- Has 1 branch point that represents the most recent common ancestor of all taxa on tree
4. basal taxon
- Diverged early in history of group
5. polytomy
- Multibranch
6. extant species
- Species that are alive, current
- Fig. 26.4

- Fig. 26.5

7. homologous
- Shared ancestry
8. analogous
- Similar as a result of convergent evolution
IV. Evolution
A. Accumulation of genetic change over time
B. Natural selection
- Variation
- Mechanism by which evolution occurs
- Acts on individuals but population is what evolves
V. Biological diversity
VI. Tree of life
A. 3 domains
1. bacteria (prokaryotes)
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1. bacteria (prokaryotes)
2. archaea (prokaryotes)
3. eukarya
Fig. 26.21

Virology
I. Characteristics
A. non-living particles
1. not cells
2. no metabolic activities on their own
3. cannot reproduce on their own
B. has genetic material
- Either DNA or RNA, never both
C. 20-300nm in size, can't use light microscope
D. obligate intracellular parasite
II. Discovery
A. TMV - tobacco mosaic virus
B. Adolph Mayer - 1883
- Transmitted disease from infected plant to healthy one
C. Martinus Beijerinck - late 19th century
1. Experiment
Fig. 19.2

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2. Conclusions
a. smaller than bacteria
b. replicates in plants
c. could not cultivate in nutrient media such as petri dish or test tubes
III. Components of viruses
A. Nucleic acids
1. either DNA or RNA
2. single or double strand
3. linear genetic or circular or segmented
4. 3-100 genes
- Info to replicate within host cell
B. capsid
1. protein coat surrounds genetic material
2. subunits called capsomere
3. determines shape of virus
4. in some viruses capsid plays role in attachment
C. envelope - some viruses
1. acquired from moving through host plasma
2. lipid bilayer
- Host phospholipids and proteins
- Viral proteins and glycoproteins
Fig. 19.3

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Fig. 19.3

IV. Viral replication


A. intro
1. obligate intracellular parasites
- Only replicate inside host cell
2. host range
- Species that can be infected by particular viruses
Ex. Measles - only humans (narrow)
Ex. West Nile virus - humans, birds, etc. (broad)
3. viruses of multicellular eukaryotes
- Limited to a particular tissue
4. why specificity
- Due to interaction between viral surface proteins & specific receptor molecules on the outside of host cell
B. basic features of viral replication
1. virus binds to host cell
2. viral genome enters host cell
3. viral genome directs production of proteins
--> take over host cell
4. host cell copies viral genome & produce viral proteins
5. viral nucleic acids & capsomeres in cell come together spontaneously
--> new viruses
6. exit cell
Fig. 19.4

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Fig. 19.4

Bacteriaphages
C. lytic cycle
1. death of host cell
--> virulent phages
Fig. 19.5

2. bacterial defenses
a. natural selection favors bacterial mutants that don't have surface receptors recognized by virus
b. restriction enzymes
- Reorganize foreign DNA and cut up
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- Reorganize foreign DNA and cut up


- Bacterial DNA - protected by methylation
D. lysosomic cycle
1. replication of phage genome without destroying host cell
2. temperate phages
- Capable of lytic and lysosomic replication
3. ex. Phage (lambda?)
a. phage attaches to host cell and injects DNA
b. phage DNA forms a circle
c. either:
1. viral genes convert host cell into factory
--> lytic cycle
2. viral DNA incorporated into host chromosome prophage - integrated virus
- Genes which code for protein that prevents transcription of most other viral genes
--> virus does not enter the lytic cycle
- Replicates along with host chromosome indefinitely
d. certain environmental conditions
--> trigger entry into lytic cycle
Fig. 19.6

V. Evolution of viruses
A. cellular origin hypothesis
1. viruses are derived from bits of nucleic acids that "escape" from cellular organisms
2. ex. Plasmids
3. species specific - virus originated from a host
4. genetic similarity between viruses and host cells
B. coevolution hypothesis
1. viruses - evolved early in history of life
2. before 3 domains diverged

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Lecture 2: Prokaryotes
Tuesday, January 20, 2015

11:12 PM

I. Intro
A. prokaryotes ~ 3.5 bill years ago
B. Origin of life (Ch. 25.1 & 25.3)
Chemical evolution hypothesis - life developed from non-living matter
-->Heterotrophs
--> photosynthetic autotrophs
--> aerobes
C. Domains bacteria and archaea
D. dominant
Ex. Human body - 70 mill cells
E. pervasive
F. size 0.5-5 microns
II. Cell surface structures
A. cell wall
1. Functions
i. Protects cell
ii. Shape
1) Cocci - balls/spheres O
a) Diplococcus 2
b) Steptococcus - chain
c) Staplycoccus - clump
2) Bacilli - rods
3) Spirals
a) Spirillum - rigid
b) Spirochete - flexible
iii. Prevents bursting in a hypotonic environment
Does not prevent plasmolysis in a hypertonic environment
Fig. 7.12

2. Peptidoglycan
a. only domain bacteria
b. polymer
Sugars crosslinked by short polypeptides
c. not in eukaryotic cell walls
Plants - cellulose
Fungi - chitin
d. Gram stain
1. 2 stains are used
1) 1st crystal violet - purple
2) 2nd safranin - pink
2. Gram positive
1) Thick wall of peptidoglycan
2) Retain crystal violet stain - only see purple
Penicillin - interferes with peptidoglycan synthesis (most effective against gram positive)
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Penicillin - interferes with peptidoglycan synthesis (most effective against gram positive)
3. Gram negative
1) Cell wall - thin layer of peptidoglycan
2) Do not retain crystal violet - see pink
3) Outer membrane of lipopolysaccharides (LPS)
a) Toxic, induces fever
4. Correct antibiotics
Fig. 27.3

A. Capsules & slime layers


1. Surround cell wall
2. Comprised of polysaccharides or proteins
3. Provide protection against phagocytosis
Fig 27.4
B. Fimbriae & pili
Fig 27.6

1. Hair-like appendages
2. Fimbriae - shorter and more numerous than pili
3. Used for attachment
C. Endospore
1. Dormant stage
Fig 27.5

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III. Motility
A. Taxis
1. Directed movement in response to a stimulus
2. Positive taxis - organism moving toward stimulus
3. Negative taxis - move away from stimulus
4. Ex. Chemotaxis - response to chemical
B. Flagella
1. Common motility structure
2. Found in bacteria and archaea and eukarya
1) A comparison of prokaryotic and eukaryotic flagella
a) Prok - 1/10 wide as euk
- Not covered by plasma membrane
b) Prok and euk have different molecular composition of flagella & diff mech. of propulsion
2) A comparison of bacteria and archaea
a) Similar size
b) Similar propulsion mech.
c) Different composition
3) Bac., arch, and euk
a) Perform similar functions
b) Arose independently
--> analogous structures
3. Prokaryotic flagella
1) 3 parts
a) Motor - rings embedded in the cell wall and in plasma membrane
b) Hook - curved
c) Filament - rotates --> propels cell through environment
2) Function
a) H+ pumped across plasma membrane of cell
--> produces gradient
b) H+ diffuses though motor, turns hook, turns filament
IV. Internal
A. Simpler than euk
B. Lack membrane bound organelles
1. No nucleus
2. No mitochondria
3. No chloroplasts
C. Nucleoid
1. Region of cytoplasm
2. Chromosome located - DNA
Single --> haploid (n)
D. Plasmid
1. smaller rings of DNA
2. Replicate independently
3. Few genes
Non-essential
E. Cytoplasm
1. Ribosomes
2. Storage granules
3. Enzymes
F. Plasma membrane
1. Extensively folded (increase surface area)
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1. Extensively folded (increase surface area)


2. Enzymes embedded in membrane
Cellular respiration
Photosynthesis
V. Reproduction
Binary fission
Optimal conditions - temp, nutrients, etc.
Divide every 1-3 hours
Fig. 12.12

Genetic recombination is the combining of DNA from two sources and occurs via horizontal gene transfer:
Prokaryotic DNA (genes) from different individuals are brought together by transformation, transduction, and conjugation
1. Transformation occurs when prokaryotic cell takes up and incorporates foreign DNA (e.g. plasmid DNA) from the
surrounding environment
2. Transduction: viral phages carry pieces of bacterial chromosome from donor to recipient
Lytic phages:
Phage injects DNA
Enzymes destroy host (recipient) DNA
Host DNA segment is accidently incorporated into phage DNA
Recombinant phage progeny formed
Lysogenic (prophage):
Phage injects recombinant DNA into new host
Recombinant DNA incorporates into host DNA
Produces new recombinant bacteria
3. Conjugation is the process where genetic material is transferred between two prokaryotic cells
A piece of DNA (F factor) is required for production of pili
A donor cell (F+) attaches to a recipient (F-) by the pilus
Pulls it closer, and transfers the F-factor
VI. Genetic diversity
1) Mutations are rare on a per gene basis but:
genetic variation increases quickly in large pops that have short generation times
VII. Nutrition and metabolic
A. Energy sources
1. Phototrophs
2. Chemotrophs
B. Carbon sources
1. Autotrophs - CO2
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1. Autotrophs - CO2
2. Heterotrophs - organic (ex. Glucose)
Table 27.1

C. Oxygen needs and tolerances


1. Obligate aerobes - must have oxygen
2. Obligate anaerobes - cannot tolerate oxygen
Ex. NO3-, SO4- --> e- acceptors rather than oxygen
3. Facultative anaerobes - flexible
D. Nitrogen metabolism
1. Nitrogen cycle Fig 55.14

Ex. Nitrogen fixation - N2 --> NH3


Nitrification NH3 --> NO3VIII. Prokaryotic diversity
A. Molecular evidence - rRNA sequences
2 domains
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2 domains
Horizontal gene transfer - movement of genetic material between species
--> key role in prok evolution
Archaea are more closely related to eukarya than bacteria
B. Bacteria Fig 27.16
1. Proteobacteria
Ex.
a) Alpha
i) Rhizobium - nodules on roots of legumes - nitrogen fixation
b) Beta
i) Nitrosomonas - soil bacteria - NH4+ --> NO2c) Gamma
i) Salmonella
d) Delta
i) Bdellovibrio - predatory bacteria
e) Epsilon
i) Helicobacter pylori - stomach ulcers
2. Chlamydias
1) Parasites
2) Trachamatis - blindness, US most common transferred STD
3. Spirochetes
1) Treponema pallidum - syphilis
2) Borrelia burgdorferi
4. Cyanobacteria
1) Gram-negative
2) Photoautotrophs
3) Chloroplasts
5. Gram-positive
1) Bacillus - anthrax
C. Archaea
1. Extremophiles
2. Extreme halophiles
3. Extreme thermophiles
4. Methanogens - release methane byproduct, strict anaerobes
Ex. Swamps, marshes
Table 27.2

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Lecture 3: Protists
Tuesday, January 20, 2015

11:12 PM

I. Eukaryotic Evolution
A. Endosymbiosis in Eukaryotic Evolution

- Endosymbiosis: relationship between 2 species in which 1 organism lives inside


another
- throughout evolutionary history one organism has engulfs another to mutually benefit
both
- Serial endosymbiosis: proposes key eukaryotic organelles evolved through sequence
of endosymbiotic events
1. Primary endosymbiosis
- phagocytosis of a bacterium by another cell: 2 key eukaryotic organelles:
a. Mitochondria
- was aerobic bacterium engulfed by anaerobic cell
- studies show engulfed bacterium was
- alpha proteobacteria> endosybiont
- mitochondria of all eukaryotes descend from one common ancestor
- mitochondria arose only once over course of evolution
b. Plastids
- group of closely related organelles of photosynthetic eukaryotes including:
- chloroplasts
- chromoplasts
- amyloplasts
- found in cells host was heterotrophic eukaryote
- endosymbiont was a photosynthetic cyanobacterium
- evidences> plastids arose after mitochondria
- lineage gave rise to 2 lineages of photosynthetic protists: red algae and
green algae
2. Secondary Symbiosis (Figure 28.3)
- host cell from primary endosymbiosis engulfed by another cell
- red and green algae underwent secondary symbiosis> occurred frequently
B. Diversity in Eukaryotes: Most are single-celled
- Protists are eukaryotic cells> have organelles and are more complex than
prokaryotic cells
1. Eukaryotic cellular structure:
- nucleus and membrane-bound organelles
- well-developed cytoskeleton
- extends throughout cell
- provides structural support
- change shape as move, feed, and grow
2. Eukaryotic Phylogeny
- huge eukaryotic diversity: new date and rapidly changing hypotheses
- root of eukaryotic tree not know: 4 main supergroups diverging simultaneously
from one ancestor
- this is a polytomy: because we dont know which diverged first
- 4 Subgroups: Excavata; SAR Clade; Archaeplastida; Unikonta
- most eukaryotes are protists; only others are land plants, animals, and fungi
II. Protists

Introduction
- name means the very first> thought to be first euk. cell
- evolved 1.5-1.6 by a > one billion years before plants, fungi and animals
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- evolved 1.5-1.6 by a > one billion years before plants, fungi and animals
- enormous structural and functional diversity:
- most are unicellular, some colonial or multicellular
- extremely complex cell organization
- Variety of nutritional strategies
- Photoautothrophs: have chloroplasts
- Heterotrophs: ingest organic molecules
- Mixotrophs: both photosynthetic and heterotrophic nutrition
- reproduction and life cycles vary
A. Clades: Excavates
- includes protists with modified mitochondria and protists with unique flagella
- characterized by its cytoskeleton
- excavated (deep) feeding groove on one side of cell body
- group includes:
1. Diplomonads
1. no plastids and modified mitochondria and live in anaerobic environment
- have mitosomes: are reduced mitochondria
- no functional electron transport chains
- cant use O2 to get energy from organic molecules
- get energy from anaerobic pathways
- have two equal-sized nuclei and multiple flagella
- many are parasites> ex. giardia intestinal is
- live in small intestine> backpackers diarrhea
- major cause of diarrhea throughout the world
2. Parabasalids
- no plastids and modified mitochondria and live in anaerobic environment
- have hydrogenosomes: are reduced mitochondria
- generate some energy anaerobically
- release H2 as a by-product
- many are parasites> ex. Trichomonas vaginalis
- causes STD trichomoniasis
3. Euglenozoans
- main feature distinguishing them as a class is a spiral or crystalline rod inside
their flagella
- very diverse clade
- clade includes
a. Kinetoplastids
- single, large mitochondrion contains kinetoplast (organized mass of
DNA)
- found free-living and as parasites
- ex. Trypanosoma brucei> African sleeping sickness
b. Euglenids
- one or two flagella emerge from pocket at one end of cell
- some are mixotrophs: photosynthesis when light available and
heterotrophs when none
- ex. Euglena (should be able to identify structures)
B. Clade: SAR
- doesnt have a formal name> known by first letters of its 3 major clades
1. Stramenopiles
- most have hairy flagellum paired with a smooth flagellum
- 3 main groups:
a. Diatoms
- Photosynthetic unicellular algae
- unique two-part glass=like wall of silicon dioxide
- provides protection from crushing
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- provides protection from crushing


- diatomaceous earth> massive accumulations of fossilized diatom
walls (sediments)
- mined for wide range of use. ex. filters, absorbent
b. Golden Algae
- most are unicellular; extremely minute (2-10 um)
- cells covered ith tiny scales of silica or calcium carbonate
- named for their color> yellow and brown carotenoids
- photosynthetic
- Habitat: freshwater and marine> significant portion of the
nanoplankton
- the cells of golden algae are typically biflagellated, with both flagella
near one end
- plankton> diverse group of organisms that live in water column
and are incapable of swimming against the current
c. Brown Algae
- called seaweeds> largest and most complex algae
- all multicellular and most are marine
- Photosynthetic: contain chlorophyll and carotenoids (pigments)
- Habitat: marine, in cold northern waters
- commercial importance:
- some edible
- algin in cell wall: use as thickener (in pudding, hand lotion,)
- ex. Kelp> live deep in ocean: 3 parts:
- blade: leaf-like
- stipe: stem-like
- holdfast: anchor to rock
2. Alveolates
- characterized by alveoli: membrane-enclosed sacs just user the plasma
membrane (support)
- include:
a. Dinoflagellates
- most are unicellular and have 2 flagella and each cell reinforced by
cellulose plates
- abundant components in phytoplankton
- bloom (pop explosions) cause toxic red tides
- hypothesized that coastal pollution such as animal waste may trigger
blooms
- some make neurotoxins that attack fish nervous system
- fish can die and birds can die if they eat contaminated fish
b. Apicomplexans
- almost all are parasites of animals
- complex life cycles
- their apical complex> specialized for penetrating host cells
- ex. Plasmodium> cause malaria
- one of the most serious parasitic diseases in world
- each year 1-3 million people die of it mainly in tropics
c. Ciliates
- use of cilia to move and feed
- large macronuclei and small micronuclei
- asexual reproduction by binary fission
- conjugation> sexual process= exchange haploid micronuclei> is
separate from reproduction by binary fission
3. Rhizarians
- Many are amoebas> move and feed by threadlike pseudopodia> extensions
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- Many are amoebas> move and feed by threadlike pseudopodia> extensions


of cell surface
- include:
a. Radiolarians
- internal skeletons made of silica
- pseudopodia> reinforced by bundles of microtubules
b. Foraminiferans = forams
- tests> porous multi chambered shells made of valium carbonate
- dies and form thick marine sediments
- from shells of billions of forms
c. Cecozoans
- threadlike pseudopodia
C. Clade: Archaeplastida
- red algae and green algae are photosynthetic descendants of ancient heterotrophic
protist that acquired a cyanobacterial endosymbiont
- land plants are descended from green algae
- monophyletic group includes:
1. Red Algae
- photosynthetic: red color due to phycoerythrin (red pigment)
- many pigments allow them to live very deep (100 feet down)
- usually multicellular, highly branched
- habitat: most in warm tropical ocean water, attach to rocks and other substrates
- ex. Porphyra: one of red algae: used to wrap sushi
2. Green Algae
- closely related to land plants> chloroplast are very similar
- green algae are paraphyletic group
- includes:
a. Chlorophytes
- most live in fresh water
- simple, unicellular
b. Charophytes
- closely related to plants
c. Land Plants
D. Clade: Unikonts
- includes animals, fungi, and some protists
- 2 major protist clades:
1. Amoebozoans
- amoeba that have lobe- or tube-shaped, rather than threadlike pseudopodia
- include:
a. Slime molds (not fungi)
b. Tubulinids
- consume bacteria and proteins
c. Entamoebas
- most are free-living parasites
- ex. Entamoeba histolytica: lives in intestines
2. Opisthokonts
- includes animals, fungi, and several groups of protists
- highly variable
a. Nucleariids
- more closely related to fungi than other protists
b. Choanoflagellates
- more closely related to animals than to other protists

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Lecture 4: Unikont Diversity I - Fungi


Tuesday, January 20, 2015

11:12 PM

I. Evolution of fungi
A. Review Fig 31.8 Fungi and their close relatives

B. Origin of fungi Fig 31.8


1. Evolved from a unicellular, flagellated ancestor
2. Animals, fungi, and related protists form opisthokont clade
3. Animals and fungi may have diverged into separate lineages 1-1.5 bill years ago
4. Nucleariids - heterotrophic amoebas (protists) - ancestors of fungi
C. Colonization of land
1. Fungi colonized land before plants (~470 mill years ago)
2. Before there were plans on land
a. Green slime
Cyanobacteri
Algae
Small heterotrophs - fungi
D. Diverse lineages
1. ~100k species idenified
2. ~1.5x10^6 species
3. 5 major groups
II. General characteristics
A. Nearly all are multicellular
B. Not photosynthetic
1. No chlorophyll
2. No chloroplasts
3. Not plants
C. All fungi are absorptive heterotrophs
1. Heterotroph
a. Do not ingest food and digest food inside body
b. Not animals
2. Resources
a. Secrete hydrolases into environment
Hydrolytic enzymes
b. Break down polymers into monomers
c. Predigested food is absorbed
d. Grows best in moist environments
3. Main types
a. Decomposers
Absorb their nutrients from non-living material
b. Parasites
Absorb their nutrients from the cells of living hosts
- Athlete's foot
c. Mutualists
Absorbs nutrients from some host organism, but reciprocates with actions that benefit host
D. Cell wall - chitin
1. Nitrogen containing polysaccharide
a. Strong, flexible, durable
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a. Strong, flexible, durable


2. In contrast
a. Prokaryotes
Gram positive - peptidoglycan
Gram negative - peptidoglycan, lipopolysaccharide (LPS)
b. Plants - cellulose
III. Body structure
A. Types
1. Multicellular - most
2. Unicellular - yeasts
B. Multicellular
1. Hypha(e) - building block
a. Long branched threadlike filaments
b. Tubular cell walls
c. Grow and secrete hydrolases
--> expand into new food resources
2. Types of hyphae
a. Septate
Septa (septum) - cross walls
Pores - perforate
- Organelles & cytoplasm move between cells
b. Coenocytic
Not divided into individual cells
One big cell - many nuclei
Fig 31.3

3. Mycelium (mycelia)
a. Tangled mass of hyphae
b. Feeding network
4. Reproductive structures
a. Spores
b. Spore production
Aerial hyphae
Fruiting body - mushroom
- Complex multicellular reproductive structure
Fig 31.2

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5. Some fungi have specialized hyphae for feeding on living animals


Fig 31.4a

6. Haustoria
a. Specialized hyphae that penetrate host tissues
b. Used to extract nutrients from, or exchange nutrients with, plant hosts
7. Mycorrhizae
a. Mutually beneficial relationships between fungi and plant roots
b. Mycorrhizal fungi more efficient than plant roots at getting soil nutrients.
c. Deliver phosphate ions and minerals to plants
d. Plans supply fungi with organic nutrients such as carbs
e. Most vascular plants have mycorrhizae
f. Two main types
Ectomycorrhizal fungi - form sheaths of hyphae over a root and also grow into extracellular
spaces of the root
Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi - extend hyphae through cell walls of root cells and into
tubes formed by invagination of the root cell membrane
Fig. 31.4b

IV. Reproduction
A. Spore
1. Haploid (n)
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1.
2.
3.
4.

Haploid (n)
Produced either at the tip of hypha or in a fruiting body
Sexually or asexually
Not motile (no flagella) - cannot move
a. Must be dispersed
Wind, water, animals
5. Moist environment - food
a. Germinate --> mycelium produced
B. Sexual reproduction
1. Mating types (not male/female)
a. Result of genes that encode enzymes responsible for the production of pheromones and pheromone
receptors
Pheromones - sexual signaling molecules
b. Sexual reproduction depends on pheromones that are produced from variant alleles of same gene
2. Hyphae from 2 mycelia produce pheromones
3. If mycelia are of different mating types, pheromones of each will bind to receptors of the other
--> passed compatibility test
--> genetic variation
4. Hyphae extend toward source of pheromones
5. Meet and fuse
a. Haploid nuclei do not fuse at this point
Plasmogamy (cytoplasm fuse)
b. Heterokaryon - fused mycelium
Coexisting genetically different nuclei
c. Dikaryotic mycelium
n+n
6. Mycelium grows
a. Nuclei divide without fusing
7. Karyogamy
a. Nuclei fuse
--> diploid zygote
8. Meiosis --> haploid
a. Spores ultimately formed
--> sexual spores
C. Asexual reproduction
1. ~20k species that only undergo asexual reproduction
2. 2 main types
a. Grow as filamentous fungi (haploid)
Produce spores by mitosis
Molds
b. Yeasts - unicellular
Cell division
Small bud cells
Fig 31.7

Fig 31.5

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V. Chytrids
A. Terrestrial, freshwater, marine
B. Flagellated spores --> zoospores
1. Primitive characteristic
Fig 31.11

C. Diverged early in fungal evolution


VI. Zygomycetes
A. Most are decomposers in soil
B. Ex: Rhizopus stolonifer - black bread mold
VII. Glomeromycetes
A. Arbuscular mycorrhizae
VIII. Ascomycetes
A. Intro
1. ~65k species
2. Single-celled and filamentous
3. Examples:
a. Penicillium
b. Morels and truffles
Fig 31.15

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c. Baker's yeast
d. Lichens
4. Septate, perforate hyphae
5. AKA sac fungi
a. Sexual spores are formed in microscopic sacs called asci
B. Life cycle - asexual
1. Conditions favorable - reproduce fast
2. Conidia - haploid
a. Spores produced in structures called conidiophores
b. Conidia break off --> germinate --> undergo mitosis
C. Life cycle - sexual
1. Conidia (n) fuse to specialized hypha (n) of opposite mating type
--> Plasmogamy occurs --> dikaryotic hyphae (n+n)
2. Ascocarp = fruiting body
a. Intertwining of monokaryotic hyphae (n) and dikaryotic hyphae (n+n)
3. Cells at tips of dukaryotic hyphae
--> asci
4. Within each ascus
a. Karyogamy - 2n
5. Meiosis - within each ascus
--> 4 different nuclei (n)
--> undergo mitosis --> 8 ascospores
6. Ascospores - discharged from asci
7. Dispersed
Fig 31.16

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IX. Basidiomycetes
A. Ex. Bracket fungi, puff balls, wheat rust and corn smut, agaricus bisporus - edible
X. Ecological importance
A. Decomposers
1. Break down organic material
2. Releases inorganic nutrients into ecosystems
B. Mutualists
1. Absorb their nutrients from host
a. Benefit host
2. Fungus-plant mutualism
a. Micorrhizal fungi
b. Endophytes
Live inside leaves or other plant parts
No harm
Ex. In grasses fungi produce toxins - deter herbivores
Presence increase plant tolerance of environmental stress
Fig 31.20
3. Fungus-animal mutualism
a. Ex. Guts of cattle - fungi break down plant material
4. Lichens
a. Fungus - ascomycete
Provides habitat
Photosynthetic microorganism
- Algae
- Cyanobacteria
--> Provide carbon compounds
b. Rocks, trees, roofs
C. Parasites
1. Absorb from living hosts
2. Plants
a. Ex. Chestnut blight
3. Mycosis
a. Fungal infection in animal
b. Ex. Ringworm - ascomycete
Athlete's foot is ringworm
c. Systemic mycosis
Spores inhaled
Spread through body
Serious
D. Practical uses
1. Consumption - morels, truffles
Bio II Page 25

1. Consumption - morels, truffles


2. Ripen blue cheeses
3. Yeasts
a. Anaerobic conditions - fermentation
--> sugars --> alcohols & CO2
4. Research
a. Sacchromyces cerevisae
Molecular genetics - euk
5. Medical - antibiotics

Bio II Page 26

Lecture 5: Unikont Diversity II


Tuesday, January 20, 2015

11:12 PM

I. Characteristics of animals
A. Heterotrophs
1. Ingest food and digest in body
B. Cell structure
1. Eukaryotic
2. Multicellular
3. Do not have cell walls
4. Proteins external to plasma membrane
a. Connect cells to each other
b. Provide structural support
c. Collagen is most abundant
C. Organization
1. All animals have differentiated cells (specialized)
a. Perform specific functions
2. Most have differentiated tissues
a. Groups of cells
Common structure
Act as functional unit
3. Higher forms have differentiated organs
a. Made up of tissues
b. Adapted to perform specific function or group of functions
4. Muscle and nerve tissue
a. Defining characteristic
D. Reproduction - sexual, 2n (diploid) stage dominant
1. Meiosis
2. Fertilization
a. Small flagellated sperm
b. Fertilized larger, nonmotile egg
--> zygote (2n)
E. Development
Fig 32.2

1. Cleavage - series of mitotic cell divisions without cell growth between divisions
2. Blastula - typically a hollow ball of cells that surround a cavity called blastocoel (blastoseal)
Bio II Page 27

2. Blastula - typically a hollow ball of cells that surround a cavity called blastocoel (blastoseal)
3. Gastrulation - process in which the embryo folds inward, expands, and fills blastocoel. Produces a
gastrula.
4. Gastrula
a. Endoderm - inner layer of embryonic tissue
b. Ectoderm - outer layer of embryonic tissue
c. Archenteron - pouch, opens to outside via blastopore
5. Some animals will develop directly into adults (ex. Humans)
6. Other animals have at least 1 larval stage
a. Larva - sexually immature form, morphologically different from adult
b. May eat different foods, inhabit different habitats
c. Metamorphosis
--> juvenile - sexually immature
--> adult
7. Development is regulated by gene expression
a. Homeobox genes
Code for proteins that regulate expression of developmental genes
b. Ex. Hox genes - role in development of animal embryos
F. Evolution
Fig 32.3

II. Body plans


Fig pg. 679

A. Particular set of morphological and developmental traits


1. Compare key animal features
2. Key steps in animal evolution
B. Differentiation of cells, tissues, and organs
1. All animals have specialized cells
2. 1st major step in animal evolution
Bio II Page 28

2. 1st major step in animal evolution


a. Porifera (sponges)
Do not have clearly defined tissues and organes
b. Eumetazoa ("true animals")
Do have clearly defined tissues and organs
C. Symmetry
Arrangement of body structures in relation to a particular axis of the body
Fig 32.8

1. Radial
a. Wheel or cylinder
b. Multiple planes that can divide the animal into mirror images
c. Many radial are sessile (don't move around) live attached to substrate
d. Others are planktonic
2. Bilateral - 2 sided
a. Body can be divided only by one plane through the midline
b. Cephalization
Development of a head region
Central nervous system
Coordinate complex movements
c. Dorsal - back/top
Ventral - underside
Anterior - toward head
Posterior - toward tail
Right and left
d. Bilateria
3. Asymmetry - no plant will produce mirror images
--> porifera (sponges)
D. Embryonic tissue development
Embryos of all eumetazoans because layered
1. Germ layers - concentric layers of eukaryotic tissue
a. Ectoderm - outer
Gives rise to outer covering
Nervous system in some phyla
b. Endoderm - inner
Lines archenteron
Gives rise to lining of digestive tract of other digestive organs
c. Mesoderm - middle
Gives rise to most other body structures
2. Diploblastic organisms
Only ectoderm and endoderm layers
3. Triploblastic organisms
Develop all 3 layers
Bilateria
Bio II Page 29

Bilateria
E. Body cavities
1. Coelom - body cavity
a. Fluid-filled space
b. Between body wall and digestive tube
c. Only in triploblastic organisms
2. 3 types
a. Acoelomate (NO SPACE)
Lack coelom
Are triploblasts
Body is solid
No fluid, just tissue
b. Pseudocoelomate (SPACE ENDO NOT COVERED BY MESO)
Have fluid-filled coelom
Body cavity is formed from endoderm and mesoderm
Not completely lined with mesoderm
c. Coelomate (SOME SPACE BUT MESO COVERS ENDO)
True coelom
Body cavity completely lined with mesoderm
Fig 32.9

3. Advantages of coelom/pseudocoelom
a. Hydrostatic skeleton
Fluid under pressure
--> movement
b. Circulating materials
Do not need to be flat
Bio II Page 30

Do not need to be flat


Surface area:volume
c. Internal organs grow and move independently of outer body wall
III. Developmental modes
Separate Bilateria into protostomes and deuterostomes
A. Cleavage
Mitotic cell divisions in zygote not accompanied by cell growth
1. Protostomes
a. Spiral cleavage
Plants of cell division are diagonal to vertical axis of embryo
b. Determinant cleavage
Development fate of each embryonic cell rigidly set very early
If a cell is removed
--> adult lack parts
2. Deuterostomes
a. Radial cleavage
Planes are parallel or perpendicular to vertical axis of embryo
b. Indeterminate cleavage
Each cell produced during early cleavage retains capacity to develop into a complete embryo
B. Coelom formation
1. During gastrulation
a. Embryos developing digestive tube initially forms as a blind pouch
--> archenteron (becomes gut)
2. Protostomes
a. As archenteron forms, solid masses of mesoderm split and form coelom
3. Deuterostomes
a. Mesoderm buds from the wall of archenteron and its cavity becomes coelom
C. Fate of blastopore
1. During early development
Embryo consists of a ball of cells
--> blastula
a. Group of cells in blastula moves inward --> forms blastopore
2. Protostomes (1st mouth)
Blastopore --> mouth.
3. Deuterostomes (2nd mouth)
Blastopore --> anus
2nd opening forms later --> mouth
Fig 32.10

Bio II Page 31

IV. Diversification
A. Cambrian explosion (535 - 525 mill years ago - MYA)
1. Rapid appearance of many different animal body plans
2. 1st fossils of large animals with hard mineralized skeletons
B. Most of current phyla of animals established around 500 MYA
1. ~36 different phyla are extant
2. Kingdom animalia ~ 1.3 x 10^6 species, est. 10-20 x 10^6 species
C. Animal phylogeny
Fig 32.11

Bio II Page 32

1. All animals share a common ancestor


a. Monophyletic --> clade metazoa
2. Sponges - basal animals
a. Branches from base of tree (branches off earliest)
b. Phylum Porifera --> monophyletic
3. Eumetazoa
a. True tissue
b. Phyla Ctenophora and Cnidaria
a) Basal eumetazoans
b) Diploblasts
c) Radial symm
4. Clade Bilateria
a. Most animal phyla
b. Bilateral symm
c. 3 germ layers
5. 3 major clades/linages of bilaterians
a. Deuterostomes/Deuterostomia
Some organisms with deuterostom devel. patterms are not in this clade
Phylum chordata - only phylum with vertibrates also invert
b. Lophotrochozoa
Only invert
Some develop lophophore feeding structure
Trochopore larval stage Fig 32.12

Bio II Page 33

c. Ecdysozoa
Only invertebrates
Ecdysis - molting - exoskeleton - cuticle

Bio II Page 34

Lecture 6: Unikont Diversity III


Tuesday, January 20, 2015

11:12 PM

I. Invertebrates - Chapter 33
A. Animals that lack a backbone
B. > 95% of known animal species
C. Throughout animal phylogenic tree
Pg. 710 figure

II. Phylum Porifera - sponges


A. Structure
1. Least complex of all animals
2. Multicellular
a. Specialized cells
b. No true tissue or organs
3. Asymmetric
Bio II Page 35

3. Asymmetric
B. Typical simple sponge
1. Simple saclike body
2. Opening called osculum
3. Spongocoel
a. Central cavity
b. Passage cavity for water
c. Not digestive cavity
d. Filter feeder - filters food particles out of water
e. Water goes through spongocoel and comes out of osculum
4. Choanocytes - collar cells
Fig 32.3

a. Flagellated cells
b. Collar of microvilli
c. Line spongocoel
d. Ingest bacteria and tiny food
Fig 33.4

Bio II Page 36

III. Phylum Cnidaria


A. Mostly marine
1. Jellies, coral, sea anemone
B. Characteristics
1. Radial symmetry
2. Diploblastic
C. Body structure
1. Hollow sac
2. Mouth and tentacles at one end
3. Mouth - only opening
4. Gastrovascular cavity
a. Digestive
D. Cnidocytes
Fig 33.5

1. Cells in tentacles
2. Defense
3. Capturing prey
IV. Lophotrochozoa
A. Intro
1. Most bilaterians
2. Bilaterally symmetrical
a. Triploblastic
3. Molecular data defines
4. Common features
a. Lophophore
- Crown of ciliated tentacles that are found around the mouth
b. Trochophore larva
- Stage of development
Fig 32.12

Bio II Page 37

B. Phylum Platyhelminthes
1. All dorsoventrally flattened
2. Acoelomates
3. Exist in a variety of habitats
Free living ex. Planarians
Fig 33.10

Parasitic ex. Tapeworms


Fig 33.12

Bio II Page 38

C. Phylum Rotifera
Fig 33.13

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Found in freshwater, marine, damp soil


Very small 50um - 2mm
Pseudocoelomates
Possess alimentary canal - complete digestive tract
Have crown of cilia at head end
- Beats and create a vortex of water to draw it into the mouth
6. Trophi - jaws grind up food
7. Feed on microorganisms in water
D. Lophophorates
Fig 33.14

Bio II Page 39

1. Lophophore
2. Coelomates
3. Found in fresh water and marine habitats
E. Phylum Mollusca
1. Snails, slugs, oysters, clams, squid, octopus
2. Soft body
a. Most are covered by a dorsal shell
- Comprised of CaCO3
3. Coelomates - has 3 main parts
Fig 33.15

a. Foot
- Muscular used to move around
- Tentacles
b. Visceral mass
- Contains viscera (organs)
c. Mantle
- Thin sheet of tissue
- Covers visceral mass
- Glands - secrete shell
1. Radula
a. Belt of teeth found in mouth area
b. Scrape up food
Bio II Page 40

b. Scrape up food
c. Most have but not all
- Not in bivalves
2. 3 of major clades
a. Gastropods
Fig 33.17

- Mostly marine, freshwater, and terrestrial


- Snails - shell
- Slugs and sea slugs - no shell
a. Bivalvia
- Marine and freshwater
- Clams, mussels, oysters, scallops
- Shell has 2 parts
Hinged
Secreted by mantle
- No radula
- Trap particles of food in water - suspension feeders
b. Cephalopodia
- Marine
- Squid, octopus
- Predators - hunt down prey
- Mantle - radula - 2 strong beaks
- Foot - tentacles
A. Phylum Annelida
1. Segmentation
a. Body wall, coelom, and many internal organs
divided into segments
Digestive tract NOT segmented
2. Marine species, freshwater, damp soil
3. Ex. Earthworms
Fig 33.25

Bio II Page 41

V. Ecdysozoa
A. There are very many species - more than animals and plant species
1. Ecdysis = molting
2. Organism will shed external covering during growth
B. Phylum Nematoda
1. Roundworms - cylindrical tapered ends
2. Aquatic, soil, parasitic
3. Covering called cuticle - covers body
a. Gets shed as grows
4. Pseudocoelomates
a. No circulatory system
5. Do have alimentary canal
6. Ex. Heartworm
C. Phylum Arthropoda
1. Largest phylum - most species of all animals
2. Coelomates
3. Structure
a. Have a segmented body
- Specialized to perform certain functions
- Head
- Thorax - legs and wings
- Abdomen
b. Jointed appendages
- Adapted for variety of functions such as:
Swimming
Walking
Sensory
Bio II Page 42

Sensory
c. Exoskeleton - jointed
- Comprised of chitin and protein
- Covers entire body
- Advantages
Offers protection
Reduces water loss
Solid substrate so provides points of attachment for muscle
- Disadvantages
Limits growth
molts - sheds exoskeleton - and grows new larger one
4. Ex. Centipedes, spiders, ticks, horseshoe crabs, etc.
VI. Deuterostomes
A. Characteristics
1. Radial and indeterminate cleavage (during development)
2. Blastopore becomes anus, mouth forms second
B. Phylum Echinodermata (spiny skin)
1. Larvae
a. Exhibit bilateral symmetry
2. Adult stage - five-part body symmetry
3. Characterized by endoskeleton - internal skeleton
a. Comprised of - CaCO3
b. Spines project out through epidermis (outer covering)
4. Water vascular system
a. Fluid-filled canals and chambers - complex network
b. Functions in feeding and gas exchange
5. Ex. Sea star
Fig 33.42

A. Phylum Chordata - are invertebrates and vertebrates


VII. Chordate Phylogeny - Chapter 34
Bio II Page 43

VII. Chordate Phylogeny - Chapter 34


Figure 34.2

Pg. 749 Figure

Bio II Page 44

A. Echinodermata - sister group to chordates


B. Chordates
1. All share a set of derived characteristics
(at some point in their life cycle, does not need to be at same time)
a. Notochord
- Firm, flexible longitudinal supporting rod
- Located between gut and nerve cord
- Functions as internal skeleton
- Found in all chordate embryos and in some adults
- Forerunner of backbone
b. Dorsal, hollow nerve cord
- Other animals have solid nerve cords - usually ventrally located, not dorsal
- Develops into central nervous system
Bio II Page 45

C.

D.

E.

F.

G.

- Develops into central nervous system


c. Pharyngeal gill slits (throat area)
- Ancestor porbably suspension feeder
d. Muscular post-anal tail
- Extends posterior beyond anus
2. Basal clades
a. Lancelets
- Most basal group out of all chordates
- Invertebrates
- Marine suspension feeders
b. Tunicates
- Invertebrates
- Marine suspension feeders
- Characterized by having one set of Hox genes (responsible for coding proteins that
determine development)
Vertebrates
1. Characteristics
a. Chordate characteristics most evident during embryonic stage
b. Adult stage possesses backbone
- Bone, cartilage
c. Two or more sets of Hox genes
- More genetic complexity
- Potentially explanation for many features and structures that evolve
2. Basal clades - hagfishes and lampreys
a. Only lineages of living vertebrates that lack jaws
b. Rudimentary vertebrae - comprised of cartilage, not bone
Gnathostomes (-stomes = mouth, "jaw-mouth")
1. Characteristics
a. Hinged jaws
b. 4 sets of Hox genes
2. Basal clade - Chondrichthyes
a. Aquatic organisms
b. Skeleton comprised of cartilage, flexible
c. Cartilagenous fishes
- Sharks, rays, skates
Osteichthyans
1. Characteristics
a. Bony skeleton
- hard matrix
- Calcium phosphate
b. Lungs
- Supplement gas exchange by gills
2. Basal clade - Actinopterygii
a. Aquatic
b. Ray-finned fishes
- Fins supported by rays
c. Ex. Trout, tuna, salmon, perch
Lobe-fins
1. Characteristics
a. Muscular fins or limbs used for locomotion
2. Basal clades
a. Actinistia - coelocanths
b. Dipnoi - lungfishes (lungs and gills)
- Sister group of tetrapods
Tetrapods
Bio II Page 46

G. Tetrapods
1. Characteristics
a. Four limbs
b. Neck
c. Fused pelvic girdle
- bones fused together, more efficient in transferring forces throughout body
2. Basal clade - Amphibia
a. First tetrapods
b. Eggs - water, damp
- Larvae -aquatic
c. Thin, moist skin - need damp environments
3. Ex. Frogs, salamanders
H. Amniotes
1. Characteristics
a. Amniotic egg
- Amnion - membrane that forms fluid-filled sac around embryo
- Can be on land
b. Ribcage ventilation - allow breathing
2. Reptilia
a. Hard, dry scales - contain keratin
- Help provide protection against drying out
b. Shelled eggs - laid on land
c. Lizards, snakes - ectothermic (temp fluctuates with environment)
d. Birds
- Anterior limbs wings
- Feathers
- Light skeleton
- Endothermic (use metabolic energy to maintain constant body temp)
3. Mammalia
a. Key characteristics
- Mammary glands - produce milk
- Birth to live young
- Have hair and fat (layer under skin)
Help retain heat
- Endothermic
- High metabolic rate
Have very efficient respiratory and circulatory system
b. Monotremes
- Lay eggs - ancestral characteristic
- Have hair
- Produce milk (no nipples - collects and young lap up)
- Australia
- Platypus and echidna
c. Marsupials
- Nipples
- Live young
- Placenta - allow nutrient and waste exchange between embryo and mother
- Born early in development
Complete during nursing
Marsupium - pouch
- Opossums, kangaroos, koala
d. Eutherians
- Placental mammals
Complex placenta
Bio II Page 47

Complex placenta
- Have long pregnancies (all embryonic development completes inside)
Fig 34.2

Pg. 749 Figure

Bio II Page 48

Bio II Page 49

Lecture 7: Plant Diversity I


Tuesday, January 20, 2015

11:12 PM

I. Introduction
A. Charophytes - green algae (closest relative of land plants)
B. Characteristics of charophytes
1. Inhabit shallow waters around edges of bodies of waters like ponds or lakes
possibility of drying out
a. Natural selection favors individuals that can withstand those conditions
2. Sporopollenin
a. Polymer layer
b. Prevents exposed zygotes from drying out
C. Land plants share a number of traits with only charophytes
1. Rings of cellulose synthesizing proteins
a. Found in plasma membrane
b. Synthesize cellulose microfibrils
cell wall
2. Flagellated sperm - similar in both groups
3. Share formation of phragmoplast
a. Group of microtubules
- Form between daughter nuclei during cell division
b. Cell plate
- Forms in middle of phragmoplast
- Gives rise to cell wall of new daughter cells
D. Derived traits of plants
Fig 29.3

Key traits which are found in land plants but not in charophytes
1. Alternation of generations
a. Plant will alternate between two multicellular stages
Bio II Page 50

a. Plant will alternate between two multicellular stages


b. Gametophyte (gametes are haploid)
- Haploid multicell stage
- Produces gametes (n) by mitosis
c. Sporophyte
- Produced by the fusion of gametes
diploid
- Produces haploid (2n) spores by meiosis
2. Multicellular, dependent embryos
a. 2n embryo (sporophyte)
- Is retained within tissue of female gametophyte (n)
b. Nutrients transferred from parent to embryo via placental transfer cells
- Getting nutrients from gametophyte
c. Land plant
- Embryophytes
3. Walled spores produced in sporangia
a. Sporangia
- Multicellular organs in sporophytes
- Produce spores
b. Sporocytes - actual 2n cells in sporangia that will produce haploid cells
- Undergoes meiosis haploid spores produced
c. Spores - haploid reproductive cells
- Grow (mitosis) multicellular gametophyte
d. Spore wall
- Sporopollelin
- Makes resistant to harsh environments
4. Multicellular gametangia
a. Gametangia
- Produced by gametophyte
- Produces gametes
- Mitosis
b. Can be female = archegonium
- Produces eggs
- Site of fertilization
c. Can be male = antheridium
- Produce and release sperm
5. Apical meristems
a. Roots (nutrients in soil) and shoots (light above ground) can elongate
increase access to resources
b. Localized regions of cell division
- At tips of roots and shoots
c. Cells differentiate into various tissues
6. Cuticle
a. Waxy covering
- Over all above ground parts
b. Prevents drying out
c. Provides some protection against microbes
d. Does not allow gas exchange to occur
7. Stomata
a. Tiny openings found in surfaces of leaves and stems
b. Can open and close
c. Sites of gas exchange
d. Main route for water evaporation
E. Origin and diversification of plants
1. ~ 1.2 BYA - microorganisms colonized land
Bio II Page 51

1. ~ 1.2 BYA - microorganisms colonized land


2. ~ 470 MYA - fossils of spores from land plants
Table 29.1

3. Vascular tissue
a. Cells joined into tubes
b. Transport water and nutrients
4. Bryophytes - mosses, liverworts, hornworts
a. Nonvascular
- Lack specialized vascular system
b. Do not form monophyletic group (do not form clade)
c. Do form a grade
- Means a collection of organisms that share key biological features
5. Seedless vascular plants
a. Lycophytes - club mosses
b. Monilophytes - ferns
c. Do not form clade
d. Do share key biological features - grade
Fig 29.5

Bio II Page 52

Fig 29.5

6. Seed plants - vascular plants


a. Majority of plant species
b. Seed
- Embryo that has been packaged with supply of nutrients inside protective coat
c. Two groups of plants
i. Gymnosperms (naked seed)
- Seeds not enclosed in chambers
- Ex. Conifers - pine trees
ii. Angiosperms (container)
- Flowering plants
- Form seeds that are enclosed in a fruit (container)
- Most dominant type of plant on earth today
II. Bryophytes
A. Three phyla of these small herbaceous (non-woody) plants
1. Liverworts (Herpatophyta)
2. Mosses (bryophyta)
3. Hornworts (anthocerophyta)
B. Earliest lineages of land plants
C. Nonvascular plants
1. Small
2. Rely on diffusion and osmosis to take care of their water and nutrient needs
3. Need moist environment to be able to obtain water and reproduction
4. Sperm have flagella so motile
- Require water to move within environment
D. Moss life cycle
1. Spores (n) - produced by sporophyte (2n)
- If they land in a suitable habitat will germinate (mitosis)
- Will grow into filament of cells called protenema
forms buds mitosis produce gametophores (gamete producing structures)
- Protenema + gametophore(s) = body of moss gametophyte (n)
2. Gametophyte
a. Gametophyte generation
dominant generation
- Can live independently of sporophyte
b. Has rhizoids
- Structures that anchor gametophytes to ground
- Not roots
- At top tip of gametophyte shoots is
Bio II Page 53

- At top tip of gametophyte shoots is


- antheridium (produces sperm)
- Archegonium (produces egg)
- Not on same gametophyte shoot
3. Fertilization
a. Flagellated sperm
i. Swim through water toward egg in archegonium
b. Fuse with egg zygote (2n)
c. Zygote (sporophyte) - remains in archegonium
i. Grows by mitosis
multicellular embry produced
4. Sporophyte
a. Continues to grow out of archegonium
b. Remains small
i. Remains nutritionally dependent on archegonium
c. Initially - green and can undergo photosynthesis
Maturity - turns brown cannot undergo photosynthesis
d. Parts
i. Foot - anchors to gametophyte
- Absorbs water and nutrients
ii. Seta - stalk
- Conducts materials from foot to capsule
iii. Capsule = sporangium
- Sporogenous cells (2n)
- Produces spores (meiosis)
iv. Peristome - upper part of capsule
- Ring (toothlike structures)
- Opens and releases spores under dry conditions
aids in dispersion (dry so can move elsewhere)
Fig 29.6

Bio II Page 54

Fig 29.6

E. Importance of mosses
1. Common in moist forests and wetlands
2. Capable of colonizing bare, sandy soil
help to retain nitrogen in soil as a resource for other plants
3. In some forests mosses will harbor nitrogen fixing cyanobacteria
4. Peat - partially decayed organic material
a. Major component - sphagnum - peat moss
b. Fuel
c. Peatlands
i. cover 30% of earth's surface
ii. 30% of soil carbon
carbon resevior
III. Vascular plants
A. Earliest fossils date back ~425 MYA
B. Dominant today
C. Main traits
1. Sporophyte (2n) dominant stage so not dependent of gametophyte
2. Vascular tissues for transport
a. Xylem - conduct water and minerals dissolved in water
Lignin - polymer found in cell walls of water conducting cells (makes hard)
enables plants to grow very tall
has a lot of support
Bio II Page 55

3.
4.

5.

6.

has a lot of support


gives competetive edge - compete with short plants for light
spores can disperse farther
b. Phloem - conducts sugars, amino acids, and organic products
Roots
a. absorb water and minerals from soil
b. Anchor to ground
Leaves
a. Increase surface area of plant body
b. Primary location for photosynthesis
Sporophylls
a. Modified leaves
i. Bear sporangia (produce spores)
b. Ex. Fern sporophylls
i. Produce sori
- clusters of sporangia
- Underside of sporophylls
c. Many lycophytes and most gymnosperms
Spore variations
Pg. 625 Figure

a. Homosporous spore production


i. Most seedless vascular plants
ii. Have one type of sporangium one type of spore
iii. Spore develop into bisexual gametophyte produces egg and sperm
b. Heterosporous spore production
i. 2 types of sporangia 2 types of spores
ii. Megasporangium - produces megaspores (meiosis)
- Each will develop into female gametophyte
- Will produce egg in archegonium
iii. Microsporangium - produces microspores
- Microspore male gametophyte
- Produces sperm in antheridia
IV. Seedless vascular plants - 2 clades
Fig. 29.13

Bio II Page 56

Fig. 29.13

A. Lycophytes
1. Most ancient vascular plants
2. Many are epiphytes - grow on trees
a. Not parasitic
B. Monilophytes
1. Ferns - most widespread of seedless vascular plant
I. Fern life cycle
A. Characterized by homosporous spore production (1 type of spore)
Bio II Page 57

A. Characterized by homosporous spore production (1 type of spore)


B. Each gametophyte develops antheridia and archegonia
1. Sperm and eggs produced at different times
2. Fertilization occurs between different gametophytes (allow genetic recombination)
C. Flagellated sperm - swim to egg in archegonium fertilization
D. Zygote (mitosis) sporophyte
1. Grows out of archegonium
2. Young leaves that are produced are very tightly coiled fiddleheads
E. Sporophylls - sori - clusters of sporangia produce spores (meiosis)
Fig 29.11

Bio II Page 58

Lecture 8: Plant Diversity II


Tuesday, January 20, 2015

11:12 PM

I. Adaptations of seed plants to life on land


A. Reduced gametophytes
1. Microscopic
2. Develop from spores within sporangia of parental sporophyte
3. Dependent on sporophyte generation (dominant)
a. Protected from stress by sporophyte
b. Sporophytes supplies nutrients
Fig 30.2

A. Heteropory
1. Megaspore female gametophyte
2. Microspore male gametophyte
B. Ovules and production of eggs
1. Ovule = megasporangium
+ megaspore
+ integuments
2. Integuments
a. Layers of sporophyte tissue
b. Form seed coat
c. Protect megasporangium
3. Female gametophyte develops from megaspore and produces one or more eggs
4. Gymnosperms
a. Megasporangium surrounded by 1 intergument
5. Angiosperms
a. 2 interguments
C. Pollen and production of sperm
Bio II Page 59

C. Pollen and production of sperm


1. Pollen grain
a. Develops from microspore
b. Male gametophyte enclosed within pollen wall
c. Gametophyte consists of 2 cells
- Tube cell pollen tube
- Generative cell sperm
2. Sporopollenin
a. In pollen grain wall
b. Protects pollen grain (male gametophyte)
3. Pollination - transfer of pollen to part of plant that contains ovules
a. Not the same as fertilization
4. Sperm not dependent on water for dispersal
a. Most gymnosperms and all angiosperms - sperm has no flagella
not restricted to moist environments
D. Seeds
1. Compare
a. Seedless plants
- Spore is only protected stage
2. Seed plants - advantages
a. Seeds
- Multicellular
- Embryo
- Protected by seed coat
- Can remain dormant for long periods of time
- Have supply of stored food
b. Spore
- Single-celled
- Shorter life spans
I. Gymnosperms
A. One clade of seed plants
1. "naked" seeds
a. Exposed on sporophylls (modified leaves)
- Cones (strobili)
2. Most gymnosperms are conifers
a. Cone bearing plants
b. Ex. Pines, firs, redwoods
B. Pine life cycle
Fig 30.4

Bio II Page 60

1. Pine tree is a mature sporophyte (2n)


a. Sporangia - located on scale-like structures in cones
b. In most pine species each tree has two types of cones
- Pollen cone
Microsporocytes meiosis microspores (n)
Microspores pollen grain (contain male gametophyte)
- Ovulate cone
Each cone scale has 2 ovules
Each ovule contains megasporangium
2. Pollination
a. Pollen grain reaches ovule
b. Pollen grain germinates
c. Tube cell produces pollen tube digests through megasporangium
3. While pollen tube is develping
a. In megasporangium
- Megasporocyte meiosis 4 haploid cells
- One cell survives will be megaspore
Bio II Page 61

- One cell survives will be megaspore


- develops into female gametophyte (contains 2 or 3 archegonia)
- Each archegonia will produce egg
4. Pollen tube reaches archegonium
a. Sperm cell has developed
b. Fertilization takes place diploid zygote
c. Takes about a year
5. Ovule becomes seed
a. Embryo
b. Food supply
c. Seed coat
Fig 30.3

A. Gymnosperm diversity
1. Earliest fossils ~305 MYO
2. 4 phyla
Fig 30.7
a. Cycadophyta
- Most endangered of all plant species
b. Ginkgophyta
- Ginkgo biloba
Fan like leaves
c. Gnetophyta
- Welwitschia
W. Mirabilis
Found in Southwestern Africa
Long life span
Large leaves
- Ephedra
~ 40 species
Arid regions
Ephedrine - decongestant
- Gnetum
~ 35 species
d. Coniferophyta
- Largest phylum
- Woody cones
- Evergreens - retain leaves
I. Angiosperms
Bio II Page 62

I. Angiosperms
A. One phylum - Anthophyla
1. Seed plants with flowers and fruits
2. ~ 250k species (~90%)
B. Flowers
1. Structures specialized for sexual reproduction
2. Specialized shoot
Up to 4 types of sporophylls (modified leaves)
Called floral organs
a. Sepals - at base of flower
- Green
- Enclose flower before it opens
- Sterile floral organ
Do not produce egg or sperm
b. Petals
- Brightly colored
- Aid in attracting pollinators
- Some species are wind pollinated
Not brightly colored
- Sterile floral organ
c. Stamen
- Produce microspores pollen grains (male gametophyte)
- Consists of:
Filament - stalk
Anther - terminal sac, pollen produced
d. Carpel
- Produce megaspores female gametophyte
- "container" - seeds enclosed
- Distinguishes gymnosperms from angiosperms
- Some flowers - single carpel
- Other flowers - multiple carpels
- Stigma - sticky tip of carpel receives pollen
- Style - leads from stigma to ovary
- Ovary - one or more ovules
- If ovule becomes fertilized seed
Fig 30.8

3. Complete flower - all 4 floral organs


Bio II Page 63

3. Complete flower - all 4 floral organs


Incomplete flower - lacks one or more of organs
4. Diversity
a. Structure
b. Color
c. Odor
d. Adaptation to specific pollinators
e. Many angiosperm species
- Insects or other animals transfer pollen from one flower to another
f. Some angiosperm species are wind pollinated
- Dense populations
- Ex. Grasses
g. Most gymnosperms are wind pollinated
C. Fruits
1. As seeds develop from ovules (after fertilization)
a. Ovary wall thickens - mature into fruit
2. Protects seeds
3. Adaptations that aid in dispersal of seed
Fig 30.11

a. Wind - ex. Maple seeds in fruit act like propeller


Bio II Page 64

a. Wind - ex. Maple seeds in fruit act like propeller


b. Water - ex. coconuts
c. Animal
- Ex. Fruits modified as burrs or hooks
- Edible fruits - animal ingests and digests fleshy part, seeds pass
through
II. Angiosperm life cycle
A. Development of female gametophyte (small, n)
1. Ovary - one or more ovules
2. Each ovule is a megasporangium
a. Megasporocyte (2n)
3. Meiosis
4 haploid megaspores
a. 3 megaspores disintegrate
b. 1 functional megaspore left
- 3 mitotic divisions
8 haploid nuclei
4. Development into mature female gametophyte = embryo sac
- 7 cells with 8 haploid nuclei
a. 6 of the cells contain single nucleus
- 1 cell is egg cell
- 3 cells are antipodals - disintegrate
- 2 cells are synergids - disintegrate and release chemicals
Affect the direction of growth of pollen tube
b. Central cell - contains 2 nuclei = polar nuclei
c. Egg cell and central cell - directly involved in fertilization
B. Development of male gametophyte
1. Anther - contains microsporangia (2n)
a. Contains many microsporocytes (2n)
- Undergo meiosis microspores (n)
2. Microspores pollen grains = immature male gametophyte
a. Tube cell pollen tube
b. Generative cell mitosis 2 sperm
C. Pollination
1. Pollen grains released from anther and carried to stigma
2. Some flowers self-pollinate (transfers in same flower)
3. Most species have mechanism to ensure cross-fertilization
In some species stamen and carpels of one flower mature at different times
Other species stamen and carpel arranged so self-pollination doesnt occur
ensure genetic variability
4. Pollen grain absorbs water
germinates
a. Tube cell pollen tube - grows down style to ovary
- Penetrates through opening called micropile
Pore in integuments of ovule
- 2 sperm cells are discharged into female gametophyte (embryo sac)
D. Double fertilization (unique to angiosperms)
1. 1st sperm fertilizes egg 2n zygote
2. 2nd sperm fuses with 2 nuclei in central cell triploid cell
3. After double fertilization
Ovule matures into seed
a. Zygote sporophyte
- Rudimentary root
- 1 or 2 cotyledons
Bio II Page 65

- 1 or 2 cotyledons
Seed leaves
b. Triploid cell endosperm
- Rich in starch and nutrients
nourishes embryo
Fig 30.12

E. Summary
1. Ovary fruit
2. Ovule seeds
3. Seeds embryo, endosperm (nourishment), seed coat
4. Seeds disperse favorable conditions germinate seed coat ruptures
seedling
- Use stored food in endosperm & cotyledons
I. Angiosperm diversity
Fig 30.14b

Bio II Page 66

Fig 30.17

A. ~ 140 MYA
Bio II Page 67

A. ~ 140 MYA
B. Basal ~ 100 species
1. Amborella trichopoda
a. Base of angiosperm tree
2. Water lilies
3. Star anise
C. Magnoliids
1. ~ 1k species
2. Ex. Magnolias & black pepper
D. Monocots and eudicots
1. Monocots ~ 1/4 species of angiosperms
2. Eudicots ~ 2/3 species of angiosperms
Fig 30.16

Bio II Page 68

Lecture 9: Plant Anatomy


Tuesday, January 20, 2015

11:12 PM

I. Organization
A. Systems
1. Root - below ground
2. Shoot - above ground
B. Systems comprised of:
1. Cells
2. Tissues
a. Groups of cells
b. Function together
3. Tissue systems
a. Ground - photosynthesis, storage, support
b. Vascular - conduction of materials, support
c. Dermal - covering
Fig 35.8

1. Organs
a. All 3 tissue systems
b. Roots, stems, leaves, flowers, fruits
II. Plant organs
A. Roots
1. Variety of functions
a. Anchors plant to ground
b. Absorption of water and minerals
c. Storage
2. Primary root
a. Originates in the seed embryo
b. First root to emerge when seed germinates
3. Lateral roots
Bio II Page 69

3. Lateral roots
a. Branch off of primary root
4. Root hairs
a. Thin, fingerlike extensions of root epidermal cells
b. Near tips of elongating roots
c. Function to increase surface area (increase absorption)
5. Taproot system
a. Characteristic of tall plants - large shoot mass
b. Taproot - one main vertical root
i. Develops from primary root
ii. Does not function in absorption
iii. Support
iv. Allows plant to be tall (taller = more access to light)
v. Site of storage
6. Fibrous root system
a. Thick mat of slender roots
b. Spread out beneath soil surface
c. Primary root dies early on in development and doesn't form taproot
d. Subsequent small roots begin to emerge from stem
adventitious roots
e. Most monocots
B. Stems - part of shoot system
1. Bears leaves and bids
2. Structure
a. Nodes - points on stem where leaves are attached
b. Internodes - segments between nodes
c. Apical bud - growing shoot tip
d. Axillary buds
can form lateral branches
3. Main functions
a. Elongate and orient shoot
maximizes light uptake
b. Elevates reproductive structures
c. Green stems - photosynthesis
C. Leaves
1. Main photosynthetic organ in most vascular plants
2. Capture light and exchange gas
3. Blade - flattened leaf
4. Petiole - stalk
a. Joins leaf to stem at node
b. Many grasses - base of leaf form sheath that surrounds stem
no petiole
5. Veins
a. Vascular tissue in leaf
b. Monocots - parallel major veins
c. Eudicots - branched network of veins arise from midrib
Fig 35.2

Bio II Page 70

III. Tissue systems


A. Dermal
1. Outer protective covering of organism
2. Non-woody plants
a. Epidermis - single layer of very tightly packed cells
b. Covered by cuticle - waxy coating to prevent water loss
3. Woody plants
a. Periderm replaces epidermis
i. In older regions of stems and roots
4. Functions
a. Absorption - at root hairs (water and minerals taken up)
b. Guard cells
i. specialized epidermal cells found in shoots
ii. Involved in gas exchange
c. Trichomes
i. Specialized epidermal cell
ii. Found in shoots
iii. Mostly in desert species
iv. Reduce water loss
v. Reflect excess sunlight
vi. Other species - defense against insects
B. Vascular tissue system
1. Functions
a. Transport
b. Support
2. Types
a. Xylem
i. Conducts water and minerals
ii. Upwards from root to shoots
b. Phloem
Bio II Page 71

b. Phloem
i. Conducts sugars from leaves throughout
3. Stele
a. All of vascular root or stem
b. Arrangement varies
i. Ex. Angiosperms
- Root stele
Solid central cylinder of xylem and phloem
- Stem and leaf stele
Vascular bundles
C. Ground tissue system
1. Most of plant
2. Variety of cells
a. Storage
b. Photosynthesis
c. Support
d. Short distance transport
3. Pith - ground tissue internal to vascular tissue (in stele)
4. Cortex - ground tissue external to vascular tissue
IV. Plant cells
A. Cell wall
Fig 6.27

1. Primary cell wall


a. All plant cells have this
b. Comprised of cellulose and other polysaccharides and proteins
c. Growing plant cell
i. Secretes thin flexible primary cell wall
ii. Capable of stretching and expanding to increase size
d. Mature cell (no longer growing)
i. Either primary wall thickens and solidifies
Bio II Page 72

i. Either primary wall thickens and solidifies


ii. Or secondary wall is formed
2. Secondary cell wall
a. Not found in all species
b. Forms between plasma membrane and primary cell wall
c. Lignin - strengthening polymer
d. Support and protection of plant
e. Wood - made primarily of secondary cell walls
3. Middle lamella
a. Found between primary cell walls of adjacent cells
b. Comprised of pectin - cementing polysaccharide
c. Dissolves when fruit ripens
d. Thickens jams and jellies
B. Differentiation
1. Cells become specialized in structure and function
Fig 35.10

A. Parenchyma cells
Bio II Page 73

A. Parenchyma cells
1. Characteristics
a. Most common type of plant cell
b. Characterized by thin flexible primary cell wall
c. Do not have secondary cell wall
d. Alive at maturity
e. Least specialized
i. Ability to differentiate into other types of cells
2. Functions
a. Photosynthesis - have chloroplasts
b. Storage - starch, oils, water, salts
c. Secretion - tannins (protection), enzymes, hormones, nectar
d. Fruit - fleshy tissue
B. Collenchyma cells
1. Characteristics
a. Primary cell wall - unevenly thickened
b. Elongated
c. Alive at maturity
d. Found near stem surfaces and along leaf veins
e. Very flexible
2. Functions
a. Provide structural support (no metabolic functions)
b. Grouped in strands
provide support in soft, non-woody plant organs
c. No secondary cell wall no lignin
d. Provides support without restraining growth of plant
e. Ex. Celery strings
C. Sclerenchyma cells
1. Characteristics
a. Do have secondary cell walls lignin
i. Hard, strong
ii. Structural support
b. Maturity dead
c. Found in areas of plant that have stopped growing in length
d. 2 types
i. Sclereid cells
- Short, cubical
- Thick secondary cell wall (a lot of lignin)
- Ex. Nutshells, seed coats, grit in pears
ii. Fiber cells
- Long slender cells
- Bundles
- Wood and bark of flowering plants
- Protecting and supporting stem and roots

Bio II Page 74

A. Water-conducting cells of xylem


1. Tracheid
a. Maturity - dead and hollow
b. Lots of lignin in secondary cell wall
c. Long, tapered
d. Provide support
e. Conduct water upwards from roots to shoots
f. Movement from one tracheid to another though pits
g. Pit
i. Thin area in cell wall
- Primary cell wall
- No secondary cell wall
ii. Slows down water movement
Bio II Page 75

No secondary cell wall


ii. Slows down water movement
inefficient
iii. If air gets into system, tracheid traps air
makes sytem safe
h. Chief water conducting cells in gymnosperms and seedless vascular plants (ferns)
Angiosperms also have:
2. Vessel elements
a. Maturity - dead and hollow
b. Secondary cell wall lignin
c. Short - not important for support of plant
d. Perforations
e. Pits in side walls - lateral transport can occur between cells
f. Vessel - stack of vessel elements
g. High speed conduction
efficient
h. Need continuous column of water
i. If air enters system shuts down (within the one pipeline)
not safe
B. Sugar-conducting cells of phloem
1. Sieve tube element (STE)
a. Maturity - cells alive
b. Do not have
i. Nucleus
ii. Mitochondria
iii. Ribosomes
iv. Tonoplast (large vacuole)
c. Elongated cell
d. On end walls
i. Sieve plate with tiny pores
e. Stacked end-to-end
sieve tubes
f. Cytoplasm extends from cell to cell through sieve plates
g. Dissolved sugar is transported over long distances
2. Companion cells
a. Next to STE
b. Maturity - alive, have nucleus and other organelles
c. Do not conduct sugar
d. Move sugar into and out of STE
i. Loading and unloading
ii. Occur against concentration gradient
require metabolic energy a lot of mitochondria
3. Plasmodesmata
a. Cytoplasmic connections
i. Cytoplasm extends between companion cells and STE cells
b. Molecules and ions can move though
c. Organelles do not move though
V. Plant growth
A. Indeterminate growth
1. Growth occurs throughout life of plant
2. Continuous except for dormant periods
B. Meristems
1. Composed of cells whose primary function is to form new cells
mitosis
C. Primary growth
Bio II Page 76

C. Primary growth
1. Result of activity of apical meristems
a. Located at tips of roots and shoots
2. Increases growth in stem and root length
3. Roots - extends through soil
Shoots - taller
4. All plants
D. Secondary growth
1. Occurs in lateral meristems
a. Vascular cambium - adds layers of secondary xylem (wood) and secondary phloem
b. Cork cambium
i. Replaces epidermis with periderm (thicker and tougher than epidermis)
2. Increases girth of plant (circumference)
3. Only in gymnosperms and woody angiosperms (trees and shrubs)
4. Wood and bark
Fig 35.11

Bio II Page 77

Lecture 10: Plant Transport System


Tuesday, January 20, 2015

11:12 PM

I. Root anatomy
A. Epidermis
1. Single layer of tissue covers the root
2. Root hairs
a. Absorption occurs here
b. No cuticle
B. Cortex
1. Loosely packed parenchyma cells (unspecialized cells)
2. Large intracellular spaces in between cells
a. Provide pathway for water uptake
b. Allows for aeration of root (gases)
C. Endodermis
1. Inner layer of cortex
2. Single layer of cells - fit snugly against each other
3. Forms boundary between cortex and stele (where vascular tissue is)
4. Regulates movement of water and minerals into xylem (inside stele)
5. Casparian strip
a. Surrounds each cell of endodermis
b. Not in cell wall
c. Suberin - fatty and waterproof
i. Does not completely cover
d. Radial (side) and transverse (upper and lower) walls - are covered by suberin
D. Stele = vascular cylinder (xylem and phloem located here)
E. Mycorrhizae (fungi) - increase uptake of materials
Bio II Page 78

E. Mycorrhizae (fungi) - increase uptake of materials


1. Increase surface area of roots
2. Absorb water and minerals
II. Uptake of water and minerals by roots
A. Water potential
1. Psi
2. Free energy of water
a. Amount of e available to do work
3. Measured relative to reference point of pure water in container open to atmosphere at sea level
a. = 0 Mpa (megapascal)
4. Higher = more potential energy to perform work when water moves
5. decreases when solutes are dissolved in water
a. Solute molecules and ions bind to water molecules
b. Reduces motion of water molecules
c. Reduces capacity to do work
d. Reduced to negative number
6. Water moves from region of higher (less negative) psi to region of lower (more negative) psi
Water moves from hypotonic region (less solute) to hypertonic region (more solute)
a. Solution 1 - less solute = hypotonic = less negative
b. Solution 2 - more solute = hypertonic = more negative
i. Net movement will all go to solution 2
B. Soil
1. Extremely dry
a. Hypertonic solution
b. very negative
2. Moist soil
a. less negative - higher
C. Root
1. Negative
D. Movement of water
1. Dry soil
a. Soil (hypertonic) has higher solute concentration than root
b. Water does not move into soil
2. Moist soil
a. Roots (hypertonic) more negative relative to soil
b. Water moves from soil (hypotonic) into root
3. Movement by osmosis
4. Water will move into root or not, but not from root to soil
III. Short-distance transport roots
A. 2 main compartments
1. Apoplast
a. Everything that is external to plasma membrane of living cells
b. Cell wall, extracellular spaces, and interior of dead cells (vessel elements, etc.)
2. Symplast
a. Entire mass of cytosol of all living cells in plant as well as plasmodesmata (channels that connect 1 cell to another)
B. 3 routes of transport within plant tissue/organ
1. Apoplastic route
a. Water and solutes move along continuum of cell calls and extracellular spaces
b. Interconnected porous cell walls
c. Most transport of water and minerals occur via this route
2. Symplastic route
a. Water and solutes move along a continuum of cytosol
b. Entry of substances into cytosol is regulated by plasma membrane of 1st cell
c. Then substances move from cell to cell via plasmodesmata (channels)
3. Transmembrane route
a. Water and solutes move out of one cell, go across cell wall and into next cell
Fig 36.5

Bio II Page 79

C. Once water and minerals reach endodermis


1. Casparian strip blocks passage along cell walls between adjacent endodermal cells
2. Prevents apoplastic movement of materials (only barrier to apoplastic movement in plant)
3. Movement can only continue by going into cytoplasm of endodermal cells
D. Movement of water and nutrients across plasma membrane of endodermal cells
1. Water
a. Occurs by osmosis
b. Aquaporins (channels which allow movement of water to take place and increases rate)
2. Dissolved nutrients in the form of mineral ions
a. Against the concentration gradient
carrier-mediated active transport
b. Cellular energy required ATP
c. Even though endodermis is internal layer, it is responsible for controlling movement of nutrient minerals into root
Fig. 36.8

d. Diffusion explains movement of water over small, cellular scales


IV. Long-distance transport Bulk flow
A. Movement of liquid in response to pressure gradient
B. Independent of concentration gradient
C. Xylem - tracheids and vessel elements
Phloem - STE
Bio II Page 80

Phloem - STE
D. Fast
V. Bulk flow transport of water and minerals
A. Water and minerals in soil
1. Cross root epidermis root cortex endodermis vascular cylinder (stele) xylem
B. Xylem sap (water and minerals and nutrients)
1. Transported by bulk flow through plants
2. Transport involves loss of water through process of transpiration
C. Transpiration
1. Loss of water vapor from leaves and other aerial parts of plant
2. Leaf
a. Photosynthesis
b. Ground tissue
i. Mesophyll - photosynthetic tissue
ii. 2 sublayers
- Upper layer
Columnar cells
Tightly packed cells
Main site of photosynthesis
- Lower layer
Loosely arranged cells
Gas exchange can occur here
c. Dermal tissue
i. Epidermis
- Covers upper and lower surfaces
- Covered by cuticle which reduces water loss
No gas exchange
ii. Stomata
- Plants have to balance gas exchange and water loss
- Open during day
- Closed during night and during day in drought
D. Cohesion tension hypothesis
1. Explains long distance movement of water through plant
2. Ex. Sun comes up plant begins photosynthesis stomata open
Transpiration water diffuses out of leaf
3. Transpiration
a. ~99% of water that is absorbed by plant is lost through transpiration
b. Benefit
i. Mineral transport
ii. Evaporative cooling - movement of water cools plant
c. Creates tension
4. Tension
a. Transmitted from leaf to stem and down to root
b. When leaves lose water this tension is created (like using a straw - water from soil moves up)
c. Unidirectional movement of water
d. Water always moves from soil root tissues root xylem stem xylem
leaf xylem leaf mesophyll stomata atmosphere
5. Transpirational pull
a. Will only work if there is an unbroken chain of water molecules
i. Cohesion allows water to form solid unbroken column
ii. Adhesion water and xylem cells
E. Stomatal opening and closing
1. Controlled by shape of guard cells
a. Water moves into or out of guard cells
b. Every stoma has 2
c. Water moves into guard cell turgid
i. Bend and form pore
d. Water moves out of guard cell flaccid
i. Collapse and close pore
2. Mechanism
a. Stimulus blue light (400-500 nm)
i. Triggers H+ proton pumps in guard cell membrane
b. H+ out of cell and gradient is produces
c. Drives facilitated diffusion of K+ into guard cells
d. Also Cl- and other negative ions go in
e. Solute concentration very high inside cell
water moves into cell
guard cells turgid
Bio II Page 81

guard cells turgid


pores open
f. During day
i. K+ concentration decreases
ii. Solute concentration decreases (psi less negative)
water leaves cells
iii. Guard cells flaccid
pore closes
Fig 36.13

VI. Translocation of sugars


A. Intro
1. Photosynthesis - sucrose (glucose + fructose)
2. Phloem sap - mainly sucrose but also amino acids, minerals all dissolved in water
3. Phloem
a. Bidirectional (sap moves up and down)
b. Sugars made in leaves need to go down to roots for storage
c. Sugars stored in roots need to go up to other parts in plants
4. Movement called translocation
a. Source
b. Towards sink
c. Always from source (excess sugar) sink (need sugar or for storage)
d. Movement in phloem is variable
B. Pressure-flow hypothesis
1. Pressure gradient
a. Exists between source where sugar is loaded into phloem (high pressure) and sink where sugar is removed
from phloem (low pressure)
2. Source - ex. Leaf
a. Sucrose moves into companion cells (cell type of phloem)
b. Loading - movement of sucrose from companion cells into sieve tube element (STE)
i. active transport - requires ATP
ii. Increase solute concentration in STE
iii. STE psi decreases = more negative
iv. STE solution is hypertonic relative to xylem
Bio II Page 82

iv.
v.
vi.
vii.

STE solution is hypertonic relative to xylem


water moves from xylem into sieve tubes
creates pressure inside sieve tubes
Moves phloem sap through phloem to region of lower pressure

3. Sink
a. Unloading
i. Sugar moves out of STE and into sink cell (root, seed, etc.)
ii. Active transport - requires ATP
iii. STE psi increases (less negative)
iv. STE now hypotonic relative to xylem
v. Water moves out of sieve tube and into xylem
Fig. 36.16

Fig 36.2

Bio II Page 83

Lecture 11: Endocrine System I


Thursday, February 26, 2015

8:15 PM

I. Intro
A. Anatomy - form
B. Physiology - function
C. Structural and functional organization
1. Cells
2. Tissues - groups of cells with similar appearance and function
3. Organs - different tissue types
4. Organ systems
5. Whole organism
a. Emergent properties
II. Exchange with environment
A. Animals are not closed systems (not isolated from environment)
1. Need to be able to exchange materials with environment
2. Substances have to dissolve in aqueous environment
a. Can then move across plasma membrane cell
B. Single-celled organisms
1. Surface area to volume ratio is sufficient
C. Animals - multicellular
1. Require exchange across plasma membrane of each cell
2. Every cell must have access to an aqueous environment
Fig 40.3

D. Most animals
1. Composed of compact masses of cells
2. Have complex internal organization
3. Increased number of cells
a. Decreases outer surface area to volume ratio (less plasma membrane in contact with env.)
4. Specialized surfaces
a. Extensively branched/folded
b. Increases surface area
c. Internal so protected from outside trauma
5. Internal body fluids
a. Link exchange surfaces with body cells
b. Interstitial fluid - found in spaces between cells
c. Circulatory fluid (ex. Blood)
Fig 40.4
Bio II Page 84

Fig 40.4

III. Maintaining internal environment


A. 2 main mechanisms for managing internal environment
1. Regulators
a. Uses internal mechanism to control internal change regardless of external fluctuations
2. Conformer
a. Allows internal environment to vary with certain external changes
Fig 40.7

Bio II Page 85

B. Homeostasis
1. "steady state"
a. Internal environment is balanced and constant even if external conditions change
2. Wide range of chemical and physical properties to consider
a. Solute concentration
b. Temperature
3. Maintenance of a particular variable is usually at or near a particular value
a. Normal range (upper and lower limit ex. Body temp.)
C. Mechanisms
1. Stimulus - fluctuation in a variable
2. Sensor - detects stimulus
3. Response - particular physiological activity back to set point
D. Feedback control
1. Negative feedback
a. Response reduces the stimulus
b. Helps to restore preexisting state - brings system back to set point
2. Positive feedback
a. Response amplifies stimulus
Fig 40.8

Bio II Page 86

IV. Hormones
A. Chemical signaling molecule
B. Secreted into body fluids (most often blood)
C. Bind to target cells - any cells that contain specific receptors for particular hormones
D. Receptors
1. Proteins or glycoproteins on surface of target cells
2. Recognize and bind to specific hormones
3. Continuously synthesized and degraded
a. If hormone levels are too high
receptor-down regulation (fewer receptors synthesized)
b. If hormone levels are too low
receptor-up regulation (more receptors produced)
V. Intercellular communication
A. Endocrine signaling
1. Endocrine cells secrete hormones into extracellular fluid
2. Diffuse into blood and reach target cells
3. Functions:
a. Homeostasis
b. Respond to environmental stimuli
c. Growth and development
B. Paracrine and autocrine signaling
1. Produce and secrete local regulators
2. Diffusion target cells
3. Act over short distances
a. Act very quickly because of short distance
4. Paracrine
a. Target cell is near secreting cell
5. Autocrine
a. Secreting cells are themselves target cells
6. Ex. Prostaglandins - local regulators
a. ~ 16 different types
b. Produced by cells of most mammalian tissues
c. Regulate variety of functions
i. Blood pressure
Bio II Page 87

i. Blood pressure
ii. Contraction of smooth muscle
iii. Inflammation
iv. Blood clotting
C. Synaptic signaling
1. Neurons - basic unit of nervous system
a. Form synapses with target cells
b. Specialized junctions
2. At specialized junctions are neurotransmitters
a. Produced by neurons
b. Diffuse across synapse (short distance)
c. Bind to receptors on target cells
3. Functions
a. Memory, movement, sensation
D. Neuroendocrine signaling
1. Neurosecretory cells - specialized neurons
a. Secrete neurohormones
2. Diffuse from neuron endings into bloodstream
Fig 45.2

Bio II Page 88

E. Pheromones
1. Chemicals that are released into external environment
2. Targets are other individuals of the species
3. Functions
a. Define territory
b. Provide warning of predators
c. Attraction of mates
VI. Chemical properties of signaling molecules
A. Classes of local regulators (don't travel far)
1. Modified fatty acids
a. Hydrocarbon chains
b. Ex. Prostaglandins
Bio II Page 89

b. Ex. Prostaglandins
2. Gases
a. Ex. Nitric oxide (NO)
b. When oxygen levels in blood decrease, the endothelial cells (line blood vessels)
release NO
c. NO diffuses into smooth muscle (target cell)
d. Smooth muscle activates enzymes
relaxes muscle cells
vasodialation (diameter increases)
more blood will flow to tissues (more blood more oxygen)
Viagra prolongs activity of NO response pathway
3. Polypeptides
a. Cytokines and growth factors
B. Classes of hormones
1. 3 major chemical classes
a. Polypeptides - comprised of hundreds of amino acids
i. Ex. Insulin - consists of 2 peptide chains attached by disulfide bonds
b. Steroids - lipids comprised of 4 fused carbon rings
i. Derived from cholesterol
c. Amines
i. Hormones synthesized from a single amino acid
2. Vary in solubility
a. Aqueous environment - polypeptides and most amines
b. Lipid rich environment - steroid hormones and non-polar hormones
Fig 45.4

VII. Cellular response pathways - will vary between water soluble and lipid soluble hormones
A. Water-soluble hormones
Signal transduction
Bio II Page 90

Signal transduction
Series of changes in cellular proteins
Converts extracellular chemical signal into a specific intracellular response
(extracellular signal intracellular response)
1. Hormone secreted from endocrine cell by exocytosis
a. Travels freely in bloodstream
b. Insoluble in lipids - cannot diffuse across plasma membrane
2. Hormone will not enter cell
a. Binds to specific receptor in plasma membrane
b. Most common types of receptors - G protein-coupled receptors
3. Hormone-receptor complex is formed and binds to G protein in plasma membrane
a. G protein
i. Inactive - bound to GDP (similar to ATP)
b. G protein activated by receptor
i. Releases GDP
ii. Binds to GTP
produces comformational change in G protein
4. G protein binds to adenylyl cyclase (membrane-bound enzyme)
5. Adenylyl cyclase activates
a. Catalyzes conversion of ATP to cyclicAMP (cAMP) 2nd messanger of system
6. cAMP activates a protein kinase
7. Protein kinases - many different types
a. Phosphorylation (phosphate group added to protein)
i. Activates enzyme (produced by translation)
ii. Post-translational control
Fig 45.5

Bio II Page 91

B. Lipid-soluble hormones
1. Diffuse out across plasma membrane of endocrine cell
2. Bind to transport proteins
allow to be soluble in aqueous environment of blood
3. Target cell - diffuse into cell
a. Bind to receptors in cytoplasm - hormone receptor complex travels into nucleus
OR
b. Pass into nucleus hormone-receptor complex
4. Both cases
a. Complex will bind to specific sites on DNA
5. Binding causes conformational change in DNA
mRNA transcription or repression (message not transcribed)
protein synthesis or repression
Fig 45.6

Bio II Page 92

Fig 45.7

VIII. Multiple effects of hormones


A. Target cells may differ in
1. Receptor types
2. Molecule that produces response
B. Ex. Epinephrine
1. Triggers glycogen breakdown in liver
2. Increases blood flow to skeletal muscles
3. Decreases blood flow to digestive system
rapid response by body
4. Liver cells
a. Ep. Binds to beta-type receptor in plasma membrane
Bio II Page 93

a. Ep. Binds to beta-type receptor in plasma membrane


b. Activates protein kinase A
c. Regulates glycogen metabolism enzymes
glucose released into blood
5. Smooth muscle cells that line blood vessels that supply skeletal muscles
a. Ep. Binds to beta-type receptor in plasma membrane
b. Protein kinase A
c. Inactivates an enzyme
d. muscle relaxation vasodylation
increased blood flow
6. Smooth muscle that line blood vessels of intestines
a. Ep. Binds to alpha-type receptors
b. Different G protein
c. Different enzymes
smooth muscle contraction vasoconstriction
decreased blood flow to intestines
Fig 45.8

IX. Tissues and glands


A. Endocrine gland
1. Encompasses ductless glands and tissues
2. Hormones released directly into fluid
3. Function with nervous system
homeostatis maintained
B. Exocrine glands (not part of endocrine system)
1. Secrete substances via ducts
2. Onto body surface or into body cavity
Bio II Page 94

2. Onto body surface or into body cavity


3. Ex. Sweat, mucus, digestive enzymes
Fig 45.9

Bio II Page 95

Lecture 12: Endocrine System II


Tuesday, January 20, 2015

11:13 PM

I. Regulation pathways
A. Simple endocrine pathway
1. Endocrine cells respond directly to a stimulus
a. Response is to secrete a hormone
b. Hormone enters bloodstream
c. Reaches target cell (specific receptors)
d. Signal transduction
e. Brings about response
2. Ex. pH in duodenum (in small intestine)
a. Stomach contents enter
i. Acidic
bicarbonate to neutralize
Fig 45.10

B. Simple neuroendocrine pathway


1. Stimulus received by a sensory neuron (neuron that can detect stimulus)
2. Stimulates a neurosecretory cell
secretes neurohormone
blood
target cell
response
a. Ex. Regulation of milk release
Fig 45.11

Bio II Page 96

C. Feedback regulation
1. Negative feedback - reduces initial stimulus
2. Positive feedback - reinforces stimulus
II. Invertebrate endocrine control
Ex. Moths
A. Molting
1. Larva grows in stages molt
2. Sheds exoskeleton and secretes new one (controlled by endocrine system)
B. Endocrine pathway
1. Neurosecretory cells in brain
a. PTTH (neurohormone)
2. PTTH signals prothoracic gland to produce ecdysteroid
a. Production not continuous
bursts each triggers a molt
b. Ecdysteroid also controls metamorphosis (change in form)
3. JH - juvenile hormone
a. Secreted by a pair of endocrine glands called corpora allata
b. Actions
i. Prevent metamorphosis
ii. In presence of high levels of JH, ecdysteroid stimulates
an increase in size and molting (juvenile state)
iii. After each molt, JH decreases
iv. When JH drops below specific concentration
pupa forms at next molt
adult emerges
metamorphosis
Fig 45.12

Bio II Page 97

A. Synthetic JH - insecticide
1. Preventing development of reproducing adults
III. Hypothalamus
A. Introduction
1. Key regulatory structure
2. Region of brain
3. Neuroendocrine tissue
neurohormones
4. Link between endocrine and nervous system
5. Controls most hormones
6. Connected to pituitary gland by portal vessels
B. 2 modes of action
1. Produces
a. releasing hormones (RH)
b. Inhibiting hormones (IH)
c. Released into pituitary portal vein (gets transported to pituitary gland)
d. Directly bathes anterior lobe of pituitary gland
e. Effect on anterior pituitary gland
i. Specific hormones released
2. Produce ADH (antidiuretic hormone) and oxytocin
a. Peptide hormones
b. Produced by cell bodies of neurons on hypothalamus
travel down axon into posterior pituitary
stored in vesicles in axon terminals until neuron stimulated
IV. Pituitary gland
A. Posterior pituitary
1. Secretes ADH and oxytocin (does not produce - produced by hypothalamus)
a. ADH
i. Kidney - target
ii. Released from pituitary when water needs to be conserved
iii. Making collecting ducts of kidney more permeable to water
more water being reabsorbed into blood
smaller volume of urine being produced
b. Oxytocin (produced by hypothalamus) - in both males and females
i. Stimulates smooth muscle contraction of uterus during childbirth
Bio II Page 98

i. Stimulates smooth muscle contraction of uterus during childbirth


ii. Controls milk secretion by mammary glands
iii. Influences variety of behaviors related to
- maternal care
- Pair bonding
- Sexual activity
Fig 45.14

B. Anterior pituitary - produces hormones (controlled by hypothalamus)


1. Endocrine gland
2. Every anterior pituitary hormone is controlled by at least one releasing hormone
a. Some controlled by inhibiting hormone (released by hypothalamus)
3. Hormones produced by anterior pituitary
a. Tropic hormones - stimulate another endocrine gland
i. TSH - thyroid stimulating hormone
ii. ACTH - adrenocorticotropic hormone
iii. Gonadotropic hormones
- LH - luteinizing
- FSH - follicle stimulating hormone
b. Nontropic hormones
i. PRL - prolactin
ii. MSH - melanocyte stimulating hormone
c. Tropic and nontropic effects
i. GH - growth hormone
Fig 45.15

Bio II Page 99

A. Hormone cascade pathways


1. Sets of hormones from hypothalamus, anterior pit, endocrine gland,
and effect on target tissue
V. Hormonal regulation of growth
A. GH
1. Secreted by anterior pit. (produced by anterior pit.)
2. Stimulates growth
3. Liver is major target
a. Responds to GH
release IGFs (insulin-like growth factor)
stimulate bone and cartilage growth
B. GH regulation
1. Hypothalamus regulates
a. GHRH and GHIH released
2. If GH levels high
a. Hypothalamus secretes GHIH
i. Target tissue - ant. pit. secretes less GH
3. If GH levels low
a. Hypothalamus secretes GHRH
i. Target tissue - ant. pit. secretes more GH
C. Hyposecretion of GH in childhood
1. Pituitary dwarfism
a. Small but correctly proportioned
b. Normal intelligence
2. Treatment options - diagnosed before puberty
3. Hormone GH can be obtained from cadaver pituitary - limited supply
a. GH is species specific
b. HGH (human growth hormone produced by recombinant DNA tech.)
c. Human GH gene inserted into bacteria
D. Hyersecretion of GH
1. During childhood
a. Gigantism - abnormally tall
b. Normal body proportions
Fig 45.18
Bio II Page 100

Fig 45.18

2. During adulthood
a. Acromegaly
b. Growth only in those parts of body still responsive to GH
c. Bones in hands, feet, and head
VI. Thyroid regulation
A. Ex. Thyroid hormone have dropped below normal range
1. Hypothalamus secretes TRH (thyrotropic releasing hormone) into blood in response
Target - anterior pit.
2. Ant. pit. secretes TSH into blood (tropic hormone) to stimulate thyroid gland
3. Thyroid gland
a. 2 lobes
i. Ventral surface of trachea
b. 2 hormones
i. Derived from amino acid tyrosine and iodine
ii. T3 = triiodothyronine - 3 iodines
iii. T4 - thyroxine - 4 iodines
4. T3 and T4
a. Effects
i. Stimulate cellular metabolism
ii. Maintain blood pressure, heart rate, muscle tissue
iii. Regulate digestive and reproductive functions
b. Negative feedback loop
i. Blocks TRH release from hypothalamus
ii. Blocks TSH release from anterior pit.
iii. Prevents overproduction of thyroid hormones
Fig 45.16

Bio II Page 101

B. Disorders from thyroid malfunction


1. Hypothyroidism
a. Weight gain and lethargy
b. Reduced metabolic rate
c. Intolerance to cold
2. Hyperthyroidism
a. High body temperature and sweating
b. Weight loss
c. High blood pressure
d. Irritability
3. Graves disease - hyperthyroidism
Bio II Page 102

3. Graves disease - hyperthyroidism


a. Autoimmune disease (attacks own cells)
b. Abnormal antibodies bind to TSH receptors and stimulates them
hypersecretion of thyroid hormone
4. Goiter
a. Deficiency of iodine - thyroid gland can't make hormone
b. Thyroid hormone levels decline
anterior pituitary secreting high levels of TSH
growth of thyroid gland (abnormal enlargement)
VII. Parathyroid glands
A. 4 glands in connective tissue surrounding thyroid gland
1. control blood calcium levels
2. secrete PTH - parathyroid hormone
B. Calcium ion levels too low
More PTH released
1. Bone - breakdown of bone matrix and calcium released
2. Kidney - reabsorb more calcium ions
3. Liver - convert precursor form of vitamin D (from food or skin) to actual vitamin D
a. Vitamin D acts on intestine and stimulates uptake of calcium from food
Fig 45.19

C. Calcium ion levels too high


1. Thyroid gland responds - calcitonin secreted
a. Target tissues
i. Bone - inhibit calcium ion removal
ii. Kidney - excretes more calcium ions
2. Antagonistic to PTH (opposite)
VIII. Adrenal glands
A. Introduction
1. Small glands located on top of each kidney
2. Help body to adjust to stress
Bio II Page 103

2. Help body to adjust to stress


3. Consists of 2 parts - function as 2 distinct glands
a. Adrenal medulla - central
b. Adrenal cortex - outer
c. Both regulate metabolism and help body adjust to stress
B. Adrenal medulla
1. Responsible for producing alarm reaction (fight or flight)
2. Neuroendocrine gland
3. Continuously secretes 2 hormones in small amounts
a. Epinephrine = adrenaline
b. Norepinephrine
4. During stress
a. Causes hypothalamus to activate adrenal medulla via nerve impulses
b. Adrenal medulla releases epinephrine and norepinephrine (large amounts)
i. Blood goes to organs essential for emergency action
- Brain, muscles, heart
- Less blood in nonessentials
ii. Glycogen glucose energy
iii. Increase metabolic rate
iv. Increases oxygen delivery
- increase rate and stroke volume of heartbeat
- Increase breathing rate
C. Adrenal cortex
1. Chronic stress
2. Endocrine signals
3. Hypothalamus secretes CRF
a. Stimulates ant pit. to release ACTH
4. ACTH stimulates adrenal cortex corticosteroids (cholesterol)
5. Glucocorticoids
a. Glucose formation from non-carbohydrate sources (ex. Proteins)
b. Skeletal muscles
breakdown of muscle proteins
Amino acids liver and kidney glucose blood
6. Mineralocorticoids
a. Regulate mineral metabolism
b. Main action is to maintain salt and water balance
c. Primary one is aldosterone (produced by adrenal cortex)
i. Balance of salt and water in blood
Fig 45.20

Bio II Page 104

Bio II Page 105

Lecture 13: Reproduction I


Tuesday, January 20, 2015

11:13 PM

I. Intro
A. Asexual
1. 2+ offspring
a. identical
b. so theyre clones
2. no meiosis
3. no fusion of gametes
4. types
a. budding
i. small part of parents body separates and becomes offspring
ii. only in invertebrates
iii. ex: sponges, cnidarians
b. fission
i. parent - 2 offspring (parent splitting)
ii. only in invertebrates
c. fragmentation and regeneration
i. parent body breaks into several pieces
ii. each piece produce missing parts
iii. ex: sea stars
d. parthenogenesis
i. unfertilized egg - adult (n)
ii. ex: bees, wasps, ants
5. advantages
a. rapid
b. if sessile, dont need to find mate
c. if not many individuals, dont need to find mate
B. sexual
1. gametes
meiosis (2n) - (n)
a. sperm
a. male parent, small, flagellated, motile
b. ovum (egg)
a. female parent, large, nonmotile, contains nutrients
2. fertilization
a. gametes fuse zygote (fertilized egg, 2n)
3. disadvantage
a. reproductive handicap of sex
Fig 46.3

Bio II Page 106

4. advantages
a. genetic recombination
i. offspring may be better suited to environment than parents
ii. population may rid itself of harmful genes more easily
C. Reproductive cycles
1. Usually seasonal
a. Environmental cues trigger hormonal secretions - control cycles of reproduction
2. Offspring produced only when environment is suitable for survival
a. Ex: caribou in Greenland
i. Migrate to calving rounds in spring because there are sprouting plants
(nutrients to sustain life)
ii. Prior to 1993:
i. Arrive at calving grounds at same time as when plants were available
iii. Since 1993:
i. Average spring temperature increased 4 degrees C - plants sprout
earlier
iv. Caribou migration triggered by day length, not temp
v. So the average number of caribou offspring decreased by 75%
3. Some animals reproduce sexually and asexually
a. Ex: water fleas:
1. Two types of eggs
2. One type requires fertilization to develop (sexual)
i. Times of environmental stress
3. Other type- parthenogenesis (asexual)
i. Favorable environment
D. Hermaphroditism
sexual
1. One individual has male and female reproductive system
2. Some self-fertilizing (sexual)
3. Usually undergo cross fertilization
4. Sequential hermaphroditism
1. Individual reverses its sex during its lifetime
2. Protogenous - female first, then male
3. Protangrous - male first, then female
5. Ex: wrasses (reef fish)
1. Protogynous
2. Largest and oldest will change to female
3. Live in harenms (lots of females and one male)
4. If remove male, then larges female will change sex
II. Male reproductive system (Fig 46.9 - label/identify all structures)
Bio II Page 107

4. If remove male, then larges female will change sex


II. Male reproductive system (Fig 46.9 - label/identify all structures)

A. Fuction
1. Spermatogenesis
2. Delivers sperm into female reproductive tract
B. Testes (testis)
1. Male gonads
2. Consist of
a. Seminiferous tubules
i. Very long, hallow tubes
ii. Tiny diameter
iii. Spermanogenesis
b. Leydis cells
i. B/w tubulues
ii. Produce testosterone and other sex hormones
C. Epididymous
1. Coiled tube
Bio II Page 108

D.

E.
F.

G.
H.
I.

J.

1. Coiled tube
2. Fuctions
a. Transport of sperm (takes ~3 wks)
b. Maturation of sperm
c. Storage of sperm
Scrotum
1. Sac- contains testes and epidydmous
2. Suspended from groin - testes and epididymous located outside of body
a. Sperm cells dont develop at body temp ( 1-2 degrees cooler needed )
b. Temperature affects production and longevity
c. Some exceptions
i. Ex: elephants have low body temp ~35.9C (96.6F)
Ejaculation
1. Sperm travels from epididymous through vas deferens
Vas deferens
1. Sperm ducts- one from each epididymous
From scrotum to pelvic cavity
Vasectomy ligation
Each vas deferens empties into ejaculatory duct
Ejaculatory duct
1. Passes through prostate gland
2. Joins at urethra
Urethra
1. Urine and semen
2. Pass through penis
Penis
1. Copulatory organ
2. Urtethra- down middle
3. Erectile tissue
a. 3 parallel columns
b. sexual stimulation
i. release of NO from endotheral cells
ii. smooth muscle in arterial walls to relax
iii. arteries then dilate
iv. = erectile tissue swells
v. veins compressed
c. Viagra- promotes action of NO (nitrous oxide)
4. Glans penis
a. Tip, sensory neurons
5. Prepuse (foreskin)
a. Circumcision
Accessory glands
1. Seminal vesicles
a. Pair
b. Fluid
i. Fructose Energy
ii. Prostaglandins
- Simulate contractions of female uterus
- Help sperm move up female reproductive tract
iii. Secretes into vas deferens
iv. ~60% of total volume of semen
v. yellow pigment fluoresces
- forensic investigations
2. prostate gland
a. anticoagolate enzymes and citrate (nutrient)
Bio II Page 109

a. anticoagolate enzymes and citrate (nutrient)


b. into urethra
c. common site of cancer
3. bulbourethral gland
a. 2 glands- either side of the urethra
b. 1st glands to deposit secretions at time of arousal
c. fluid
i. mucus- neutralizes acidic urine in urethra
ii. some sperm- before ejaculation
4. semen
a. mixture of sperm and fluids
b. overall pathway for sperm
i. testes (sem. tubules) epidid vas def ejaculatory ducts urethra
released
III. Spermanogenesis
production of mature sperm cells
A. Embryonic testes
1. Primordial germ cells
a. Divide and differentiate
i. spermatogonial stem cells (2n)
B. mature testes
1. stem cells divide by mitosis
a. spermatengonia (2n)
C. spermategonia
1. undifferentiated cells, in walls of seminiferous tubules
2. mitosis more spermategnoia
3. some divide primary spermatocytes
a. ~ 3 million
D. primary spermatocytes (2n)
1. meiosis 1 & 2 secondary spermatocytes
E. secondary spermatocyte
1. meiosis II each one produces 2 spermatotids
a. (one from primary spermatocyte & 4 spermatids)
F. spermatid (n)
1. differentiates into mature sperm
G. sperm
1. head
a. nucleus
b. acrosome
1. on surface of head
2. membrane bound vesicle
3. enzymes
4. penetration of egg
2. midpiece
a. mitochondria ATP (E for movement)
3. tail- flagellum
4. ~ 65-95 days and is a continuous process
Fig 46.11

Bio II Page 110

IV. Male endocrinology


A. Androgens
1. Principle sex hormones in males
2. Testosterone most important
B. Hypothalamus
1. GnRH- Gonadotropen releasing hormone
2. into pituitary portal vein anterior pituitary
C. ant pit releases 2 gonadotropens
1. LH
2. FSH
a. Both tropic hormones which stimulate other glands
D. LH
Bio II Page 111

D. LH
1. Target tissue - Leydig cells of testes
2. Laydig cells - androgens
a. Primarily testosterone
E. Testosterone
1. Need high levels of testosterone in testes for spermanogensis
a. Healthy ~ 15-200 million sperm/ml of semen
b. Low sperm count <15 million/ml
2. Puberty
a. Period of sexual maturation
i. Sex characteristics
b. Adolescent growth spurt
c. Primary male sex characteristics
i. Reproduction organs developing
d. Secondary male sex characteristics
i. Facial/body hair, deeper voice, muscle development
F. FSH
1. Stimulate development of seminiferous tubules
2. Stimulate sertoli cells
a. Secrete ABP (angrogen binding protein)
i. Binds to testosterone
ii. Maintain high levels of testosterone in testes
iii. Testosterone is being sequestered
3. FSH secretion inhibited by inhibin
a. peptide hormone secretes by sertoli cells
Fig 46.13

Bio II Page 112

Lecture 14: Reproduction II


Tuesday, January 20, 2015

11:13 PM

Female Reproductive System


I. Function
A. Ova (eggs)
B. Receives penis and sperm
C. Houses and nourishes embryo
birth
D. Lactation
II. Main organs
Fig 46.10

A. Ovary
1. Female gonad - pair
2. In abdominal cavity
3. Ligaments
4. Produces
a. Gametes - oocytes, oogenesis
Bio II Page 113

a. Gametes - oocytes, oogenesis


b. Sex hormones
i. Estradiol
ii. Progesterone
B. Oviducts = fallopian tube
1. From uterus to each ovary
a. Funnel-shaped portion
partially surrounds ovary
b. Secondary oocyte from ovary
c. Beating alia and contractions
move secondary oocyte
2. Site of fertilization
a. If no fertilization secondary oocyte degenerates in oviduct
3. Cilia - move secondary oocyte into uterus
C. Uterus (aka womb)
1. Myometrium - thick wall comprised of smooth muscle
2. Endometrium - consists of connective tissue, glands, blood vessels
a. Forms inner lining
b. Thickens every month
in prep for pregnancy
c. If fertilization occurs embryo implants
d. If no fertilization sloughed off = menstration
D. Cervix
1. Lower portion of uterus
2. Separates uterus from vagina
3. Common site of cancer (HPV)
E. Vagina
1. Elastic muscular tube
2. Extends to outside of body
3. Receives penis and sperm
4. Aka birth canal
F. Vulva
1. External genitalia
2. Cover external opening of female reproductive system
III. Oogenesis
Fig 46.11

Bio II Page 114

A. Primordial germ cells (2n)


1. In female embryo
2. Undergo mitosis (so next is 2n - oogonium)
B. Oogonium (2n)
1. Formed during embryonic development
No new oogonia formed after birth
2. Mitosis
C. Primanry oocyte (2n - some oogonium will develop into these)
1. Begin meiosis (do not complete), arrest stop at prophase I
2. At birth
a. ~ 1-2 mil primary oocytes
3. By sexual maturity
a. ~ 200k remain
4. Remain dormant until puberty
Bio II Page 115

4. Remain dormant until puberty


hormones act on them
5. Each primary oocyte is in a follicle
D. Follicle
1. Components
a. Contains primary oocyte
b. Follicle cells - form protective barrier around primary oocyte
c. Zona pellucida
i. Thick layer of glycoprotein
ii. In between primary oocyte and follicle cells
2. Each month ~ 6-12 follicles mature
a. Primary oocytes grow and follicle cells proliferate
b. After ~1 week - one follicle is larger than the other continues to grow
(others cease development)
3. Primary oocyte of the growing follicle
a. Completes meiosis I
i. 8-10 hours before it is released from ovary
b. Cytokinesis is unequal (daughter cells not same size)
i. Polar body (n)
- Smaller cell
- Eventually disintegrates
ii. Secondary oocyte (n)
- Larger daughter cell
- Proceeds to meiosis II
- Stops in metaphase II
4. Ovulation
a. As secondary oocyte matures, it moves closer to surface of ovary
b. Follicle cells secretes
i. Fluid, estrogens, and proteolytic enzymes (break down proteins in wall of ovary)
- Small area
c. Secondary oocyte ejected through opening in wall
into oviduct
5. Corpus luteum (yellow body) - portion of follicle left in ovary after ovulation
a. Functions as temporary endocrine gland
i. Secretes estrogen and a lot of progesterone
E. Secondary oocyte (in oviduct as of now)
1. If sperm enters secondary oocyte
resumes meiosis II
completes meiosis II
a. Mature egg containing sperm head
oogenesis is complete
2. If no sperm enters secondary oocyte
a. Disintegrates
b. Corpus luteum dies luteolysis
c. Menstruation
d. New follicle develops during next cycle
IV. Menstrual cycle
A. Female mammals in all species endometrium thickens before ovulation
Only some species have menstrual cycles
1. Estrous cycle
a. Female is fertile and "in heat" (sexually receptive to males only at certain times of year)
2. Menstrual cycle
a. Cycle in which females are fertile intermittently and cyclic basis
b. Fertile times are not synchronized with sexual receptiveness
Bio II Page 116

b. Fertile times are not synchronized with sexual receptiveness


c. Human females and other primates
B. General principles
1. Complex sequence of events (involves several parts of body)
a. Hypothalamus
b. Anterior pituitary
c. Ovaries
d. Uterus
2. Cycle is repeated approx. every 28 days
a. Unless conception takes place (fertilization)
prepares body for possible pregnancy
3. Key glands and hormones
a. Hypothalamus - GnRH stimulates anterior pituitary
b. Anterior pituitary - FSH & LH
c. Ovaries
i. Estrogen - principle female sex hormone
- Main form - estradiol
- secreted by follicle cells and corpus luteum
- Stimulates growth of sex organs at puberty
- Development of secondary sex characteristics
Breast development
Broadening of pelvis
Changes fat and muscle distribution
- Stimulates monthly preparation of endometrium
ii. Progesterone
- Secreted mainly by corpus luteum
- Completes preparation of endometrium
- Stimulates endometrial glands to secrete fluids (a lot of nutrients)
C. Components of menstrual cycle ~ 28 days
1. Ovarian cycle
a. Follicular phase occurs in days 1-13 (before ovulation)
b. Luteal phase occurs in days 15-28 (after ovulation)
2. Ovulation - day 14
3. Uterine cycle
a. Menstrual flow phase - days 1-5
b. Proliferative phase - days 6-13
c. Secretory phase - days 15-28 (after ovulation)
V. Hormonal control of female reproductive cycle
A. Ovarian cycle
1. Begins with release of GnRH from hypothalamus
2. Stimulates anterior pituitary to release small amounts of FSH and LH
3. FSH - stimulates follicle growth
LH - functions in promoting follicle growth
4. Follicle cells produce estradiol
a. Slow rise of estradiol during follicular phase
b. Low levels of estradiol inhibit secretion of FSH and LH by anterior pituitary
5. Growing follicle secretes increasing amounts of estradiol
high levels of estradiol
stimulates hypothalamus to increase relase of GnRH
increases sensitivity of LH releasing cells in anterior pituitary
6. FSH and LH levels increase significantly
LH surge (LH in particular rises a lot - in blood)
Fig 46.14

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7. Maturing follicle
a. Enlarges and moves to surface of ovary
b. Ovulation takes place about one day after LH surge
i. Secondary oocyte is released into oviduct
8. Luteal phase
a. LH stimulates follicular tissue to transform into corpus luteum
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a. LH stimulates follicular tissue to transform into corpus luteum


b. Corpus luteum
i. Produces a lot of progesterone and estradiol
c. Prog. and estr. negative feedback effect on hypothalamus
i. Hypothalamus produces less GnRH
ii. Anterior pituitary produces less LH and FSH
iii. Prevents another egg from maturing
d. If no pregnancy
i. Low FSH and LH levels cause corpus luteum to disintegrate
ii. Decline in prog. and estr.
iii. Hypothalamus no longer under negative feedback by estr. and prog.
produces GnRH stimulates ant. pit.
iv. Anterior pituitary stimulates next ovarian cycle
B. Uterine cycle
1. Proliferative phase ~ days 6-13
a. Coordinated with follicular phase of ovarian cycle (days 1-13)
b. Ovarian hormones stimulate uterus to prepare to support an embryo
i. Estradiol (follicle cells produce) signals endometrium to thicken
2. Ovulation - day 14
3. Secretory phase
a. Coordinated with luteal phase of ovarian cycle
b. Corpus luteum produces a lot of progesterone and estradiol
i. Stimulates maintenance and development of endometrium
ii. Arteries enlarging
iii. Endometrium glands growing
c. Endometrium glands produce nutrient fluid
i. Sustain early embryo before it implants into uterine lining
d. If pregnancy does not occur
i. Corpus luteum disintegrates
- Progesterone and estradiol levels drop
ii. Arteries in endometrium constrict (less blood flow)
- Deprive lining of circulation
lining disintegrates
4. Menstrual flow phase
a. Endometrial tissue, fluid, and blood is shed
b. Days 1-5
c. New follicles begin to grow
d. Day 1 of menstrual flow is beginning of new ovarian and uterine cycles
Average woman ~ 500 cycles in lifetime
VI. Menopause
A. Cessation of ovulation and menstruation ~ ages 46-54
B. Ovaries lose responsiveness to FSH and LH
decline in estradiol production
C. Other animals don't go through menopause
D. Hypothesis
1. Have children but then stop reproducing
provide more care to exsisting offspring and grandchildren

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Lecture 15: Development I


Tuesday, January 20, 2015

11:13 PM

I. Development
A. All changes that occur during the entire life cycle of an individual
1. Encompasses embryonic development following birth/hatching
B. Model Organisms
1. Species that have been chosen for research
a. Chosen because very easily studied
b. Ex: *sea urchin, frog, chick*, nematode
Fig 47.2

II. Fertilization
A. Intro
1. Sperm- flagellated, motile
a. Fuses with ovum or egg (larger non motile gamete)
b. Produces zygote fertilized eggs, single cell
2. Consequences of fertilization
a. Restored 2n number
b. Determines sex of offspring
c. Activates egg and stimulates reactions that allow development to take place
3. Egg surrounded by plasma membrane
a. 1 or more coverings
i. which are important because they aid in fertilization by sperm of the same
species
ii. function as barriers to interspecific fertilization
4. Steps
a. Sperm dissolve protective layers that are around the egg get to plasma
membrane
b. Molecules on sperm surface bine to receptors that are on eggs surface
c. Surface of egg changes prevents polyspermy
5. Sea Urchins (phylum Echinodermata)
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5. Sea Urchins (phylum Echinodermata)


a. Readily available
b. Easy to work with
c. Lots of gametes
d. External fertilizers
B. Sea Urchin
1. Egg coverings internal to external layers
a. Innermost plasma membrane
b. Vitelline layer -thin
c. Last jelly coat (thick, glycoproteins)
2. External fertilizers
a. Gametes are going to be released into the water, jelly coat of eggs exudes
chemicals which attract the sperm
b. Chemotaxis (sperm moving directed to response [chemical])
3. Sperm contacts jelly coat of egg and undergo an acrosomal reaction
a. Acrosome
i. Release hydrolytic enzymes
ii. Partially digest jelly coat
b. Acrosomal process forms
i. Sperm strucute comprised of actin (protein) filaments
ii. This process protrudes from sperm head and penetrates the coat
iii. Protein molecules at the tip bind to specific receptors on the plasma
membrane
iv. lock and key same species
4. Recognition between sperm and egg
a. Triggers fusion of plasma membranes
b. Sperm nucleus enters egg
c. Plasmogamy
5. Fast block to polyspermy triggered by fusion of membranes
a. Unfertilized egg polarized cytoplasm negatively charged relevant to outside
b. Within seconds
i. Ion channels in egg plasma membrane open
c. These channels allow sodium (Na+) to diffuse across membrane and enter egg
d. Up to this point, charge of egg has been negative, now it is positive Egg
depolarizes
i. Occurs about 1-3 seconds after sperm binds to egg
e. Membrane depolarizationi. Prevents fusion with additional sperm
f. Transient
i. Lasts only about 1 minute
6. Slow block to polyspermy
a. This occurs via cortical reaction
b. Sperm binding to egg triggers signal transduction pathway
i. Triggers release of calcium ions from the endoplasmic recticulum (ER) to
the cytoplasm
ii. Increased level of calcium ions triggers cortical granules
c. Cortical granules
i. Vesicles which lie in cortex (rim of cytoplasm that is just beneath the egg
plasma membrane)
ii. Release enzymes and other macromolecules into the space between
plasma membrane and vitellin layer
d. Cortical reaction
i. Vitelline layer lifts away from egg and hardens produces fertilization
envelope
Fertilization envelope prevent entry of additional sperm
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Fertilization envelope prevent entry of additional sperm


ii. Enzymes clip off and release external portions of any receptor proteins
e. Cortical reaction ~ 1 minute to set up
i. Complete block irreversible and permanent
Fig 47.3

C. Mammals
1. Egg coverings
a. Plasma membrane
b. Zona pellucida
c. Follicle cells
2. Internal fertilizers
3. Acrosomal reaction
a. Sperm bind to ZP3(glycoprotein) found in zona pelucida
b. Binding triggers acrosome to burst
i. releases enxymes that are important because they help sperm get through
zona pelucida
4. No fast block to polyspermy in mammals
5. Sperm binding triggers cortical reaction
a. Calcium ions are going to be released into cytoplasm
b. Cortical granules stimulated to release their enzymes to outside of cell
c. Catalyze changes in zona pelucida
i. Hardens
ii. Sperm receptors altered
No additional sperm can bind
iii. No fertilization envelope
Slow block to polyspermy
Fig 47.5

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Summary: up to this point


o sperm recognized egg
o sperm nucleus entered egg
o changes in egg covering have taken place
prevent any additional sperm from entering
D. Activation of the egg
1. Series of metabolic reactions begin
a. trigger onset of embryonic development
2. Triggered by increase of calcium ions in cytoplasm (during cortical reaction)
3. Changes
a. Increase in cellular respiration
b. Maternal enzymes and proteins activated
c. Increase in protein synthesis
i. Maternal mRNA already in the cell
E. Fusion of sperm and egg nuclei
1. Egg development
a. Sea urchins
i. Their eggs have completed meiosis by the time of release from the female
b. Humansi. Egg- (2nd oocyte)
Metaphase II
ii. Fertilization triggers resumption of meiosis
Completes
Female nucleus and 2nd polar body (1st polar body produced after
meiosis 1, disintegrated) so does this one
2. Sperm nucleus is guided to egg nucleus by microtubules in cytoplasm
3. Female and male nuclei fuse (Karyogamy)
a. Sea urchins ~ 20 minutes after sperm enters egg
b. Humans ~ several hours
4. Zygote
a. Diploid
b. Totipotent
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b. Totipotent
i. Has potential to give rise to all cell types
F. End of fertilization
1. When cell undergoes 1st division
2. Sea urchin ~90 minutes after sperm binds
3. Mammals ~12-36 hours after binding
III. Cleavage
Single celled zygote a multicellular embryo
A. Intro
1. Series of rapid mitotic divisions
2. Cell cyclea. Consists mainly of S + M phases
b. S- synthesis, M- mitosis
c. Essentially no G1 or G2 phases
d. Little or no protein synthesis no growth
e. Cell # increases
i. Cells get smaller
ii. Embryo size does not increase
3. Cleavage furrow indentation in cell surface as cytokinesis divides cell in half
4. Pattern of divisions affected by presence of yolk
a. Mixture of protein, fats, phospholipids
b. Amount of yolk varies among species
5. Blastomere cell
B. Stages1. Zygote (1 cell)
a. Embryo (2 or more cells)
i. Humans 1st cell division ~ 24 hours after sperm binds
b. Lots of division
i. Blastula (At least 128 blastomeres)
ii. Forms a hollow ball
C. Pattern of cleavage
1. Sea urchinsa. Deuterostomes radial and indeterminate cleavage
b. Division is uniform across embryo
Fig 47.6

2. Frogs
a. Cleavage is asymmetric
i. Yolk distribution
ii. Most of yolk concentrated at one pole of egg (vegetal pole)
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ii. Most of yolk concentrated at one pole of egg (vegetal pole)


iii. Opposite pole animal pole
b. Holoblastic cleavage
i. Yolk slows down completion of cytokinesis in vegetal hemisphere
ii. But cleavage furrow still passes entirely through egg
c. 1st 2 cleavage furrows form parallel to meridian (connects poles)
i. 1st cleavage furrow is still dividing yolky cytoplasm
ii. 2nd division begins
iii. 4 blastomeres
equal size
extend from animal pole to vegetable pole
d. frogs gray crescent
i. light colored region
ii. opposite to site of sperm entry
iii. where gastrulation begins
Fig 47.7

3. 3rd division yolk begins to affect relative size of cells produced in 2 hemispheres
4. equatorial perpendicular to median
a. produces 8 celled embryo
b. Yolk near vegetal pole displaces mitotic apparatus toward animal pole
i. Cleavage furrow is displaced toward animal pole
ii. Results in 2 tiers of cells
Smaller blastomeres in animal hemispheres
5. Mammals (Echinodermata)
a. Little yolk
b. Heloblastic (cleavage furrow entirely through egg)
c. Blastocoel central
d. Blastomeres similar size
6. Birds, other reptiles, fish, insects
a. Lots of yolk
b. Cleavage furrow cannot pass through yolk
c. Only region lacking yolk cleavage
D. Regulation of cleavage
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D. Regulation of cleavage
1. Newly fertilized eggs
a. Single nucleus
b. Little DNA not enough mRNA
2. Initial development
a. Maternal RNA and proteins
3. Following cleavage
a. Many blastomeres many nuclei
b. Cells small
c. 3rd division
i. yolk begins to affect relative sizes of cells produced in 2 hemispheres
ii. equatorial perpendicular to meridian
iii. produces 8-celled embryo
iv. yolk near vegetal pole displaces mitotic apparatus toward animal pole
cleavage furrow is displaced toward animal pole
Results in 2 tiers of cells
d. Subsequent divisions yolk continues to displace cleavage toward animal pole

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Lecture 16: Development II


Tuesday, March 24, 2015

8:02 PM

Summary
1. Following cleavage
a. Normal cell cycle resumes, so rate of cell division slows down
2. Enters phase of morphogenesis
a. Cellular and tissue bases processes
animal body takes shape
b. Occurs in last 2 stages of embryonic development
i. Gastrulation
ii. Organogenesis

I. Gastrulation
A. Morphological process
1. Hollow blastula becomes layered embryo - gastrula
B. Embryonic germ layers comprise gastrula
1. Ectoderm - outer layer
2. Endoderm - lines embryonic digestive compartment and tract
3. Mesoderm - forms between ecto and endo
4. Diploblasts develop ectoderm and endoderm
a. Cnidarians and radially symmetrical
5. Triploblasts develop all three layers
a. Vertebrates and bilaterally symmetrical
C. Gastrulation in sea urchins
1. Highlights
a. Cell migration (during gastrulation)
b. Invagination (folding inwards of sheet of cells into embryo)
c. Archenteron develops from invagination
i. Becomes deeper and narrower
ii. Blind ended tube
iii. Future digestive tract
d. Blastopore
i. Open end of archenteron
anus
e. Second opening mouth (deutersotomes)
2. Sequence of events
a. Meseuchyme cells at vegetal pole
i. Migrate into blastocoel
ii. Some of these will later secrete calcium carbonate
forms simple internal skeleton
b. Cells at vegetal pole will flatten slightly
i. Causes vegetal pole to buckle inward
invagination
c. Endoderm cells form archenteron
i. Meseuchyme cells at tip of archenteron produce filopodia (thin extensions from cell)
- Extend toward blastocoel wall
d. Filopodia contract (at tip of archenteron)
i. Filopodia drag archenteron across blastocoel (hollow center)
ii. Blastopore (open end, becomes anus)
e. Archenteron fuses with blastocoel wall
digestive tube has both mouth and anus
gastrula - 3 germ layers covered in cilia (for feeding and movement)
Fig 47.8

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D. Gastrulation in frogs
1. Highlights
a. 3 germ layers
i. Each layer will produce a distinct set of structures
Fig 47.9

b. Bilaterally symmetrical animal


i. Dorsal - top
ii. Ventral - bottom
iii. Right and left
iv. Anterior - front
v. Posterior - back
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v. Posterior - back
c. Cell movemenst that begin gastrulation occur on dorsal side of blastula
i. Region where gray crescent formed (opposite where sperm enters egg)
d. Blastopore - open end of archenteron anus
2. Sequence of events
a. Cells on dorsal side invaginate and form small indented crease blastopore
i. Dorsal lip located above crease
ii. More cells invaginate and blastopore gets longer and longer
- Extends around both sides of embryo and meet blastopore forms a circle
Fig 47.10

b. As blastopore is forming
i. Sheet of cells spreads out of animal hemisphere
- Sheet rolls inward over dorsal lip involution
- Cells move into interior of embryo
- In interior part of embryo develop into endo and meso
ii. Involution continues
expands endo and meso
- Archenteron forms and grows
- Blastocoel shrinks disappears
c. Other cells at animal pole change shape and spread out outer surface
i. Blastopore becomes smaller (indentation)
- Endoderm is growing and spreading over the surface
d. Late in gastrulation
i. Ectoderm is formed from those cells still remaining on surface
ii. Endoderm is the innermost layer
iii. Mesoderm is in between ecto and endo
iv. Blastopore surrounds plug of yolk-filled cells
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iv. Blastopore surrounds plug of yolk-filled cells


E. Gastrulation in chicks
1. Simple gastrulation cannot take place because of a lot of yolk in vegetal hemisphere
2. Beginning
a. Embryo consists of 2 layers
i. Epiblast - upper
- Contains call cells that will form embryo proper (embryo that will develop into chick)
ii. Hypoblast - lower
iii. Both layers lie on top of yolk mass
3. Some of epiblast cells
a. Migrate toward midline of layers
b. Detach and move inward toward yolk
c. Movement produces primitive streak
i. Thickened area of developing embryo
4. Primitive streak
a. Some cells move downward (closer to yolk mass)
b. Push hypoblast cells aside
form endoderm
c. Other cells migrate laterally
form mesoderm
5. Hypoblast cells
a. Contribute to sac that surrounds yolk
b. A connection between yolk and embryo
Fig 47.11

F. Gastrulation in humans
1. At the end of cleavage a blastocyst has formed (mammalian version of blastula)
~ 6 days after fertilization arrives at uterus
2. Blastocyst ~ 100 cells arranged around a central cavity
a. Trophoblast
i. outer single layer of cells
ii. When trophoblast cells come into contact with uterine lining
- Secretes enzymes that erode area of endometrium
- Embryo can now penetrate endometrium
iii. Trophoblast thickens and extends projections into endometrium
Implantation
b. Inner cell mass
i. Cluster of cells
ii. Becomes embryo proper (develops into individual)
iii. Source of embryonic stem cell lines
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iii. Source of embryonic stem cell lines


c. Blastocoel - hollow area of blastocyst
3. Gastrulation
a. ~ 1 week - during second and third weeks following fertilization
b. Inner cell mass forms flat disc with 2 layers
i. Epiblast - outer
ii. Hypoblast - inner
Embryo develops entirely from epiblast cells
c. Involution of epiblast cells occurs
i. Move inward and forms primitive streak
ii. Some epiblasts forms mesoderm
iii. Some other epiblasts mix with hypoblast cells form endoderm
iv. Remaining epiblast cells stay on surface form ectoderm
4. Gastrula
a. 3 germ layers
b. Extra-embryonic membranes (not a part of embryo itself)
Discarded at birth (only required during developmental time)
i. Chorian
- Formed from trophoblast
- Surrounds embryo and all other membranes
ii. Amnion
- Formed from trophoblast
- Encloses embryo in amniotic cavity (fluid-filled)
iii. Yolk sac (most mammals have little to none)
- Membrane forms blood cells
iv. Allantois
- Incorporated into umbilical cord
blood vessels
5. Extraembryonic membranes
a. Mammals and reptiles
b. Not in fish or amphibians
c. Membranes are very important in animals that do not live in an aqueous environment
amniotes
Fig 47.12

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II. Organogenesis
process of organ formation
embro begins to increase in size
A. Neurulation
1. Cells from dorsal mesoderm form notochord (serves as internal skeleton for embryos)
2. Induction
a. A process by which certain cells stimulate/influence differentiation of neighboring cells
b. Developing notochord sends signals to overlying ectoderm to thicken and form neural plate
3. Neural plate - embryonic region to become nervous system
a. Rolls up and forms neural tube (nerve cord is hollow)
4. Neural tube develops into central nervous system
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4. Neural tube develops into central nervous system


a. Anterior portion brain
b. Remainder spinal cord
5. Birth defects
a. Anencephaly - neural tube fails to fuse at anterior end no forebrain development
b. Spina bifida - neural tube fails to fuse in posterior region
c. Neural tube defects
i. Incidence decreases if pregnant woman gets enough folic acid in diet
B. Cell migration in organogenesis
1. Local cellular interactions and activities
2. Long-range migration
a. Neural crest
i. Band of cells that will develop along borders where neural tube pinches off from ectoderm
ii. Cells migrate to different parts of embryo
- Nerves, teeth and skull bones
b. Somites
i. Blocks of cells in mesoderm that are lateral to notochord
ii. Responsible in organizing body structure
- Segmented
iii. Serially repeating structures
- Verterbrae
- Ribs
- Muscles
III. Human development
Fig 46.15

A. First trimester (first 3 months)


1. Implanted embryo in endometrium
a. Secretes human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) - acts like LH
b. Maintains corpus luteum
which produces estrogen and progesterone
2. First 2-4 weeks of development
a. Embryo gets nutrition from endometrium
3. Trophoblast
a. Mingles with endometrium forms placenta
4. Placenta developed
a. Organ of exchange between mother and embryo
b. Nutrients and oxygen required by fetus
c. Wastes
d. Umbilical cord - connects embryo to placenta
Fig 46.16

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5. Inner cell mass


a. Sometimes splits during first month
monozygotic twins (identical twins)
b. Fraternal twins - genetically distinct (dizygotic)
6. Main period of organogenesis
a. By 8 weeks - all major structures developed
embryo now known as fetus
7. Mother
a. Mucus plug develops - prevent infection
b. Placenta and uterus develop
c. Ovulation and menstrual cycle cease
d. Breasts enlarge
8. Not all embryos complete development
a. Abnormalities
b. Fertilized egg lodges in oviduct
ectopic pregnancy
9. End of trimester
a. ~ 2 inches long
b. 1/2 oz
B. Second trimester (4-6 months)
1. growth and activity
2. Fetal movements
3. Uterus growth visible
C. Third trimester (7-9 months)
1. Growth
2. Tissues and organs undergo final development and differentiation
3. Premature - before 37 weeks
4. Full term - ~6.6 lb/ 20 in
D. Birth ~ 266 days/38weeks/9 months
1. Labor
a. Uterine contractions push fetus and placenta out
b. Prostaglandins
c. Estradiol and oxytocin
Fig 46.18
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Fig 46.18

2. 3 stages
a. Dilation - cervix thins and opens
b. Delivery expulsion of baby
c. Delivery of placenta
3. Postnatal care
a. Lactation

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Lecture 17: Nervous System I


Tuesday, January 20, 2015

11:13 PM

I. Nervous System
A. Function
1. Detect stimuli- any sort of change that occurs either inside or outside of the
body
2. Allows us to respond to the stimuli
B. Components
1. Central nervous system (CNS)
brain and spinal cord
2. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
consists of sensory receptors
nerves- communicate the signals between the CNS and the rest of the body
II. Neuron
A. Intro
1. Basic functional unit of the nervous system
2. Function is to conduct messages in the form of electrical signals
3. Variety of shapes and sizes
B. Cell body
Find typical organelles
Nucleus
Mitochondria
Golgi, etc.
C. Cytoplasmic Extensions
1. Dendrite
function is to receive info from environment or from another neuron
sends signals to cell body
2. Axon
a. Transmit neural impulse away from cell body
i. To another neuron
ii. Effector- produces the response to the stimulus
ex. will be muscles and glands
b. Usually only one long axon
c. Axon hillock
cone-shaped base of an axon where axon extends from the cell body
significant because location where signals are going to be generated
d. End of the axon- divide into many branches
e. Find synaptic terminals at tips of branches
f. Nerve- comprised of axons of many neurons
held together by connective tissue
<Fig 48.2>

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III. Info processing by nervous system


A. Sensory input (Stage 1)
1. Process of detecting the stimulus
2. Sensory neuron = afferent neuron
receives sensory stimuli and conduct that info toward the processing
center
B. Integration (Stage 2)
1. Input needs to be sorted out and interpreted in processing center
2. Neurons responsible for integration is interneurons
in human brain- over 90% neurons are interneurons
C. Motor Output (Stage 3)
Carried out by a motor neuron = efferent neuron
Transmits info from processing center and associates it with the appropriate
responses to the effector
Overall pathway is from sensory input integration motor output
<Fig 48.4>

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IV. Membrane Potential


A. All animal cells
1. All have a selectively permeable membrane
polarity (charge) between outside and inside of cell membrane is
polarized
2. Charge difference is negative
then inside (cytosol) of cell is negative compared to the outside
(extracellular fluid)
3. Membrane potential is important because it refers to the potential to do work
B. Only excitable cells have the ability to generate rapid changes in membrane
potential
Excitable cells = neurons and muscle cells
C. Voltage = measurement of membrane potential
Use a voltmeter
Reference electrode that is on the outside of cell
2nd electrode inserted inside cell (measuring whats happening in cytosol)
measure charge differences
<Fig 48.8>

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D. Resting Potential (RP)


1. Cell membrane of axon is at rest (not excited)
between -60 and -80 mV (we'll use -70 mV)
2. Sodium-potassium pump
a. Membrane protein
all along the plasma membrane of cell body, dendrites, and axon
b. One complete pumping cycle result in 3 Na+ moving out for every 2 K+
that are moved in
active transport- move substances against concentration gradient
(need lots of ATP)
3. Ion channels
a. Pores in plasma membrane formed by clusters of specialized membranespanning proteins which allow ions to diffuse through
b. Any net movement of either (+) or (-) charge will generate membrane
potential
c. Potassium channels
always open
diffusion of K+ through these channels is critical for establishing
resting potential
many more K+ channels than Na+ channels
membrane is 100x more permeable to K+ than to Na+
<Fig 48.6>

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4. -70 mV represents a significant amount of energy


change by stimulus induces change in membrane potential
E. Hyperpolarization
Moves below RP
Hyperpolarization more negative than RP
Ex. -70 mV -90 mV
Decrease neurons ability to generate neural impulse = inhibitory
F. Depolarization
Membrane potential is more positive
Ex. -70 mV -50 mV
G. Graded Potentials
Do involve in shifts in membrane potential
Magnitude varies with strength of stimulus
Induce a small electrical current, but not going to be propagated
Will decay with time and distance from source
<Fig 48.10a>

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H. Threshold
For most neurons, its -55 mV**
Result in action potential
V. Action Potential
A. Result when membrane potential shifts sufficiently so there is a massive change in
voltage
There is a depolarization which causes the membrane potential to reach
threshold (-55mV)
<Fig 48.10c>

B. Voltage-gated ion channels <Fig 48.9>

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Have membrane proteins which control the passage of specific ions (gates open
or closed)
Channels are regulated by changes in voltage which control the shape of protein
Facilitated diffusion is taking place- ions follow concentration gradient
Dont need ATP
Voltage-gated K+ channels and voltage-gated Na+ channels
C. Chain of events
1. Neuron at resting potential (not excitement)
voltage-gated K+ channels and voltage-gated Na+ channels are closed
2. Stimulus being detected
a. Cause voltage-gated Na+ channels to open
Na+ enter the axon
Membrane depolarize membrane potential becoming less negative
Getting closer to -55 mV
b. Magnitude of change depends on strength of the stimulus
i. If stimulus is small, only a few voltage-gated Na+ channels will open
threshold not reached
neuron will stay at rest
ii. Strong stimulus
many voltage-gated Na+ channels open (lots of Na+ will go in)
large change in permeability (larger depolarization)
if membrane potential reaches threshold (-55mV), get an action
potential
3. Rising phase
membrane suddenly becomes very permeable to Na+
at this point, most of voltage-gated Na+ channels are open
Na+ rush down gradient and into cell
At this time, voltage-gated K+ channels are closed
Causes rapid depolarization
Inside of cell is positive
Spike of +35 mV
At this spike, where membranes permeability to Na+ is at max
4. Downward motion is called falling phase
a. most voltage-gated Na+ channels are now going to close (no longer rush
in)
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in)
refractory period
no other action potential can be generated because voltage-gated
Na+ channels are closed and not open until have been reset
b. Voltage-gated K+ channels begin to open at threshold, but slowly
only fully open at peak depolarization (+35mV)
at falling phase, K+ rush out following their concentration gradient
5. Undershoot
voltage-gated Na+ channels closed
some voltage-gated K+ channels still opened
hyperpolarization
membrane potential is more negative than resting potential
then voltage-gated K+ channels close
membrane potential returns to resting potential
<Fig 48.11>

D. Action potential is all-or-none event


Intensity of sensation is going to depend on the number of neurons that are
stimulated and frequency of stimulation
VI. Conduction of Action Potential
A. neural impulse is a series of action potential- moves signal along axon
1. Message begins at axon hillock
wave of depolarization which occurs in one direction
2. As voltage shifts in one region, it is going to spread to voltage-gated Na+
channels just further away then get an action potential
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channels just further away then get an action potential


3. Does not go opposite direction
4. Artificially stimulate the middle of an axon (then itll go in both directions)
<Fig 48.12>

B. Myelin Sheath
1. Electrical insulation
2. Produced by two types of glial cells (supporting cells)
a. Oligodendrocytes CNS
b. Schwann cells PNS
3. Plasma membrane myelin, lipid, white
4. Glial cells wrap around regions of axon
5. Regions called the internodes
regions on axons covered in glial cells
6. In between those regions, nodes of Ranvier
gaps in myelin sheath
occur between glial cells
<Fig 48.13>

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7. Unmyelinated axons and cell bodies


gray appearance
conduction is continuous- every spot along the way (neuron) has
depolarization
8. Myelinated fibers- white
a. Internodes have myelin surrounding them no depolarization
b. Nodes of Ranvier- no myelin
high concentration of voltage-gated Na+ and voltage-gated K+
channels
have depolarization and action potential
saltatory conduction leaping
net result transmission is faster in myelinated neurons than
unmyelinated neurons
E efficiently
<Fig 48.14>

9. Multiple sclerosis
myelin sheath deteriorate and is replaced by scar tissue
characterized by a progressive loss of coordination
C. Synapse
1. Is a junction between a synaptic terminal and either another neuron or an
effector
2. That junction is a space called a synaptic cleft space between membranes
(>20 nm)
3. Most are chemical synapses
4. Neurotransmitters
a. Chemicals released from presynaptic membrane thatll diffuse across the
synaptic cleft to specific receptors that are on the post-synaptic cell
ex. simple synapse
Axon with dendritic membrane (post-synaptic membrane)
b. Examples of neurotransmitters
acetylcholine- humans with muscle stimulation
memory
learning
glutamate- amino acid
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glutamate- amino acid


major excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain
dopamine- level in brain that affects mood
endorphins- pain regulation
<Fig 48.16>

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Lecture 18: Nervous System II


Tuesday, January 20, 2015

11:13 PM

I. Comparison
A. Cnidarians - ex. Hydra
1. Simplest animals with nervous system
2. No central organ
3. Nerve net
4. Impulses are conducted in both directions
B. Sea star (echinoderm)
1. Nerves are formed from axons of multiple neurons
2. Nerve ring - central control structure
3. Radial nerves - receive information from nerve ring send signal to muscles
C. Bilaterally symmetrical
1. Planarian (Platyhelminthes)
a. Simplest clearly defined central nervous system
b. Brain and eyespot that can detect stimuli
anterior end
c. Ladder - type nervous system
i. 2 longitudinal nerve cords
ii. Transverse nerves
2. Annelids and arthropods
a. Increased complexity
b. Brain - complex
c. Ganglia - clusters of neurons
Fig 49.2

D. Lifestyle
1. Chiton - slow-moving organism simple nervous system
2. Squid - active predator complex nervous system
E. Vertebrates
1. Brain and spinal cord CNS
2. Nerves and ganglia peripheral nervous system (PNS)
II. Glial cells - support cells within nervous system
A. Types
1. Ependymal cells
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1. Ependymal cells
a. Line cavities of CNS
b. Have cilia - help circulate cerebrospinal fluid
2. Astrocytes
a. In CNS
b. Dilate blood vessels near active neurons
c. Regulate composition of CNS fluids
i. Remove excess K+ and neurotransmitters
d. Stimulate endothelia cells (line blood vessels)
form tight junctions
i. Formation of blood/brain barrier - protects brain
3. Digodendrocytes
a. In CNS
b. Myelin
c. Myelin sheath around axons
provides electrical insulation
4. Microglia
a. Near blood vessels in CNS
b. Function as immune cells
i. Phagocytic cells (eating cells)
5. Schwann cells
a. Located in PNS
b. Have myelin (fatty white substance)
c. Myelin sheath wraps around axons
Fig 49.3

B. Radial glia
1. Function during embryonic development
2. Form tracks
3. Newly formed neurons will migrate from neural tube and move along tracks
III. Central Nervous System
A. Spinal cord - serves as link between brain and rest of nervous system
1. Structure
a. Small, central canal
b. Gray matter surrounds canal (not surrounded by myelin)
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b. Gray matter surrounds canal (not surrounded by myelin)


c. White matter - surrounds gray matter
d. Cerebrospinal fluid
2. Functions
a. Transmits impulses to and from brain
b. Controls reflex actions
i. Rapid involuntary response to a particular stimulus
ii. Independent of brain
iii. Ex. Knee-jerk reflex
- Sensory receptors detect sudden stretch in quadriceps muscle
- Sensory neurons from sensory receptors convey info to spinal cord
- Motor neurons signal to quad to contract
- Interneurons convey info to other neurons
- Hamstring relaxes
B. Brain
1. Ventricles - cavities
2. Gray matter surrounds white matter
3. Cerebrospinal fluid
Fig 49.5

IV. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)


Transmits info to and from CNS
A. Sensory receptors
1. Detection of stimuli
B. Nerves
1. Cranial
a. Originate in hind part of brain
b. Nerves that innervate head and upper body
2. Spinal
a. Originate in spinal cord
b. Innervate entire body
Fig 49.6

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C. 2 components
1. Afferent sensory (toward CNS)
a. Neurons from sensory receptors to CNS
b. No effector
c. Visceral
i. Functions we are not aware of (internal environment)
d. Somatic
i. We are aware of (external environment)
2. Efferent motor (away from CNS)
a. Motor system
i. Efferent neurons - go to skeletal muscles
ii. Aware of control
iii. Reflexes involving spinal cord
b. Automatic nervous system
i. Efferent neurons - go to glands, heart, smooth muscle
ii. Not aware of control
3 divisions
i. Enteric
- Digestive tract
- Pancreas
- Gall bladder
ii. Sympathetic
- Fight or flight
- Fight or frolic
- Prepares body for action
- Increases heart rate, respiration rate, and metabolic rate
- Dilates air passages
- Slows digestive processes
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- Slows digestive processes


- Nerves exit CNS midway along spinal cord and form
synapses in ganglia just along spinal cord
iii. Parasympathetic
- "rest and digest"
- Help body to conserve and restore energy
- Decrease heart rate and respiration
- Increase digestion
- Nerves exit CNS at base of brain or spinal cord and
Form synapses in ganglia located near or
within internal organ
iv. Symp and parasymp
- Antagonistic
homeostasis
Fig 49.8-49.9

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Nerves - have both afferent and efferent axons


V. Specialization of vertebrate brain
A. 3 major regions
1. Forebrain - olfactory bulb and cerebrum
2. Midbrain - coordinates routing of sensory input
3. Hindbrain
a. Part forms cerebellum
b. Controls involuntary activities and motor activities
B. Comparison of vertebrates
1. Relative sizes of brain regions vary
a. Ex. Ray-finned fishes - explore environment
i. Olfaction
ii. Vision
iii. Lateral line system
- Detects water currents, electrical stimuli and body position
iv. Large olfactory bulb (scents)
v. Large midbrain - processes info
vi. Small cerebrum (complex thinking)
2. Size of cerebellum
a. Extent and complexity of muscular activity
b. Flight large cerebellum
3. Birds and mammals
a. Forebrain occupies larger fraction of brain
b. Larger brains relative to body size
c. Cognition and higher-order reasoning
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c. Cognition and higher-order reasoning


Fig 49.10

C. Vertebrate embryonic development


1. Embryo - neural tube develops (single tube of tissue)
a. Anteriorly brain (neural tube develops into)
b. Posteriorly spinal cord
2. Anterior neural tube
develops into embryonic brain regions
a. Forebrain diencephalon and telencephalon
b. Midbrain mesencephalon
c. Hindbrain myelencephalon and metencephalon
Fig 49.11

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VI. Key brain structures


A. Cerebrum - most prominent part of brain
1. Divided into
a. right and left cerebral hemispheres
b. Inner portion (myelinated) - white matter
c. Outer portion = cerebral cortex - gray matter
i. Convolutions (folds), fissures
2. Functions of cerebrum
a. Controlling skeletal muscle contractions
b. Center i. Learning, emotion, memory, perception
3. Cerebral cortex (outer portion)
a. Functions
i. Perception, voluntary movement, learning
b. Left side receives info from and controls movement of right side of body (vice versa)
c. Corpus callosum
i. Thick band of axons
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B.

C.

D.

E.

i. Thick band of axons


4. Basal nuclei
a. Deep within white matter (inner layer)
b. Centers for
i. Planning, learning movement sequences
c. If damaged during fetal development
cerebral palsy - disruption of transmission of motor commands to muscles
Cerebellum (back of brain)
1. Function
a. Coordinates movement and balance
b. Helps in learning and remembering motor skills
c. Receives info about position of joints and lengths of muscles
d. Receives input from auditory and visual systems
e. Monitors motor commands from cerebrum
2. Damage permamant loss of coordination
Diencephalon - give rise to
1. Thalamus
a. Main input center for sensory info going to cerebrum
b. Sorts out info from senses and from cerebral cortex
c. Sends info to cerebral cortex centers
2. Hypothalamus
a. Regulates basic drives
i. Hunger, thirst, sex, rage
ii. Link between nervous system and endocrine system
iii. Maintains homeostasis
Brain stem
1. Consists of
a. Midbrain, pons and medulla oblongata
b. Midbrain
i. Receives and integrates sensory info
ii. Sends info to specific regions of forebrain
iii. All sensory axons in hearing
iv. Coordinates visual reflexes
- Ex. Peripheral vision reflex
c. Pons
i. Connects
- 2 sides of cerebellum
- Cerebellum and medulla with other regions of brain
ii. Contains respiratory and sleep centers
d. Medulla
i. Posterior part of brain
ii. On top of and continuous with spinal cord
iii. Control center for many life sustaining functions
- Respiration, heartbeat, blood pressure
iv. Regulates
- Swallowing, coughing, vomiting
Reticular formation
Fig 49.12

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1. Diffuse network
a. Primarily formed by neurons in midbrain and pons
b. Control of
i. arousal - state of awareness of external world
ii. Sleep - external stimuli receives, but not consciously perceived
c. Surveys incoming stimuli and determines general level of arousal of brain
i. Relaxed and few stimuli
VII. Cerebral cortex
A. 3 areas
1. Sensory - info from sense organs
2. Motor - transmits info to body
3. Association areas - link sensory and motor
B. 4 lobes
1. Frontal lobe
a. Motor cortex - controls skeletal muscle
b. Prefrontal cortex - involved in decision making and planning
c. Broca's area - motor part of speech
2. Temporal lobe
a. Auditory cortex - hearing
b. Wernicke's area - comprehend language
3. Occipital lobe
a. Visual cortex - visual info
b. Visual association cortex - combines images and object recognition
4. Parietal lobe
a. Sensory association cortex
b. Somatosensory cortex - touch
c. Body awareness
Fig 49.16

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Bio II Page 157

Lecture 19: Sense Organs


Tuesday, January 20, 2015

11:13 PM

I. Sensory Pathways
A. Sensory reception
1. Detection by sensory receptor
2. Types of sensory receptors
a. Single cell
i. Neuronal afferent neuron axon extends directly into CNS
ii. Non-neural from chemical synapse with afferent neuron

iii. Sense organs


Receptors plus associated cells
B. Transduction
1. Convert Energy of stimulus into electrical energy
a. = sensory transduction
2. Receptor potential
a. Changes in membrane potential of a receptor
b. Flow of ions across the membrane of the sensory receptor
c. Receptor potentials graded potentials
i. Proportional to strength of stimulus
ii. Depolarization
d. Ex: pressure
i. More pressure = greater receptor potential
3. Transduction modified in 2 ways
a. Amplification
i. Strengthening of sensory signal
ii. Ex: Action potential conducted from eye to brain
100,000 X more E than photons that triggered it
iii. signal transduction pathways
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iii. signal transduction pathways


2nd messengers
amplify signal strength through formation of many product
molecules by a single enzyme
b. Sensory adaptation
i. when stimulus applied continuously to receptor
ii. at first receptor responds rapidly, eventually the response slows and then
stops
iii. decreases in frequency of action potential in sensory neuron
C. Transmission
1. Sensory info travels through nervous system as impulses
2. Sensory receptor
a. Unstimulated- maintain resting potential
b. Stimulated
i. Depolarization
Becoming more positive, Na+ from outside to inside
ii. When receptor potential reaches threshold
Threshold AP in sensory neuron
iii. The larger the receptor potential, the more frequent the action potential
iv. FIG 50.4

D. Perception
1. Brain processes info that reaches it via sensory neurons
2. Exists only in brain
3. Distinguish between types of stimuli?
a. Action potential from sensory receptors specific stimuli
i. AP then travel down specific sensory neurons
II. Types of sensory receptors
A. Mechanoreceptors
1. Mechanical E ex: pressure, stretch, sound
2. Activated when they change shape
3. Ion channels linked to hairs (cilia) bent or stretched, which changes ion channel
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3. Ion channels linked to hairs (cilia) bent or stretched, which changes ion channel
permeability
4. Fig 50.5

B. Chemoreceptors
1. Chemical compounds
2. Stimulus molecule bind to specific receptor of sensory cell
a. Triggers change in ion permeability
3. Taste gustation
4. Smell olfaction
C. Electromagnetic receptors
1. Electromagnetic E
a. Ex: light, electricity, magnetism
2. Electroreceptors
a. Ex: sharks, rays, and bony fishes
i. Detect electrical fields, muscle activity of their prey
3. Photoreceptors light
D. Thermoreceptors heat and cold
E. Pain receptors = nociceptors
1. Withdraw from danger
III. Ear hearing
Sound waves of air or water pressure
Hearing the ability to sense changes in pressures
1. Mechanoreceptors
a. Hair cells
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a. Hair cells
A. Ear 3 components
1. Outer ear pinna, auditory canal
2. Middle ear auditory bones
3. Inner ear cochlea, (semicircular canals) equilibrium
B. Pathway
1. Sound waves enter outer ear
a. Pinna collects waves and channels into auditory canal
b. Auditory canal channels waves to tympanic membrane
c. Tympanic membrane
i. Thin
ii. Separates outer ear from middle ear
iii. Vibrate
2. Vibrations transmitted to middle ear
a. Middle air is an air-filled cavity
b. Connected to the throat by the eustachion tube
i. Equalizes Pressure between middle ear and atmosphere pop
c. Ossicles 3 very small bones
i. Malleus in contact with tympanic membrane
ii. Incus- in contact with malleus
iii. Stapes in contact with the oval window
Oval window membrane separates middle ear from inner ear
d. Middle ear
i. Amplifies sound
3. Vibrations of oval window are transmitted to cochlea
a. Fig 50.10 (is page long attached at end)
4. Cochlea spiral tube
a. 3 chambers fluid filled
i. perilymph
ii. vestibular canal
iii. cochlear duct
iv. tympanic canal
b. Basilar membrane floor of cochlear duct
c. Pressure from stapes causes oval window to bow in and out
i. Pressure waves transmitted into fluid in the vestibular and tympanic canals
ii. Fluid vibrates good conductor
iii. Basilar membrane vibrates up and down
d. Organ of Corti
i. Located on floor of cochlear duct
(basilar membrane)
ii. auditory organ
iii. mechanoreceptors
~18000 hair cells
detect changes in P waves
iv. Located between 2 membranes
Rests on basilar membrane
o Overhands hair cells (in contact)
o Stiff doesnt vibrate much
v. When basilar membrane vibrates up and down
Hair cells deflected by tectorial membrane
e. Translated into AP
i. Hair cells stimulated
Depolarization (Receptor potential)
o AP
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o AP
ii. Axons of hair cells join to form auditory nerve
iii. Auditory nerve message to brain
Fig 50.11

5. Last, Pressure waves pass through vestibular canal and strike round window
pressure waves dissipate
a. dampens sound waves
IV. Ear balance / equilibrium
A. Inner ear
1. All vertebrates have inner ear, not all have outer and middle ears
B. Saccule and utricle
1. Contain
a. hair cells mechanoreceptors
b. Otoliths (ear stones)
i. Fine grains consisting of calcium carbonate, gravity receptors
2. Change tilt in head
a. Otoliths cause the hair cells to bend
b. Receptors stimulated Action potential
3. Awareness of position relative to the ground regardless of the position of head
a. Linear movement
C. 3 semicircular canals
1. filled with fluid
2. cupula
a. enlargements at base of each canal
b. contain hair cells
3. skull moves
a. fluid moves in canals
i. hair cells in cupula bend
ii. Action potential
4. Canals are positioned at right angles to each other
a. Detection of turning in any direction
5. Fig 50.13

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V. Eye visual
A. Structure
1. Sclera
a. tough, opaque
b. outer coat
2. Cornea
a. front surface
b. sclera becomes thin
c. transparent
d. fixed lens (doesnt change)- focuses light
3. Choroid
a. Layer inner to sclera
b. Black pigment
i. Absorbs light
ii. Protects from excess light
4. Iris pigmented
a. Muscular
i. Regulates size of pupil
5. Pupil opening in the center of the iris
6. Retina
a. Covers the inside of choroid
b. Light sensitive
2 types of photoreceptors (specialized neurons)
i. Rod cell detect shape and movement
Respond to low levels of light
Night-vision
ii. Cones cells
Color vision
Bright light vision
Fine detail
3 types
o each sensitive to particular wavelengths red, blue, green
o other colors are combinations
color blindnesso due to deficiency or absence of 1 or more types of cones
7. Fovea
a. Tightly packed cone cells (no rods)
b. High visual activity
i. Images most clearly focused
8. Optic Disc (blind spot)
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8. Optic Disc (blind spot)


a. Optic nerve fibers leave the eye
b. No rods, no cones
c. Light not detected
9. Lens
a. Attached by suspensory ligaments
b. Divides eye into 2 chambers
i. Anterior cavity
Between cornea and lens
Aqueous fluid (watery)
ii. Posterior cavity
Between lens and retina
Vitreous fluid (viscous)
iii. Fluids liquid lenses focus light
10. Optic nerve
a. Out of eyeball to brain
B. Retina
1. Photoreceptors
2. Neurons relay visual information to optic nerve brain
a. Bipolar cells receive information from rods and cones
b. Horizontal cells and amacrine cells
i. Integrate information across retina
c. Ganglion cells
i. Each receives information from several bipolar cells and amacrine cells
ii. Axons optic nerves
C. Rhodopsin visual pigment in rods
1. Retinal light absorbing molecule
a. Cis-retinal inactive isomer
i. When it absorbs light one of its bonds shifts , causing it to change shape
b. Trans-retinal active isomer
i. Opsin membrane protein
D. Vision
1. Photons light enter eye
a. Strike rods and cones
2. Produces receptor potential rod cells
a. In dark
i. Cyclic GMP binds to Na+ channels and keeps them open
ii. Depolarization
b. In light
i. Cyclic GMP detaches and Na+ channel closes
ii. Hyperpolarization
3. Info from ganglion cells
a. optic nervebrain where it can be processed
b. 50.18, 50.19

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VI. Gustation
A. Taste buds
1. Each ~100 receptor cells
B. Molecules (tastants)
1. Dissolve in saliva
2. Bind to receptors
a. Causes depolarization
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a. Causes depolarization
b. Action potential
C. 5 tastes
1. salt
2. sweet
3. bitter
4. sour
5. umami (savory, glutamate)
6. Fig 50.24

VII. Olfaction
A. Molecules (odorants)
1. Dissolved in mucus in nose
2. 100 million olfactory receptor cells
3. bind to receptors => action potential
4. olfactory nerve
B. Smells shape of molecules
1. We can perceive ~10,000 scents
Fig 50.25

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Bio II Page 167

Lecture 20: Musculoskeletal System


Tuesday, January 20, 2015

11:13 PM

I. Muscle
A. Generates mechanical force in response to nervous system motor input
B. Types - skeletal, smooth, cardiac
II. Vertebrate skeletal muscle - attached to bones by tendons
A. Muscle fiber
1. Long cylindrical cell
2. Multi nucleate (many nuclei)
3. T (transverse) tubules - infoldings of plasma membrane
4. Sarcoplasmic reticulum (is endoplasmic reticulum)
a. Specialized found in muscle tissue
5. Myofibrils
a. Long fibers
b. Lengthwise through muscle fiber
c. Comprised of two types of filaments
i. Thin filaments
- 2 strands of actin
Contractile protein
Actin molecules have myosin-binding sites
- Tropomyosin
Regulatory protein
- Troponin complex
Set of regulatory proteins
ii. Thick filaments
- ~ 350 myosin (contractile proteins) molecules
Each myosin molecule has head and tail
Tails associate with each other
thick filament
d. Actin and myosin
i. In many cells
ii. Highly organized in muscle cells
iii. Skeletal muscle
- Filaments are arranged in such a way that
Muscle fiber has striped appearance
= striated muscle (skeletal muscle)
B. Sarcomere - basic unit of contraction
1. Repeating unit comprised of overlapping thin and thick filaments
2. 100s of sarcomeres lined up end to end myofibril
3. Z lines
a. Locations where thin filaments are attached
b. Join sarcomeres together at their ends
4. Each thin filament is attached to a Z line
a. Each extends only partway across the sarcomere
5. Thick filaments
a. Centered in sarcomere
b. Anchored at M line
Fig 50.26

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6. During muscle contraction


a. Thin and thick filaments slide past one another
i. Make connections
ii. Movement will occur
iii. Old connections will break
iv. New connections will form
b. Sarcomere gets shorter (boundaries are Z lines)
i. Distance between Z lines with get shorter
ii. Length of filament does NOT change
iii. Amount of overlap changes
Fig 50.27

Bio II Page 169

C. Sliding filament model of muscle contraction


1. Muscle fiber at rest
a. Tropomyosin (on thin filament) covers myosin binding sites on
actin proteins along thin filament
(actin proteins have myosin binding sites)
2. Motor neuron transmits message (action potential)
a. Motor unit
i. Motor neuron connected with ~150 muscle fibers
ii. Neuromuscular junctions
Fig 50.31

b. Neuron secretes neurotransmitter at the junctions into synaptic cleft


i. Acetylcholine (Ach)
ii. Ach binds to receptors on muscle fiber
depolarization across plasma membrane
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depolarization across plasma membrane


iii. If depolarization strong enough action potential in muscle fiber
c. Muscle fibers are very large
i. T tubules - AP will travel down tubules
ii. AP produce wave of depolarization that travels along plasma
membrane
of muscle fiber and down T tubules and down sarcoplasmic
reticulum
iii. Sarcoplasmic reticulum - store of calcium ions
iv. Calcium ion channels in SR open up
v. Calcium ions released into cytosol
vi. Later - Ca ion pumps return Ca ions into SR
3. Contraction
a. Ca ions released bind to troponin complex on thin filaments
changes shape of troponin complex
moves tropomyosin (at rest covers myosin binding site) away from
myosin binding sites on actin
b. Myosin head has an ATP binding site and an actin binding site
i. At rest - head is in a "low energy state"
- Molecule of ATP bound to ATP binding site
myosin not bound to actin
c. Myosin is an ATPase (-ase ending = enzyme) enzyme splits ATP
i. ATP ADP and inorgamic phosphate
ii. Some of energy released is transferred to myosin and causes shape
change
myosin head in high energy state
d. High energy myosin head binds to myosin binding site on actin
formation of cross bridge (contact between thick and thin filaments)
e. ADP and inorganic phosphate released
brings head back to original low energy state
i. Pulls thin filament toward center of sarcomere "power stroke"
ii. Filaments have moved in relation with each other (overlap increase)
f. ATP molecule binds to low energy head
cross-bridge between actin and myosin broken
g. New cycle begins
Fig 50.28
Low energy (ATP attachment)

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Fig 50.29

Fig 50.30
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Fig 50.30

4. Energy supply
Each head - forms and reforms ~ 5 cross bridges per second
a. ATP is required to break cross bridges
i. Rigor mortis - result of cross bridges in place (no breaks occurring)
ii. ATP cannot be stockpiled
b. Muscle cells have relatively large pool of creatine phosphate
i. Can be stockpiled
ii. Transfers its phosphate to ADP ATP
iii. Resting supply of CP
15 sec of contractions
c. Glycogen - chemical energy
i. A lot stored in muscle fibers
ii. Gets broken down to form glucose
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ii.
iii.
iv.
v.

Gets broken down to form glucose


Glucose broken down yield ATP
Aerobic cellular respiration lots of ATP
Anaerobic respiration via lactic acid formation
- Due to insufficient oxygen
muscle fatigue

III. Other types of muscle


A. Cardiac
1. Striated (similar to skeletal muscle)
2. Branched cells (dissimilar to skeletal)
3. Contract simultaneously
4. Cardiac cells can contract on their own (skeletal need an impulse)
a. High permeability to sodium ions AP occurs spontaneously
5. Intercalated discs
a. Specialized junctions
b. Allow ions to pass between cells
c. AP move quickly to cells
B. Smooth muscle
1. Found in walls of digestive tract, bladder, uterus, blood vessels
2. Not attached to bones
3. Not striated (do have actin and myosin)
4. No T tubules
5. SR not as well developed
6. Less efficient system for delivering messages
7. Characterized by slow, sustained, long contractions
IV. Skeleton
A. Functions
1. Supports body
2. Provides protection
3. Movement
a. Receives and transforms contractions of muscle tissue into various
motions
Fig 50.34

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B. Types
1. Hydrostatic skeleton (not hard)
a. Fluid filled cavity
i. Closed compartment - fluid under pressure
b. Soft-bodied invertebrates
i. Most cnidarians, nematodes, annelids
c. Ex. Hydra
i. 2 layers of contractile cells
- Work antagonistically (opposite)
ii. Outer later
- Arranged longitudinally
Contract hydra shortens and widens
iii. Inner layer
- Arranged circularly
Contract hydra gets thinner and taller
d. Peristalsis
i. Movement produced by rhythmic waves of muscle contraction
Fig 50.35

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e. Small aquatic animals and earthworms


Hard skeleton - system of levers
2. Exoskeleton
a. External
b. Non-living
i. Epidermal cells produce it
ii. No growth
iii. Molt (ecdysis)
c. Arthropods
i. Made of chitin
ii. Protection
iii. Transmits forces
d. Mollusks
i. Secreted by mantle
ii. Consists of calcium carbonate
iii. Protection
3. Endoskeletons
a. Internal
b. Characteristic of echinoderms and chordates
c. Comprised of living tissue
i. Capable of growth
d. Chordates
i. Cartilage
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i. Cartilage
- Flexible skeletal tissue
- Consists of connective tissue comprised of
cartilage cells (chondrocytes)
Collagen fibers
Cells and fibers embedded in lipoprotein
- Class chondrichthyes (sharks and rays)
ii. Bone
- Collagen - protein secreted by osteoblasts
- Hydroxyapatite - CaPO4
- Calcium carbonate
e. Bone remodeling
i. Continual change throughout lifetime
ii. Osteoblasts - bone building cells
iii. Osteoclasts - resorb (break down) bone
- Secrete H+ and enzymes dissolves bone and collagen
iv. Osteoblasts and osteoclasts
- Synergistic
- Together help shape bones
- Skeletons replaced ~ every 10 yrs
v. Osteoporosis
- Progressive, degenerative bone disease
- Bone resorption more rapid than bone formation
- Loss of bone mass
- Drugs inhibit osteoclasts
C. Human skeleton
1. > 200 bones
a. Some fused together
b. Others connected at joints by ligament
Fig 50.36

Bio II Page 177

2. Joints
a. Junctions between 2 or more bones
b. Flexibility and movement
Fig 50.37

Bio II Page 178

V. Types of locomotion
A. Active travel
B. Land
1. Need to support self and move against gravity
C. Water
1. Buoyancy
2. Friction - organisms streamlined
D. Air
1. Gravity wings lift to overcome downward force
2. Light bodies
a. Ex birds - no teeth, no urinary bladder, bones - air filled regions

Bio II Page 179

Lecture 21: Digestion


Tuesday, January 20, 2015

11:13 PM

I. Introduction
A. All animals are heterotrophs (organic molecules produced by other animals)
B. Food processing
Fig 41.5

1. Ingestion - mechanism by which animal is getting food into digestive cavity


a. Filter feeding
i. Aquatic animals - strain water
b. Substrate feeding
i. Live in or on food source
c. Fluid feeding
i. Sucking fluids out of living host
d. Bulk feeding
i. Eating relatively large pieces of food
Fig 41.6

Bio II Page 180

2. Digestion
a. Process of breaking down complex organic molecules into smaller
molecules
can now be taken up into cells
b. Mechanical - makes so more surface area (breaking down via teeth)
c. Chemical
i. With enzymes
ii. Hydrolysis
3. Absorption - cells
4. Elimination - undigested material passes out of digestive system
C. Digestive compartments - critical (body not digested too)
1. Intracellular digestion
a. Food vacuoles - fuse with lysosomes (has hydrolytic enzymes)
2. Extracellular digestion
a. Breakdown of food in compartments that are continuous with outside of
body
Bio II Page 181

body
b. Some organisms this takes place in Gastrovascular cavity
Fig 41.7

c. Alimentary canal i. complete digestive system


ii. one way tube with 2 openings
iii. Specialized into compartments
Fig 41.8

Bio II Page 182

II. Human digestive system


A. Intro
1. Alimentary canal
2. Accessory glands
a. Secrete digestive juices through ducts into alimentary canal
b. Exocrine glands
c. 3 pairs of salivary glands
i. Pancreas
ii. Liver
iii. Gall bladder
3. Peristalsis - alternating waves of contraction and relaxation
a. Smooth muscle
4. Sphincters - ring like muscular valves
a. Regulate passage of materials from one compartment to another
Fig 41.9

Bio II Page 183

B. Before ingestion
1. Triggered in nervous system salivary secretion
C. Oral cavity
1. Ingestion and initial steps of digestion
2. Mechanical digestion via teeth
3. Chemical digestion occurs as a result of salivary glands
a. Enzyme - salivary amylase
i. Hydrolyzes starch and glycogen
ii. Broken down into smaller polysaccharides and maltose
(disaccharide)
4. Mucus - acts as lubricant
a. Mucins - glycoproteins
b. Protects lining of mouth
5. Tongue - moves food
a. Forms food into bolus - lump of food moved toward pharynx
swallowed
D. Pharynx
Fig 41.10

1. Throat - "hallway" to digestive system and respiratory system


2. Swallowing
a. Epiglottis - small flap of tissue that covers glottis (opening to trachea)
3. Bolus moved through esophageal sphincter
E. Esophagus
1. Muscular tube located between pharynx and stomach
Bio II Page 184

1. Muscular tube located between pharynx and stomach


2. Cardiac sphincter at end - valve at junction between esophagus and stomach
3. Peristalsis - moves bolus into stomach
F. Stomach
1. Has elastic wall and many folds can expand
a. Capacity of about 2 liters
2. Stomach lining
a. Pits - lead into tubular gastric glands
b. Gastric glands
i. Produce gastric juice
ii. Mucous cells - secrete mucus
- Provides protection from acid
iii. Chief cells
- Secrete pepsinogen - inactive precursor of pepsin
iv. Parietal cells
- Has ATP driven pumps - pump H+ into stomach lumen
(inside)
- Cl ions diffuse from parietal cells into lumen
- H+ and Cl- HCl
- pH ~ 2
3. HCl
a. Antimicrobial
b. Removes short segment of polypeptide chain from pepsinogen (from chief
cell)
i. Exposes active site of enzyme now pepsin (active)
- Proteolytic - main digestive enzyme of stomach (breaks down
proteins)
- Endopeptidase - enzyme that breaks internal peptide bonds
Occurs at specific sites
Results in smaller polypeptides but not amino acids
Fig 41.11

Bio II Page 185

4. Chyme leaves stomach (thick soup)


a. Mixture
i. Partially digested carbohydrates (some digested in mouth)
ii. Smaller polypeptides (digested partially in stomach)
iii. Undigested material
b. pH ~2
c. Moves through pyloric sphincter into small intestine
G. Small intestine
1. ~ 6 in long, smaller diameter than large intestine
2. Divisions
a. Duodenum - chemical digestion
b. Jejunum
c. Ileum
3. Large surface area
a. Intestinal villi
b. Microvilli - folds of membrane on exposed surface of epithelial cells
Bio II Page 186

b. Microvilli - folds of membrane on exposed surface of epithelial cells


c. Absorption of nutrients take place
4. Pancreatic juice
a. Bicarbonate - neutralizes acidity
b. Several enzymes
c. Travels from pancreas to small intestine (duodenum) via duct - exocrine
5. Bile
a. Produced in liver
b. Stored in gall bladder
c. Passes through bile duct into small intestine
d. Bile salts
i. Mechanical digestion of fats
e. No digestive enzymes (no chemical digestion)
III. Digestion of specific nutrients
A. Carbohydrates
1. Generally in form of polysaccharides and disaccharides
a. Need to be broken down into monosaccharides
2. Oral cavity - salivary amylase (digestion occurs)
3. Stomach - not secreting anything to break down carbs
4. Small intestine
a. From pancreas
i. Pancreatic amylase - digestion of carbs occurs
b. From small intestine
i. Disaccharidases
B. Proteins
1. Protein (polypeptides)
a. Need to be broken down into amino acids so cells can take in
2. Oral cavity - no protein digestion
3. Stomach
a. Pepsin breaks down short polypeptides
4. Small intestine
a. From pancreas
i. Pancreatic trypsin and chymotrypsin
- Cleave bonds adjacent to specific amino acids
b. From small intestine
i. Dipeptidases
- Hydrolyze dipeptides
ii. Carboxypeptidases
- Start at carboxyl end of polypeptide
- Cleave off single amino acids
iii. Amino peptidases
i) Cleave off single amino acids from amino end of polypeptide
C. Nucleic acids - DNA and RNA
nitrogenous bases, sugars, and phosphates
1. Oral cavity and stomach - no digestion
2. Small intestine
a. From pancreas - pancreatic nucleases
b. From small intestine - nucleotidases and phosphatases
D. Lipids - generally ingested as large masses of triaglycerides (triglycerides)
1. Oral cavity and stomach - no digestion
2. Fats - hydrophobic
a. Problem - enzymes are water soluble
b. Enzymes can only access surface of fats
3. Bile salts - adhere to fats and emulsify them
a. Break up large masses of fat into smaller droplets
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a. Break up large masses of fat into smaller droplets


b. Increase surface area so enzymes can access
4. Pancreatic lipase
a. Breaks down triglycerides into glycerol, fatty acids, monoglycerides
Fig 41.12

IV. Absorption
- Most nutrients absorbed through villi in small intestine
A. Intestinal villi
1. Each have capillary (blood vessel)
2. Lacteal - lymph vessel
a. One way transport of fluid and nutrients from tissues into blood
3. 2 single layers of cells separate nutrients in lumen of small intestine from
bloodstream
a. One layer is villus cell layer
b. Second is capillary or lacteal cell layer
Fig 41.13

Bio II Page 188

B. Transport processes
1. Simple diffusion - ex. Water
2. Facilitated diffusion - need transport proteins
a. ex. Fructose into epithelium and into capillary
3. Active transport
a. Requires metabolic energy and transport protein
b. Ex. Ions - Na+, K+
4. Combination
a. Ex. Glucose and amino acids
i. Transported via active transport into epithelial cells of intestine
ii. Via facilitated diffusion into bloodstream
C. Absorption of fats
1. Free fatty acids and monoglycerides
a. Enters epithelial cell of small intestine via simple diffusion
b. Reassembled as triglycerides in smooth endoplasmic reticulum
2. Triglycerides get coated with cholesterol, phospholipids, and proteins
a. Packaged into chylomicrons
3. Chylomicrons inter lacteal
4. Transported to lymph then to blood
D. What is left?
1. Most nutrients are absorbed by time it gets to end of small intestine
2. Everything else moves into large intestine
a. Undigested protein, fats, carbohydrates
b. Indigestible material - cellulose
c. Dead cells
V. Large intestine = colon
A. Larger diameter than small intestine but shorter
B. Ileocecal valve
1. Sphincter between small intestine and large intestine
C. Divisions
1. Ascending colon
2. Transverse colon
3. Descending colon
4. Sigmoid colon
D. Absorption - mainly water is absorbed
E. Bacteria
1. Produce variety of vitamins that can be absorbed
a. K, riboflavin, thiamine, B12
Bio II Page 189

a. K, riboflavin, thiamine, B12


2. Outcompete any pathogens
F. Feces - eliminated (not excreted)
1. Process of getting rid of digestive waste - material that has not been involved in
metabolism
2. Passes out of large intestine via anus
a. ~ 75% water, ~ 25% solid - bacteria, cellulose, dead cells, bile salts
VI. Liver
A. Location - between intestines and heart
B. Capillaries from small intestine converge into veins lead into hepatic portal vein
C. Hepatic portal vein - transports blood to liver (contains the nutrients)
liver gets first access to nutrients absorbed by intestine
D. Function
1. Remove excess glucose glygogen stored in liver cells
2. Convert many nutrients into new substances
a. Proteins
b. Excess calories fat
3. Modifies and detoxifies substances
a. Ex. Toxins converted into inactive substances and excreted in urine
i. Ex. Alcohol and drugs

Bio II Page 190

Lecture 22: Nutrition


Tuesday, January 20, 2015

11:13 PM

I. Introduction
A. Nutrition
1. taking food into body
2. broken down
3. used by body
B. Animals - heterotrophs
1. Herbivores
2. Carnivores
3. Omnivores
C. Proper nutrition (eating right amounts and types of food)
II. 3 nutritional needs
A. Chemical energy
1. Ingest to produce ATP
a. Calories = kilocalorie = 1000 calories
i. Amount of heat required to raise temp of 1 kg of water by 1 deg. Celsius
2. Carbs
a. Starch and cellulose
b. Principle source of energy in human diet
i. Provide ~ 50% of total Calories
ii. 1g of carbs = 4 C (Calories)
3. Proteins
a. 1 g ~ 4 C
4. Lipids
a. 1 g ~ 9 C
b. Triacylglycerol (glycerol + 3 fatty acids)
B. Organic building blocks
assembled into macromolecules body needs
1. Need source of carbon
2. Need source of nitrogen
C. Essential nutrients
1. Cannot be made by body
a. must be ingested
2. Carbs - not essential
3. Essential amino acids
a. 20 amino acids required by animals to make all needed proteins
i. Most animals have enzymes to make about 1/2 of amino acids
Sulfur, nitrogen in diet
ii. Other amino acids essential
b. Humans
i. Adults - 8 essential amino acids
ii. Infants - 9 essential amino acids
c. Complete proteins
i. Include all essential amino acids in proper ratios
ii. Most animal sources of protein are complete proteins
Meat, eggs, cheese
d. Incomplete protein
i. Most plant sources
ii. Vegetarian - need to consume multiple sources of protein
4. Essential fatty acids
a. Animals can synthesize many fatty acids
i. But lack enzyme to form double bonds in some fatty acids
Bio II Page 191

i. But lack enzyme to form double bonds in some fatty acids


b. Essential fatty acids
i. Linoleic acids and linoleic acid polyunsaturated
Seeds, grains, veggies
5. Vitamins
a. Organic compounds
i. Required in small amounts
ii. Support biochemical functions
b. Many vitamins act as coenzymes
i. Non-protein substance
ii. Needed by particular enzyme in order to function properly
c. Water soluble vitamins - cannot be stored
i. B complex vitamin (not like B vitamin)
Ex. B3 (niacin) - NAD+ and NADP+
B9 (folic acid)
deficiencies can lead to open neural tube defects
Anemia
ii. Vitamin C (ascorbic acid)
Collagen synthesis
Antioxidant
Destroys reactive molecules produced when cells use oxygen
Ex. H2O2
Improves iron absorption
Deficiency scurvy
Skin,, teeth, blood vessels, weakness, impaired immunity,
delayed wound healing
d. Fat soluble vitamins - can be stored
i. Vitamin A (retinol)
Converted to retinal part of rhodopsin (pigment in rods in eye)
Deficiency blindness
ii. Vitamin D
Promote calcium absorption
Essential to normal growth
Deficiency in children rickets - defective bone growth
Deficiency in adult osteomalacia - bone softening
Skin exposure to UV radiation triggers reaction to produce Vit-D ~ 20 min
iii. Vitamin K
Essential for synthesis for blood clotting proteins
Large intestine bacteria - E.coli produces
Table 41.1

Bio II Page 192

6. Minerals
a. Inorganic
i. Ingested in form of salts dissolved in food and water
b. Major minerals - required in at least 200mg/day
i. Calcium
Bones and teeth
Blood clotting
Nerve transmission and muscle function
ii. Phosphorus
Bones and teeth
ATP
Nucleic acids
Phospholipids
iii. Sulfur
Proteins - disulfide bridges
iv. Potassium and sodium
Principle positive (+) ions in cells and interstitial fluids
Nerve function
Ion balance
Water balance
v. Chloride
Principle negative (-) ion
Water balance
Nerve function
Production of gastric juice (HCl)
vi. Magnesium
Enzyme cofactor
Necessary for muscle and nerve function
c. Trace elements - required in amounts less than 200mg/day
i. Iron
Bio II Page 193

i. Iron
Hemoglobin
Cytochromes (found in mitochondria, electron transport chain)
ii. Iodide
Thyroid hormones
Table 41.2

III. Malnutrition
A. Diet lacks one or more essential nutrients
1. Ex. Kwashiorkor
a. Severe protein deficiency in children
b. Diet lacks in essential amino acids
c. Growth stunted
d. Muscle wasting
e. Edema - fluid imbalances swelling of abdomen
B. Diet that consistently supplies less chemical energy than required
1. Undernutrition
IV. Regulation of digestion
Arrival of food in alimentary canal compartments
triggers secretion for chemical digestion and triggers peristalsis
A. Oral cavity
1. Nervous system triggers arrival of saliva
2. swallowing
B. Stomach
1. Arrival of food stretches stomach wall
a. Triggers release of gastrin (hormone)
i. gets into blood
ii. stomach (target)
iii. stimulated to produce gastric juices
b. Triggers churning
2. Also regulated by enteric division of autonomic nervous system
C. Small intestine
1. Chyme
a. Acidic mixture - comprised of partially digested food
b. Amino acids and fatty acids in chyme trigger release of digestive hormones by duodenum
2. Digestive hormones
a. CCK - cholecystokinin
Bio II Page 194

a. CCK - cholecystokinin
i. Transferred in bloodstream
ii. Stimulates release of digestive enzymes from pancreas and bile from gall bladder
b. Secretin
i. Transported in bloodstream
ii. Stimulates pancreas
iii. pancreas releases HCO3- (neutralizes chyme)
3. If chyme rich in fats
a. levels of CCK and secretin are high
b. Act on stomach inhibit peristalsis and secretion of gastric juices
Fig 41.20

Bio II Page 195

Fig 41.20

V. Regulation of energy storage


A. If ingest more energy rich molecules than needed stores excess
1. First sites of storage - liver and muscle cells
2. Stored as glycogen
3. Excess is stored as fat in adipose cells
B. If fewer Calories than needed are ingested
1. Liver glycogen is used first muscle glycogen fats
VI. Glucose homeostasis
Bio II Page 196

VI. Glucose homeostasis


A. Glucose
1. Cellular respiration
2. Source of carbon
3. level must stay in normal range
a. Blood glucose ~ 70-110mg/mL
B. Pancreas
1. Functions
a. Exocrine
i. Pancreatic juice produced
ii. Duct small intestine
b. Endocrine gland
i. Pancreatic islets - clusters of endocrine cells scattered throughout pancreas
ii. Each cluster
Alpha cells glucagon
Beta cells insulin
2. Insulin and glucagon
a. Secreted into interstitial fluid enter blood
b. Antagonistic effect - work in opposition
i. regulate blood glucose levels
c. Secretion of both
i. Controlled by blood glucose level
C. Glucose regulation
1. High glucose levels
a. Beta cells secrete insulin
b. Target tissue
i. All cells in body except brain
ii. Receptors on plasma membrane
iii. Brain is able to take up glucose without insulin
c. Insulin stimulates cells to take glucose up from blood
i. Inside cell
Fuel, glycogen
2. Low glucose levels
a. Alpha cells secrete glucagon
b. Target tissue
i. Liver
c. Raises blood glucose levels
d. Glycogen glucose into blood
Fig 41.21

Bio II Page 197

Fig 41.21

3. Malfunctions of glucose regulation


a. Diabetes mellitus
i. Endocrine disorder
ii. Caused by
Deficiency of insulin
Decreased response to insulin in target tissues
iii. Very high blood glucose levels
Cells unable to take up glucose
Fat becomes main substrate for cellular respiration
Acidic metabolites are produced
Build up in blood and lowers pH
Depletes Na+ and K+
iv. Kidney excretes glucose in urine
v. Blindness, kidney disorders, gangrene
b. Type I = insulin-dependent diabetes ~10%
i. Autoimmune disease
Antibodies destroy beta cells
Insulin deficiency
Onset usually before age 30
Injections of insulin
c. Type II = non-insulin dependent ~90%
i. Failure of target cells to respond normally to insulin
ii. insulin resistance
iii. Insulin is still being produced but receptors on target cells don't bind
iv. Onset usually > 40 years, but increasing in children
v. High body weight and lack of exercise
VII. Regulation of appetite and consumption
A. Overnutrition
1. Consuming more Calories than needed
Bio II Page 198

1. Consuming more Calories than needed


a. obesity
B. Feedback circuits control fat storage and metabolism
1. Allow maintenance of homeostasis
C. Nervous system
1. Network of neurons
a. Relay and integrate information from digestive system to regulate secretion of hormones
2. Satiety center - in brain
a. Target of hormones
b. Generates nerve impulses for feeling hungry or satiated
D. Hormones
1. Ghrelin
a. Secreted by stomach wall
b. Feelings of hunger
2. Insulin
a. Produced in response to increased blood glucose levels
b. Acts on brain to suppress appetite
3. PYY
a. Secreted by small intestine after meals
b. Appetite suppressant
4. Leptin
a. Byadipose (fat) tissue
b. Suppresses appetite
c. Levels fall when amount of body fat decreases
i. appetite increases
Fig 41.22

Bio II Page 199

Lecture 23: Circulation


Tuesday, January 20, 2015

11:13 PM

I. Animals without a circulatory system


A. Flatworms - flat body
1. Cells close to surface so substances from environment can diffuse more easily
B. Cnidarians - Gastrovascular cavity
C. Nematodes - pseudocoelomates
1. Have fluid
II. Circulatory systems
A. Basic components
1. Fluid
2. Vessels that form a network
3. Heart - muscular pump
B. Types of circulatory systems
1. Open
a. Hemolymph - circulatory fluid, also interstitial fluid
b. Heart
i. Undergoes contractions - pumps hemolymph through circulatory
vessels and into interconnected sinuses
ii. Relaxes - draws hemolymph back into heart
c. Low pressure
i. Relatively inefficient method for circulating materials
ii. Less costly in terms of energy expenditure
d. Ex. In arthropods and mollusks (except cephalopods)
2. Closed
a. Blood - remains confined to vessels
i. Distinct from interstitial fluid
b. Heart(s)
i. Pumps blood into large vessels
ii. branches into smaller ones
iii. infiltrate organs
c. Higher blood pressure can be produced
i. More efficient
d. Ex. Annelids, cephalopods, vertebrates
Fig 42.3

Bio II Page 200

III. Vertebrate circulation - Cardiovascular system


A. Blood
B. Blood vessels
1. Arteries
a. Take blood away from heart to organs
b. Divide into arterioles - deliver blood to capillaries
2. Capillaries
a. Microscopic blood vessels
b. Capillary beds - networks of capillaries that infiltrate tissues
c. Exchange takes place between tissues and blood
d. Capillaries merge together venules
3. Veins
a. Receive blood from venules
b. Located between muscles
i. Movement of muscles puts pressure on veins
c. Valves in veins prevent backflow
d. Blood moves back to heart
4. Arteries and veins are distinguished by the direction they carry blood
a. Not by oxygen content
C. Heart - contains 2 or more chambers
1. Atrium (atria)
a. 1 or 2 depending on species
b. Receive blood from tissues (via veins)
2. Ventricle
a. 1 or 2 depending on species
Bio II Page 201

a. 1 or 2 depending on species
b. Pump blood into arteries
3. Pericardium - sac that encloses heart
IV. Comparison of circulatory patterns of vertebrates
A. Fish - characterized by single circulation
1. Heart
a. 1 atrium and 1 ventricle
2. Blood flow is a single circuit
a. Atrium pumps blood into ventricle
b. Ventricle contraction pumps blood into an artery
c. blood flows to capillary beds in gills
d. Net diffusion of oxygen into blood and carbon dioxide out of blood
e. Capillaries converge into vessel that carries blood to capillary beds in
rest of body
f. Blood returns via veins to atrium
Fig 42.4a

3. Not very efficient


a. Blood pressure drops in capillary beds in gills
b. Oxygen rich blood reaches other organs rather slowly
c. Swimming increases circulation
B. Amphibians - double circulation
1. Heart
a. 2 atria and 1 ventricle
2. Blood - pumped through double circuit
a. Ventricle pumps blood into a forked artery
b. 2 circuits
i. Pulmocutaneous circuit
Transports blood to lungs and skin
Picks up oxygen
Returns blood to left atrium via veins
ii. Systemic circuit
Transports oxygen rich blood to organs
Returns blood to right atrium via veins
3. Both atria pump into single ventricle
a. Ridge in ventricle diverts
i. Most of oxygen rich blood systemic
Bio II Page 202

i. Most of oxygen rich blood systemic


ii. Most of oxygen poor blood pulmocutaneous
b. Some mixing of blood - frog adjust circulation
c. Double circulation
i. More vigorous blood flow
ii. Blood - repressurizes
Fig 42.4b

C. Mammals and birds


1. Heart
a. 2 atria and 2 ventricles
b. Systemic and pulmonary circuits are completely separate
Fig 42.4c

Fig 42.5

Bio II Page 203

V. Human heart
A. Cardiac cycle
1. One complete sequence of filling and pumping ~ 0.8 seconds ~ 75BPM
2. 2 portions of cycle
a. Systole - contraction
b. Diastole - relaxation
Fig 42.7

B. Cardiac output
1. volume of blood that is pumped/min by left ventricle into systemic circuit
2. = heart rate x stroke volume
Bio II Page 204

2. = heart rate x stroke volume


3.
(BPM) x (vol. of blood pumped in one contraction)
C. 4 valves - flaps of connective tissue
1. Prevent backflow
2. 2 atrioventricular valves
a. Valves between an atrium and a ventricle
b. Right AV valve - between right atrium and right ventricle
c. Left AV valve - between left atrium and left ventricle
d. Blood that is returning from tissues fills atria
i. Blood pressure now on AV valves forces them open onto ventricles
ii. Ventricles fill with blood
iii. Ventricles contract blood forced back against AV valves and
pushes them closed
3. 2 semilunar valves
a. Valves found between ventricles and exits of heart
b. Forced open by ventricular contraction
c. Pulmonary valve
i. Between right ventricle and pulmonary artery (away from heart)
d. Aortic valve
i. Between left ventricle and aorta (away from heart)
Fig 42.6

4. 2 main heart sounds


a. Sounds as a result of valves closing
b. Lub - low pitched, long lasting sound, AV valves
c. Dup - higher, shorter, semilunar valves
d. Heart murmur
i. Ex. Lub-shhh semilunar valves damaged backflow of blood
into ventricles
D. Initiation of heartbeat
1. SA (sinoatrial) node - "pacemaker" of heart
a. Small mass of cardiac muscle in wall of right atrium
b. Initiates each beat of heart
c. Auto-rhythmic - generates own action potentials
i. Opening of calcium ion channels depolarization occurs
2. Impulse from SA node spreads rapidly through walls of atria
a. atria contract
Bio II Page 205

a. atria contract
3. During atrial contraction
a. Impulses from SA node reaches AV (atrioventricular) node
b. AV node located in wall between right atrium and right ventricle
c. Impulse delayed ~1/10 sec at AV node
i. Allows atria to complete their contraction before ventricles start
4. Bundle branches
a. Conduct signals from AV node to heart apex (lowest part of heart)
5. Signal continues to spread through specialized structures called Purkinje fibers
a. ventricles
Fig 42.8

6. Artificial pacemaker - takes place for SA node


7. Regulation of heart rate
a. Regulation occurs via nervous system
i. Baroreceptors
Sensory receptors
In walls of blood vessels and heart
Sensitive to changes in blood pressure
When stimulated, send signals to brain
cardiac centers in medulla of brain
ii. Cardiac centers
Control 2 sets of autonomic nerves
signals pass to SA node
iii. Sympathetic nerves
Speed up heart rate
Increase strength of contraction
iv. Parasympathetic nerves
Slow heart rate
b. Endocrine system
i. Stress
ii. Adrenal medulla
Stimulated by sympathetic nerves
Release epinephrine - speeds up heart rate
c. Temperature
i. Increase - fever - speeds up heart rate
ii. Decrease - heart rate decreases
VI. Blood vessel structure
A. Arteries and veins - 3 layers
Bio II Page 206

A. Arteries and veins - 3 layers


1. Endothelium
a. Lines lumen of vessel
b. Provides smooth surface - minimize resistance to blood flow
2. Smooth muscle
a. Thicker in arteries than in veins - pressure from heart
3. Connective tissue outer coat
a. Elastic and collagen fibers for support
B. Capillaries
1. Composed of endothelium and basal lamina (extracellular layer)
2. Only location for exchange of substances between blood and interstitial fluid
Fig 42.9

VII. Capillaries
A. Site of movement of substances between blood and tissues
1. Diffusion
2. Gas exchange
3. Waste removal
4. Nutrients arriving
B. Plasma
1. Fluid component of blood
2. Blood under high pressure
a. Some of plasma will be forced out of circulatory system and into tissues
b. interstitual fluid now
C. Interstitial fluid
1. Does not contain red blood cells
2. Contains ~25% of proteins found in blood
3. hypotonic relative to blood
D. Fluids - move back and forth
1. Blood pressure
a. Pressure exerted by blood on capillary wall
b. Caused by beating of heart
Bio II Page 207

b. Caused by beating of heart


c. Blood pressure works to push plasma out of capillaries
2. Osmotic pressure
a. Opposing force to blood pressure
b. Blood is hypertonic relative to interstitial fluid
c. Net movement of fluid from interstitial to blood
3. Arterial end of capillary (closest to coming out of heart)
a. Blood pressure higher than osmotic pressure
i. Net movement out of capillary
4. Venous end
a. Blood pressure lower than osmotic pressure
i. Net movement into capillary
Fig 42.14

E. Not all fluid returns to capillaries


1. ~ 15% remains in interstitial fluid
VIII. Lymphatic system
A. Functions
1. Collect and return interstitial fluid to blood fluid balance
2. Absorbs lipids from digestive tract
3. Defense against disease
B. Lymph - fluid
C. Lymph vessels - extend throughout body
D. Lymph node
1. Comprised of connective tissue containing white blood cells
2. Bacteria and other harmful materials filtered from lymph
E. Lymph movement due to rhythmic contractions of vessel walls
1. Contractions draw fluid in
2. Skeletal muscles contract moves fluid through vessels
F. Lymphatics all over body
1. Conduct lymph toward base of neck
2. Join circulatory system via lymph ducts
G. Edema
1. Swelling due to accumulation of interstitial fluid
2. Lymph vessels blocked - infection, injury, inflammation

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Lecture 24: Blood & Immunity


Tuesday, January 20, 2015

11:13 PM

I. Introduction
A. The average person has approximately 5L of blood
B. Functions of blood
1. Transport
2. Fluid balance
3. Defense against pathogens
C. Composition
1. Cells in fluid (red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets)
2. Liquid is called plasma
II. Plasma
Approximately 55% of blood
A. ~ 92% is water
B. Inorganic salts - dissolved ions (blood electrolytes)
1. Buffers blood against drastic pH changes (normal is 7.4)
2. Maintain osmotic balance
3. Effect composition of interstitial fluid (fluid that is bathing tissues)
C. Plasma proteins
1. Regulate the distribution of fluid between the plasma and the interstitial fluid
a. Increase osmotic pressure so that fluid returns to capillaries
2. Act as buffers
3. Albumin - regulates pH and fluid balance
4. Immunogloblins (antibodies) found in the plasma and important in the defense of invaders
into the body
5. Apolipoproteins - lipid transport
a. Lipids are insoluble so they must be bound to a protein
6. Fibrinogens - involved in blood clotting
a. Serum = plasma minus fibrinogens
D. Transported blood
1. Nutrients (digestion)
2. Hormones (endocrine)
III. Cellular components
A. Cells are produced in the bone marrow of certain bones
1. Ribs, vertebrae, sternum, and pelvis
2. Multipotent stem cells
a. Have the potential to specialize into any type of blood cell
3. When a stem cell divides
a. One daughter cell differentiates
b. Other daughter will remain a stem cell
B. Erythrocytes (red blood cells)
1. Most numerous of all blood cells
a. 25 trillion in adult (5-6 million per cubic mL of blood)
2. Lifespan is about 120 days (4 months)
3. Flexible biconcave (bowed in) discs increases surface area
a. Elastic internal framework allows them to move through the capillaries (small
diameter)
4. Mammals - have no nuclei in their erythrocytes
5. Lack mitochondria (all species)
a. Rely on anaerobic metabolism to generate ATP
6. Specialized to transport oxygen
7. Hemoglobin - a protein whose function is to transport oxygen (gives blood red color)
8. Erythrocyte production is controlled by the hormone erythropoietin (EPO)
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7. Hemoglobin - a protein whose function is to transport oxygen (gives blood red color)
8. Erythrocyte production is controlled by the hormone erythropoietin (EPO)
a. Produced by the kidneys
b. Controlled by a negative feedback mechanism
i. Triggered by the amount of oxygen reaching the tissues
c. Not enough oxygen
i. Kidney stimulated to produce more EPO
ii. Stimulates the production of erythrocytes in the bone marrow
d. Too much oxygen reaches the tissues
i. Kidneys produce less EPO
ii. Erythrocyte production goes down
C. Leukocytes - white blood cells
1. Specialized to defend the body against invading pathogens
2. Not confined to the circulatory system (also found in interstitial fluid and lymph nodes)
D. Platelets
1. Not whole cells
2. Formed by pinching off cytoplasmic fragments of large cells in the bone marrow
3. No nuclei
4. Important in blood clotting
Fig 42.16

Fig 42.17

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IV. Blood clotting


A. Platelet plug formation (temporary clot)
1. Blood vessel has been damaged
2. Vessel constricts blood flow decreases
3. Platelets circulating in the blood begin to stick to collagen fibers in the damaged area
4. physical block formed to the area of damage
5. Platelets release attractants (chemical substances that attract other components)
a. Other plates respond to these attractants
b. Makes plates sticky
c. Leads to the formation of a platelet plug
B. Fibrin clot formation (stronger, permanent clot)
1. Clotting factors - produced and secreted by the platelets, damaged cells, and ones in plasma
a. More than 30 clotting factors
b. Missing or malfunctioning clotting factors can lead to hemophilia
i. Hemophilia A - factor 7 is missing
2. In presence of clotting factors, calcium ions and other components released from platelets
a. Prothrombin is converted to thrombin
b. Prothrombin - plasma protein that is produced in the liver (req Vit K for production)
c. Thrombin - enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of fibrinogen into fibrin
i. Fibrinogen - soluble protein, when converted to fibrin becomes insoluble
3. Fibrin polymerizes
a. Forms long threads of fibrin that stick to damaged vessel
b. Blood cells and platelets are trapped in network fibrin clot
Fig 42.18

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C. Anticlotting factors in blood


1. Prevent spontaneous clotting in absence of vessel damage
2. Thrombus - clot that forms within blood vessel blocks blood flow
V. Cardiovascular disease
A. Normal blood vessel - smooth inner lining decreases resistance to blood flow
1. Damage or infection to blood vessel can roughen lining atherosclerosis
B. Atherosclerosis
1. Hardening of the arteries due to accumulation of fatty deposits
2. Cholesterol
a. Travels in blood particles 1000's of cholesterol molecules and other lipids bound to
protein
3. 2 types of particles
a. LDL - low density lipoprotein that deliver cholesterol for membrane production
b. HDL - high density lipoprotein that scavenges excess cholesterol and returns to liver
c. High LDL to HDL ratio are associated with increased risk for atherosclerosis
d. Damage to arterial lining results in inflammation
i. Leukocytes are attracted to the inflamed area and take up lipids including
cholesterol
ii. Produces a plaque - fatty deposit that eventually incorporates fibrous tissue and
more cholesterol
iii. Walls of the artery become thick and sticky which causes an obstruction of the
artery
iv. If plaque ruptures a thrombus can form in artery
C. Heart attack (Myocardial Infarction)
1. Results from one or more of the coronary arteries by plaques or thrombi
2. Arteries are small in diameter
3. Blockage in arteries can lead to damage or death in cardiac muscle
D. Stroke
1. Death of nervous tissue in the brain due to lack of oxygen
2. Can result from the arterial blockage via thrombus
VI. Immune system introduction
A. Defense system - protects against pathogens and foreign molecules
1. All animals have internal defense system
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1. All animals have internal defense system


B. 2 types of defense mechanisms
1. Innate immunity
a. Provides general protection against pathogens
b. Deters a wide range of pathogens and does this by preventing entrance into body or
destroying the pathogen quickly if it enters
2. Adaptive immunity (acquired immune response)
a. Specific responses directed toward specific antigens
b. Antigens - molecules recognized by immune cells as foreign
Fig 43.2

VII. Innate immunity - invertebrates (insects)


A. Barrier defenses
1. Chitin - exoskeleton first barrier against most pathogens
a. Lines intestine
2. Lysozyme - enzyme that breaks down cell walls
B. Encounters internal immune defenses
1. Hemocytes - travel through body hemolymph
a. Phagocytosis - ingest bacteria and break them down
Fig 43.3

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b. Secrete antimicrobial peptides


i. Short chains of amino acids that circulate through the insect's body and disrupts
the plasma membrane of ant pathogens in the body
c. Type of antimicrobial peptide produced depends on type of pathogen present
d. Ex. If the insect is infected by a fungal pathogen, there are recognition proteins in the
insect and these proteins bind to unique components of the fungal cell wall
e. Complex will activate protein Toll (receptor on the hemocyte surface)
f. Leads to signal transduction to the cell nucleus begins production of antimicrobial
peptides
g. If infected by bacteria, a different recognition protein is activated antimicrobial
peptides effective against bacteria are produced
VIII. Innate immunity in mammals
A. Barrier defenses
1. Overview
a. Non-specific "anatomical" barriers
b. Prevent entrance
c. Physical and chemical barriers
2. Skin
a. Physical
i. Remains as a barrier as long as it is intact
ii. Inhabited by harmless microorganisms
b. Chemical
i. Secretion of oil and sweat glands
ii. Ends up having pH between 3-5
3. Mucous lining - digestive, urinary, respiratory, and reproductive tracts
a. Mucus - contains viscus and traps pathogens
b. Respiratory tract
i. Ciliated epithelial cells that sweep mucus and particles upward and away from
linings
c. Lysozyme
4. Stomach - acid secretions
B. Cellular innate defenses
1. Phagocytosis
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1. Phagocytosis
a. Phagocytic cells have Toll-like receptors (TLR)
i. Bind to molecules that are characteristic of a set of pathogens, but are normally
absent from vertebrate body
ii. Ex. TLR3 - bind to double stranded RNA
iii. TLR4 - bind to lipopolysaccharides gram negative bacteria
Fig 43.6

b. Triggers phagocytosis and destruction of pathogen


i. Neutrophils - leave blood vessel into infected tissues
Chemotaxis
ii. Microphages - some migrate though body, others stay in a site
Ex. Lymph nodes
iii. Other phagocytic cells
Dendritic cells in tissues that contact the environment
Eosinphils - beneath mucosal surfaces
2. Natural killer cells (NK cells)
a. Circulate
b. Recognize abnormal surface proteins on virus-infected or cancerous cells
c. Releases chemicals cell death
d. Do attack pathogens directly
3. Antibacterial peptides and proteins
a. Interferons
i. Virus infected cells help other cells resist virus
b. Compliment system - ~30 proteins in plasma
i. Circulate in inactive form
ii. Activated by substances in surfaces of microbes lysis of invaders
4. Inflammatory response
a. Activated by tissue damage
b. characteristics - heat, redness, edema, pain
c. Mast cells release histamine affects nearby vessels
i. Dilate increased blood flow, swollen, red, and heat
ii. Become more permeable more fluid passes into the interstitial fluid = edema
d. Macrophages and neutrophils
i. Secretes cytokines and increases blood flow
ii. Phagocytosis
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ii. Phagocytosis
e. Increases blood flow which brings in phagocytic cells, nutrients, oxygen, and
antimicrobial peptides
f. Pus - fluid containing white blood cells, dead pathogens, and cell debris
g. Usually local response
h. May involve whole body fewer (elevated body temperature)
i. Interferes with growth and replication of microorganisms
Fig 43.8

Bio II Page 216

Lecture 25: Immunity


Tuesday, January 20, 2015

11:13 PM

I. Introduction
A. Timing
1. Takes several days to mobilize adaptive immunity (specific defenses)
2. Until then - innate defenses will destroy pathogens
B. Lymphocytes - types of white blood cells
1. Function in innate and adaptive immunity
2. 2 types in adaptive immunity
a. Both originate from stem cells located in bone marrow
b. Some remain in bone marrow in process of maturation
i. B cells
c. Others migrate to thymus
i. T cells
C. Antigen (Ag)
1. Any foreign substance that elicits a B cell or T cell response
2. Most are proteins or large polysaccharides
a. Found on surface of pathogen or blood cells or tissue cells from other individuals
3. Epitope
a. Specific region that is exposed on the surface of antigen molecule
b. Binds to antigen receptor
c. Each B cell and T cell displays specificity for a specific epitope
II. B cells
A. Y-shaped receptors - consist of 4 polypeptide chains
1. 2 are identical called heavy chains (embedded in plasma membrane)
2. Other 2 are identical light chains
3. Disulfide bridges link chains together
4. Transmembrane region of receptor
a. Near one end of each heavy chain
b. Anchors receptor in B cell's plasma membrane
5. Constant (c) region
a. Portions of light and heavy chains
b. Amino acid sequences vary little among B cells
6. Variable (v) region
a. Found within tips of Y shape
b. Each tip is binding site for antigen
c. Each receptor has 2 identical antigen binding sites
Fig 43.9

B. B cell classes
1. 5 types of immunoglobulins based on distinct heavy chain c regions
2. IgA, IgD, IgE, IgG, and IgM
C. B cell activation
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C. B cell activation
1. When no pathogen present
a. B cell is inactive
2. Activation begins when a B cell antigen receptor (tips) binds to antigen
a. Leads to formation of cells that secrete soluble form of receptor
b. antibodies (Ab) = immunoglobulin (Ig)
3. Antibodies
a. Have same Y-shaped structure as B cell antigen receptors
b. Not membrane bound
c. Antibodies (not B cell) that do actual defense against pathogens
Fig 43.10

III. T cells
A. T cell antigen receptors
1. Bind only to fragments of antigen that are displayed on surface of host cell
2. Host cells characterized by major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules
3. host protein that displays antigen fragment on cell surface
B. Antigen receptor - 2 different polypeptide chains
1. Alpha chain and beta chain disulfide bridges
2. Transmembrane region 0 anchor
3. V region - at ends of chain
a. single antigen binding site
4. C region - rest of molecule
Fig 43.11

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C. Recognition of protein antigen by T cells begins when pathogen infects or part of pathogen taken in by host cell
1. Enzymes cleave antigens into smaller peptides antigen fragments
2. Antigen fragments bind to MHC molecules]antigen
3. MHC molecule and bound antigen move to cell surface
4. display of antigen fragment
5. host cell now called APC (antigen presenting cell)
Fig 43.12

IV. 4 major characteristics of adaptive immunity


A. B cell and T cell diversity
1. > 1 mill B cell antigen receptors
2. > 10 mill T cell antigen receptors
B. Self-tolerance
1. Ability to distinguish between self (own cells) vs non-self (foreign matter)
2. Organisms are biochemically unique
a. All individuals - cells have different surface proteins
C. Proliferation of B cells and T cells
1. Once specific cell is activated (B or T)
a. Undergoes multiple cell divisions
b. clonal selection (making clones)
Bio II Page 219

b. clonal selection (making clones)


2. Effector cells
a. Take effect immediately
b. Short lived
c. Effector forms of B cells called plasma cells
d. Effector forms of T cells cells helper T cells and cytotoxic T cells
3. Memory cells
a. Long lived
b. Ready to divide if same antigen appears again c
c. if antigen appears again give rise to effector cells
Fig 43.13

D. Immunological memory - Long term protection that occurs from prior infection
1. Primary immune response to first exposure to an antigen
a. Peaks 10-17 days after exposure
b. Selected B cells and T cells effector forms
2. Secondary response
a. Exposed to same antigen
b. Response
i. Faster - peaks 2-7 days after exposure
ii. Stronger
iii. More prolonged
c. Less antigen to stimulate response
d. Result of B cell and T cell memory cells
Fig 43.15

Bio II Page 220

Humoral response - occurs in blood and lymph by antibodies


Cell-mediated response - infected host cells destroyed by specialized T cells
V. Helper T cells
A. Trigger humoral and cell-mediated responses
1. Produce signals initiate antibody production
a. Signals activate T cells kill infected cells
2. Helper T cells do not kill pathogens or infected host cells directly
B. Triggered by antigen display on surface of APC (antigen presenting cells)
1. Types of APCs
a. Dendritic cell, macrophage, B cell
2. APC displaces antigen fragment that has been complexed with MHC (Major histocompatibility complex)
molecule
a. Most body cells have only class I MHC molecules
b. APCs have class I and class II MHC molecules
i. class II MHC molecules are molecular signiture by which APC is recognized
C. 2 parts of helper T cell bind to APC (displaying antigen fragment)
1. Antigen receptor
a. Binds to antigen fragment and to class II MHC molecule
2. CD4
a. Accessory protein found on helper T cell surface
b. Binds to class II MHC molecule
c. Keeps cells joined (helper T cell and antigen)
D. Binding of helper T cell stimulates APC to produce cytokines (signaling molecules)
1. Trigger helper T cell to produce cytokines
2. Activates helper T cell proliferation
3. clones of helper T cells
E. Helper T cells activate B cells and cytotoxic T cells
Fig 43.16

Bio II Page 221

VI. Cytotoxic T cells


A. Use toxic proteins to kill cells infected by viruses or other intracellular pathogens
1. Accomplished before pathogen matures
B. Activated by
1. Signals from helper T cells
2. Interaction with APC
a. Infected host cell
i. Antigen fragments inside cell associate with class I MHC molecules
ii. displayed on cell surface and recognized by cytotoxic T cells (not helper T cells - class II)
b. Binding of cytotoxic T cell
i. Antigen receptor binds to antigen fragment and to class I MHC
ii. CD8 accessory protein on surface of cytotoxic T cell binds to class I MHC
iii. Cytotoxic T cell and antigen bound
C. Activated cytotoxic T cell releases
1. Perforin - forms pores in infected cell's plasma membrane
2. Granzymes - enter infected cell by endocytosis
a. initiate apoptosis
i. Cell death
ii. Activation of enzymes that break down wall
D. Infected cell dies
1. Cytotoxic T cell is released attack other infected cells
Fig 43.17

VII. B cells and antibodies


A. B cell activation
1. Inactive B cell meets antigen that binds to its surface receptor
a. Engulfs antigen
b. Displays antigen fragments bound to class I MHC
2. Helper T cells attracted to B cells
3. Activated B cell gives rise to
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3. Activated B cell gives rise to


a. 1000's of identical plasma cells (effector cells) produce and secrete antibodies
b. Memory cells
Fig 43.18

B. Antibody function
1. Do not kill pathogen directly
a. Binds to antigen and either
i. interferes with pathogen activity or
ii. marks pathogen for inactivation or
iii. Destruction
2. Neutralization
a. Ex. Antibody bind to surface of virus prevents infection of host cell
3. Opsonization
a. Antibody bind to surface of bacteria promotes phagocytosis
i. Macrophages
ii. Neutrophils
4. Activation of complement system
a. Antibody binds to antigen on foreign cell
b. Complement protein binds to antibody-antigen complex
c. Produces membrane attack complex forms pores in cell's membrane
Fig 43.19

VIII. Active and passive immunity


A. Active
1. Developed following exposure to antigen
Bio II Page 223

1. Developed following exposure to antigen


a. Primary and secondary responses
2. Natural
a. Pathogen entered body through natural encounter
i. Ex. Come in contact with someone with measles
3. Artificial
a. Immunization/vaccination
b. Make antibodies against vaccine
c. Booster shots
i. Secondary response
4. Vaccines
a. Pathogen - weakened or killed
i. Antigenic determinants are maintained
B. Passive - "borrowed"
1. Individual given antibodies which were produced by another organism
a. Temporary immunity
b. No memory cells produced
c. Ex. Rabies
i. Injection of antibodies from people who have been vaccinated against rabies
2. Naturally acquired passive immunity
a. Ex. Fetus
i. Protected by IgG produced by mother passes through placenta
b. Ex. Newborns
i. Breast fed - IgA through milk - colostrum

Bio II Page 224

Lecture 26: Respiration


Tuesday, January 20, 2015

11:13 PM

1. Aerobic cellular respiration - process that occurs in mitochondria


2. Organismic respiration - gas exchange between organism and environment
I. Partial pressure
A. Pressure exerted by a particular gas in a mixture of gases
B. Calculating partial pressure
1. Pressure that gas mixture exerts
2. Faction of mixture that is represented by a particular gas
3. Ex. Oxygen at sea level
a. Atmospheric pressure at sea level 760mmHg
b. Atmosphere is ~21% oxygen
c. Pressure oxygen = 0.21(760mmHg) = 160mmHg
C. Gas undergoes net diffusion
1. From region of higher partial pressure to region of lower partial pressure
II. Small aquatic organisms
A. < 1 mm thick
B. Do not have specialized circulatory or respiratory systems
C. Rely on simple diffusion for gas exchange needs
D. Cell membranes of almost every cell is in contact with the environment
E. Ex. Hydra, flatworms, sponges (porous)
III. Respiratory structures
A. Larger organisms > 1 mm thick
1. Diffusion is too slow to meet gas exchange needs of organism
B. Characteristics
1. Gas exchange
2. Gases can be exchanged through air or water
3. Features
a. Thin walls - diffusion can occur quicker
b. Large surface area
c. Moist - gases dissolve in water before diffusing
d. Always very richly supplied with blood vessels
C. 4 main types of respiratory structures
IV. Body surfaces
A. Characteristics
1. Simplest type of respiratory structure
2. Generally characteristic of small organisms - high surface area to volume ratio
3. Low metabolic rate - don't require that much oxygen
4. If terrestrial - need moist environment
5. Also have gills or lungs
B. Ex. Earthworms, amphibians
C. Body surface will not work for larger, more active organisms
V. Gills
A. Introduction
1. Common type in multicellular aquatic animals
2. Specialized for gas exchange in water
3. Characterized by evaginated exchange surfaces - extend out from body surfaces
a. Outer surface - in contact with water
b. Inner surface - in contact with circulatory system
c. Represent large surface area
B. Ventilation
1. Mechanism to move water (or air) over respiratory surface
Bio II Page 225

1. Mechanism to move water (or air) over respiratory surface


2. Fish
a. If water is still, then water in contact with gills would soon be depleted of oxygen
b. Some fish - continually swim for oxygen to enter lungs
c. Most fish have operculum
i. External bony plate
ii. Covers gills
iii. Pumps water through mouth and across gills
C. Structure of gills of bony fish
1. Gill arch - comprised of cartilage
a. Each arch has 2 rows of filaments attached to it
2. Filaments - comprised of flattened plates called lamellae
3. Afferent artery - carries blood into filament
4. Efferent artery - carries blood out
5. Capillary bed - connect two arteries
6. Water flows across lamellae so that oxygen uptake is maximized
D. Countercurrent exchange system - countercurrent flow of blood and water (opposite directions)
1. At each point in gill
a. Blood vessels meet water with an oxygen content higher than that in blood
b. maximize diffusion of gases
Fig 42.22

VI. Air
A. Why no gills in terrestrial organisms?
1. Desiccation - need water environment
2. Support - not enough support in air
B. 2 major types of respiratory structures
1. Tracheal system - insects
2. Lungs
VII. Tracheal systems
Characterized by network of air tubes branched throughout body
A. Trachea - largest tubes
1. Open to outside
B. Finest branches
1. Close to almost all cells in body
C. Gas exchange across moist epithelium that lines tips of tracheal branches
Bio II Page 226

C. Gas exchange across moist epithelium that lines tips of tracheal branches
D. Oxygen and carbon dioxide transport occurs without circulatory system
Fig 42.23

VIII. Lungs
A. Respiratory system
1. Lungs and system of tubes
2. Lungs are not in direct contact with other parts of body
a. need circulatory system to transport gases
B. Structures
1. Nostrils
a. Air enters
b. Open to nasal cavities
2. Nasal cavities
a. Air warmed and moistened
3. Pharynx
a. Leads into
i. Larynx via glottis
ii. Esophagus
b. Epiglottis - covers glottis during swallowing
4. Larynx
a. Chamber surrounded by wall - cartilage
b. Vocal cords found here
i. Elastic folds of tissue
ii. When air passes over vibrate
iii. Voluntary muscles
Can be tensed pitches of sound
c. Cough reflex
5. Trachea = windpipe
a. Air duct from larynx into thoracic cavity (chest cavity)
b. c-shaped cartilage embedded in walls support
c. Divides into 2 bronchi
6. Entire system up to this point is lined with ciliated epithelium and many mucous cells
a. Mucus
b. Cilia - move mucus toward throat
c. Swallowed expelled through digestive system
7. Lungs
a. Pair, spongy, elastic within thoracic cavity
Bio II Page 227

a. Pair, spongy, elastic within thoracic cavity


b. Each bronchus
i. Branches into smaller and smaller branches in lung bronchioles
c. Smallest bronchioles end in alveoli
i. Tiny air sacs
ii. Surface area > 100 m^2
d. Each alveolus
i. Single layer of epithelial cells
ii. Surrounded by network of capillaries
iii. gas exchange happens here
Fig 42.24

C. Breathing
1. Mechanical process
a. Inhalation and exhalation
2. Negative pressure breathing
a. Pressure in lungs is lowered to below pressure of air outside of body
b. Gas flows from outside to inside
c. air is being pulled in
3. Inhalation
a. Rib cage consists of 12 pairs of ribs and rub muscles
i. External intercostal muscles contract
lift ribs upward
Change in angle of ribs increase size of thoracic cavity
b. Diaphragm contracts
i. Domed sheet of skeletal muscle
ii. Attached along lower ribs
iii. Forms bottom wall of thoracic cavity
iv. Increase thoracic cavity size
c. Air rushes in
4. Exhalation
a. Passive
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a. Passive
b. Diaphragm and rib cage relax resting position
c. Moves air out
5. Each lung
a. Enclosed by a double-walled sac
i. Pleural membrane
b. Inner later - adheres to lungs
c. Outer layer - adheres to wall of thoracic cavity
d. Layers separated by thin space filled with fluid
e. Surface tension
i. Layers stick together
ii. Slide past each other
iii. Not easily pulled apart
iv. volume of thoracic cavity and volume of lungs change togetther
Fig 42.27

D. Control of breathing
1. Can hold breath voluntarily for a short time
a. Mostly - autonomic mechanisms regulate breathing
2. Medulla oblongata
a. Breathing control centers
i. Establish breathing rhythm
b. pH of cerebral spinal fluid serves as indicator of blood carbon dioxide concentration
c. CO2 + H2O H2CO3 HCO3- + H+
3. Higher CO2 concentrations when metabolic rate increases
a. lower pH
b. Sensors in medulla and major blood vessels - detect change in pH
c. Medulla sends signals to increase depth and rate of ventilation
Fig 42.28

Bio II Page 229

IX. Gas exchange


A. Coordination of circulation and gas exchange
1. Partial pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide
a. Vary as gases move between air, blood, and tissues
2. During inhalation
a. Fresh air mixes with air sill in lungs
3. Gas mixture in alveoli
a. Has higher oxygen partial pressure and lower CO2 partial pressure than blood
flowing in alveolar capillaries
b. net diffusion of oxygen into blood and CO2 into alveoli
4. Blood leaves lungs via pulmonary veins
a. Partial pressure oxygen and CO2 in blood = alveoli
5. Systemic circulation
a. Net diffusion of oxygen out of blood and CO2 into blood
6. Blood returned to heart and then to lungs
7. Gas exchange occurs across alveolar capillaries
Fig 42.29

Bio II Page 230

B. Respiratory pigments
1. Circulate with blood or hemolymph
2. Within specialized cells
3. Increase capacity to transport oxygen
4. Consist of metal bound to protein
5. Hemoglobin (Hb)
a. Found in most vertebrates
b. In erythrocytes
c. 4 polypeptide chains each with heme group iron atom
d. Each iron atom binds one O2
C. Cooperativity in oxygen binding
1. Hb binds oxygen reversibly
a. Loads in lungs (gills)
b. Unloads in tissues
2. When an oxygen molecule binds to first Hb subunit, the other subunits change shape
a. increases affinity for oxygen
3. Cooperatively unloads oxygen
4. Partial pressure of oxygen
a. Determines if Hb loads or unloads
i. Partial pressure oxygen is high Hb loads oxygen (in lungs)
ii. Partial pressure oxygen is low Hb unloads (in tissues)
Fig 42.30a

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5. Low pH decreases affinity of Hb for oxygen


a. Bohr shift
b. Levels of CO2 increase
Fig 42.30b

D. CO2 transport in blood


1. ~ 7% dissolved in plasma
2. Remainder diffuses from plasma into red blood cells
3. Most H+ bind to hemoglobin and other proteins little change in pH of red blood cells
4. Most HCO3- diffuses out of cytoplasm and transported to lungs
5. In lungs
Bio II Page 232

5. In lungs
a. CO2 diffuses out of blood
b. Decrease in CO2 favors conversion of HCO3- to CO2
c. more CO2 dissfuses out of blood

Bio II Page 233

Lecture 27: Excretion


Tuesday, January 20, 2015

11:13 PM

Bio II Page 234

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