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10:26 PM
Classification
I. Species
A. Base Unit
B. Taxonomy - giving names
C. Binomial nomenclature (Linnaeus)
1. 2 part name
2. genus & specific epithet
3. rules
a. latin
b. italics
c. genus
- Uppercase
- Abbreviate
- Unique
d. specific epithet
- Lowercase
- Not unique
II. Classification
A. evolutionary relationships can be understood
B. species is basic unit of classification
C. phylogeny - history of species
D. systematics - process of classifying
E. hierarchal classification
C. Dichotomies
D. Components
1. nodes - branch points
- Divergence from common ancestor (CA)
2. sister taxa
- Groups of organisms that share a common ancestor (CA)
3. roasted tree
- Has 1 branch point that represents the most recent common ancestor of all taxa on tree
4. basal taxon
- Diverged early in history of group
5. polytomy
- Multibranch
6. extant species
- Species that are alive, current
- Fig. 26.4
- Fig. 26.5
7. homologous
- Shared ancestry
8. analogous
- Similar as a result of convergent evolution
IV. Evolution
A. Accumulation of genetic change over time
B. Natural selection
- Variation
- Mechanism by which evolution occurs
- Acts on individuals but population is what evolves
V. Biological diversity
VI. Tree of life
A. 3 domains
1. bacteria (prokaryotes)
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1. bacteria (prokaryotes)
2. archaea (prokaryotes)
3. eukarya
Fig. 26.21
Virology
I. Characteristics
A. non-living particles
1. not cells
2. no metabolic activities on their own
3. cannot reproduce on their own
B. has genetic material
- Either DNA or RNA, never both
C. 20-300nm in size, can't use light microscope
D. obligate intracellular parasite
II. Discovery
A. TMV - tobacco mosaic virus
B. Adolph Mayer - 1883
- Transmitted disease from infected plant to healthy one
C. Martinus Beijerinck - late 19th century
1. Experiment
Fig. 19.2
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2. Conclusions
a. smaller than bacteria
b. replicates in plants
c. could not cultivate in nutrient media such as petri dish or test tubes
III. Components of viruses
A. Nucleic acids
1. either DNA or RNA
2. single or double strand
3. linear genetic or circular or segmented
4. 3-100 genes
- Info to replicate within host cell
B. capsid
1. protein coat surrounds genetic material
2. subunits called capsomere
3. determines shape of virus
4. in some viruses capsid plays role in attachment
C. envelope - some viruses
1. acquired from moving through host plasma
2. lipid bilayer
- Host phospholipids and proteins
- Viral proteins and glycoproteins
Fig. 19.3
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Fig. 19.3
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Fig. 19.4
Bacteriaphages
C. lytic cycle
1. death of host cell
--> virulent phages
Fig. 19.5
2. bacterial defenses
a. natural selection favors bacterial mutants that don't have surface receptors recognized by virus
b. restriction enzymes
- Reorganize foreign DNA and cut up
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V. Evolution of viruses
A. cellular origin hypothesis
1. viruses are derived from bits of nucleic acids that "escape" from cellular organisms
2. ex. Plasmids
3. species specific - virus originated from a host
4. genetic similarity between viruses and host cells
B. coevolution hypothesis
1. viruses - evolved early in history of life
2. before 3 domains diverged
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Lecture 2: Prokaryotes
Tuesday, January 20, 2015
11:12 PM
I. Intro
A. prokaryotes ~ 3.5 bill years ago
B. Origin of life (Ch. 25.1 & 25.3)
Chemical evolution hypothesis - life developed from non-living matter
-->Heterotrophs
--> photosynthetic autotrophs
--> aerobes
C. Domains bacteria and archaea
D. dominant
Ex. Human body - 70 mill cells
E. pervasive
F. size 0.5-5 microns
II. Cell surface structures
A. cell wall
1. Functions
i. Protects cell
ii. Shape
1) Cocci - balls/spheres O
a) Diplococcus 2
b) Steptococcus - chain
c) Staplycoccus - clump
2) Bacilli - rods
3) Spirals
a) Spirillum - rigid
b) Spirochete - flexible
iii. Prevents bursting in a hypotonic environment
Does not prevent plasmolysis in a hypertonic environment
Fig. 7.12
2. Peptidoglycan
a. only domain bacteria
b. polymer
Sugars crosslinked by short polypeptides
c. not in eukaryotic cell walls
Plants - cellulose
Fungi - chitin
d. Gram stain
1. 2 stains are used
1) 1st crystal violet - purple
2) 2nd safranin - pink
2. Gram positive
1) Thick wall of peptidoglycan
2) Retain crystal violet stain - only see purple
Penicillin - interferes with peptidoglycan synthesis (most effective against gram positive)
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Penicillin - interferes with peptidoglycan synthesis (most effective against gram positive)
3. Gram negative
1) Cell wall - thin layer of peptidoglycan
2) Do not retain crystal violet - see pink
3) Outer membrane of lipopolysaccharides (LPS)
a) Toxic, induces fever
4. Correct antibiotics
Fig. 27.3
1. Hair-like appendages
2. Fimbriae - shorter and more numerous than pili
3. Used for attachment
C. Endospore
1. Dormant stage
Fig 27.5
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III. Motility
A. Taxis
1. Directed movement in response to a stimulus
2. Positive taxis - organism moving toward stimulus
3. Negative taxis - move away from stimulus
4. Ex. Chemotaxis - response to chemical
B. Flagella
1. Common motility structure
2. Found in bacteria and archaea and eukarya
1) A comparison of prokaryotic and eukaryotic flagella
a) Prok - 1/10 wide as euk
- Not covered by plasma membrane
b) Prok and euk have different molecular composition of flagella & diff mech. of propulsion
2) A comparison of bacteria and archaea
a) Similar size
b) Similar propulsion mech.
c) Different composition
3) Bac., arch, and euk
a) Perform similar functions
b) Arose independently
--> analogous structures
3. Prokaryotic flagella
1) 3 parts
a) Motor - rings embedded in the cell wall and in plasma membrane
b) Hook - curved
c) Filament - rotates --> propels cell through environment
2) Function
a) H+ pumped across plasma membrane of cell
--> produces gradient
b) H+ diffuses though motor, turns hook, turns filament
IV. Internal
A. Simpler than euk
B. Lack membrane bound organelles
1. No nucleus
2. No mitochondria
3. No chloroplasts
C. Nucleoid
1. Region of cytoplasm
2. Chromosome located - DNA
Single --> haploid (n)
D. Plasmid
1. smaller rings of DNA
2. Replicate independently
3. Few genes
Non-essential
E. Cytoplasm
1. Ribosomes
2. Storage granules
3. Enzymes
F. Plasma membrane
1. Extensively folded (increase surface area)
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Genetic recombination is the combining of DNA from two sources and occurs via horizontal gene transfer:
Prokaryotic DNA (genes) from different individuals are brought together by transformation, transduction, and conjugation
1. Transformation occurs when prokaryotic cell takes up and incorporates foreign DNA (e.g. plasmid DNA) from the
surrounding environment
2. Transduction: viral phages carry pieces of bacterial chromosome from donor to recipient
Lytic phages:
Phage injects DNA
Enzymes destroy host (recipient) DNA
Host DNA segment is accidently incorporated into phage DNA
Recombinant phage progeny formed
Lysogenic (prophage):
Phage injects recombinant DNA into new host
Recombinant DNA incorporates into host DNA
Produces new recombinant bacteria
3. Conjugation is the process where genetic material is transferred between two prokaryotic cells
A piece of DNA (F factor) is required for production of pili
A donor cell (F+) attaches to a recipient (F-) by the pilus
Pulls it closer, and transfers the F-factor
VI. Genetic diversity
1) Mutations are rare on a per gene basis but:
genetic variation increases quickly in large pops that have short generation times
VII. Nutrition and metabolic
A. Energy sources
1. Phototrophs
2. Chemotrophs
B. Carbon sources
1. Autotrophs - CO2
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1. Autotrophs - CO2
2. Heterotrophs - organic (ex. Glucose)
Table 27.1
2 domains
Horizontal gene transfer - movement of genetic material between species
--> key role in prok evolution
Archaea are more closely related to eukarya than bacteria
B. Bacteria Fig 27.16
1. Proteobacteria
Ex.
a) Alpha
i) Rhizobium - nodules on roots of legumes - nitrogen fixation
b) Beta
i) Nitrosomonas - soil bacteria - NH4+ --> NO2c) Gamma
i) Salmonella
d) Delta
i) Bdellovibrio - predatory bacteria
e) Epsilon
i) Helicobacter pylori - stomach ulcers
2. Chlamydias
1) Parasites
2) Trachamatis - blindness, US most common transferred STD
3. Spirochetes
1) Treponema pallidum - syphilis
2) Borrelia burgdorferi
4. Cyanobacteria
1) Gram-negative
2) Photoautotrophs
3) Chloroplasts
5. Gram-positive
1) Bacillus - anthrax
C. Archaea
1. Extremophiles
2. Extreme halophiles
3. Extreme thermophiles
4. Methanogens - release methane byproduct, strict anaerobes
Ex. Swamps, marshes
Table 27.2
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Lecture 3: Protists
Tuesday, January 20, 2015
11:12 PM
I. Eukaryotic Evolution
A. Endosymbiosis in Eukaryotic Evolution
Introduction
- name means the very first> thought to be first euk. cell
- evolved 1.5-1.6 by a > one billion years before plants, fungi and animals
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- evolved 1.5-1.6 by a > one billion years before plants, fungi and animals
- enormous structural and functional diversity:
- most are unicellular, some colonial or multicellular
- extremely complex cell organization
- Variety of nutritional strategies
- Photoautothrophs: have chloroplasts
- Heterotrophs: ingest organic molecules
- Mixotrophs: both photosynthetic and heterotrophic nutrition
- reproduction and life cycles vary
A. Clades: Excavates
- includes protists with modified mitochondria and protists with unique flagella
- characterized by its cytoskeleton
- excavated (deep) feeding groove on one side of cell body
- group includes:
1. Diplomonads
1. no plastids and modified mitochondria and live in anaerobic environment
- have mitosomes: are reduced mitochondria
- no functional electron transport chains
- cant use O2 to get energy from organic molecules
- get energy from anaerobic pathways
- have two equal-sized nuclei and multiple flagella
- many are parasites> ex. giardia intestinal is
- live in small intestine> backpackers diarrhea
- major cause of diarrhea throughout the world
2. Parabasalids
- no plastids and modified mitochondria and live in anaerobic environment
- have hydrogenosomes: are reduced mitochondria
- generate some energy anaerobically
- release H2 as a by-product
- many are parasites> ex. Trichomonas vaginalis
- causes STD trichomoniasis
3. Euglenozoans
- main feature distinguishing them as a class is a spiral or crystalline rod inside
their flagella
- very diverse clade
- clade includes
a. Kinetoplastids
- single, large mitochondrion contains kinetoplast (organized mass of
DNA)
- found free-living and as parasites
- ex. Trypanosoma brucei> African sleeping sickness
b. Euglenids
- one or two flagella emerge from pocket at one end of cell
- some are mixotrophs: photosynthesis when light available and
heterotrophs when none
- ex. Euglena (should be able to identify structures)
B. Clade: SAR
- doesnt have a formal name> known by first letters of its 3 major clades
1. Stramenopiles
- most have hairy flagellum paired with a smooth flagellum
- 3 main groups:
a. Diatoms
- Photosynthetic unicellular algae
- unique two-part glass=like wall of silicon dioxide
- provides protection from crushing
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11:12 PM
I. Evolution of fungi
A. Review Fig 31.8 Fungi and their close relatives
3. Mycelium (mycelia)
a. Tangled mass of hyphae
b. Feeding network
4. Reproductive structures
a. Spores
b. Spore production
Aerial hyphae
Fruiting body - mushroom
- Complex multicellular reproductive structure
Fig 31.2
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6. Haustoria
a. Specialized hyphae that penetrate host tissues
b. Used to extract nutrients from, or exchange nutrients with, plant hosts
7. Mycorrhizae
a. Mutually beneficial relationships between fungi and plant roots
b. Mycorrhizal fungi more efficient than plant roots at getting soil nutrients.
c. Deliver phosphate ions and minerals to plants
d. Plans supply fungi with organic nutrients such as carbs
e. Most vascular plants have mycorrhizae
f. Two main types
Ectomycorrhizal fungi - form sheaths of hyphae over a root and also grow into extracellular
spaces of the root
Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi - extend hyphae through cell walls of root cells and into
tubes formed by invagination of the root cell membrane
Fig. 31.4b
IV. Reproduction
A. Spore
1. Haploid (n)
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1.
2.
3.
4.
Haploid (n)
Produced either at the tip of hypha or in a fruiting body
Sexually or asexually
Not motile (no flagella) - cannot move
a. Must be dispersed
Wind, water, animals
5. Moist environment - food
a. Germinate --> mycelium produced
B. Sexual reproduction
1. Mating types (not male/female)
a. Result of genes that encode enzymes responsible for the production of pheromones and pheromone
receptors
Pheromones - sexual signaling molecules
b. Sexual reproduction depends on pheromones that are produced from variant alleles of same gene
2. Hyphae from 2 mycelia produce pheromones
3. If mycelia are of different mating types, pheromones of each will bind to receptors of the other
--> passed compatibility test
--> genetic variation
4. Hyphae extend toward source of pheromones
5. Meet and fuse
a. Haploid nuclei do not fuse at this point
Plasmogamy (cytoplasm fuse)
b. Heterokaryon - fused mycelium
Coexisting genetically different nuclei
c. Dikaryotic mycelium
n+n
6. Mycelium grows
a. Nuclei divide without fusing
7. Karyogamy
a. Nuclei fuse
--> diploid zygote
8. Meiosis --> haploid
a. Spores ultimately formed
--> sexual spores
C. Asexual reproduction
1. ~20k species that only undergo asexual reproduction
2. 2 main types
a. Grow as filamentous fungi (haploid)
Produce spores by mitosis
Molds
b. Yeasts - unicellular
Cell division
Small bud cells
Fig 31.7
Fig 31.5
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V. Chytrids
A. Terrestrial, freshwater, marine
B. Flagellated spores --> zoospores
1. Primitive characteristic
Fig 31.11
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c. Baker's yeast
d. Lichens
4. Septate, perforate hyphae
5. AKA sac fungi
a. Sexual spores are formed in microscopic sacs called asci
B. Life cycle - asexual
1. Conditions favorable - reproduce fast
2. Conidia - haploid
a. Spores produced in structures called conidiophores
b. Conidia break off --> germinate --> undergo mitosis
C. Life cycle - sexual
1. Conidia (n) fuse to specialized hypha (n) of opposite mating type
--> Plasmogamy occurs --> dikaryotic hyphae (n+n)
2. Ascocarp = fruiting body
a. Intertwining of monokaryotic hyphae (n) and dikaryotic hyphae (n+n)
3. Cells at tips of dukaryotic hyphae
--> asci
4. Within each ascus
a. Karyogamy - 2n
5. Meiosis - within each ascus
--> 4 different nuclei (n)
--> undergo mitosis --> 8 ascospores
6. Ascospores - discharged from asci
7. Dispersed
Fig 31.16
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IX. Basidiomycetes
A. Ex. Bracket fungi, puff balls, wheat rust and corn smut, agaricus bisporus - edible
X. Ecological importance
A. Decomposers
1. Break down organic material
2. Releases inorganic nutrients into ecosystems
B. Mutualists
1. Absorb their nutrients from host
a. Benefit host
2. Fungus-plant mutualism
a. Micorrhizal fungi
b. Endophytes
Live inside leaves or other plant parts
No harm
Ex. In grasses fungi produce toxins - deter herbivores
Presence increase plant tolerance of environmental stress
Fig 31.20
3. Fungus-animal mutualism
a. Ex. Guts of cattle - fungi break down plant material
4. Lichens
a. Fungus - ascomycete
Provides habitat
Photosynthetic microorganism
- Algae
- Cyanobacteria
--> Provide carbon compounds
b. Rocks, trees, roofs
C. Parasites
1. Absorb from living hosts
2. Plants
a. Ex. Chestnut blight
3. Mycosis
a. Fungal infection in animal
b. Ex. Ringworm - ascomycete
Athlete's foot is ringworm
c. Systemic mycosis
Spores inhaled
Spread through body
Serious
D. Practical uses
1. Consumption - morels, truffles
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11:12 PM
I. Characteristics of animals
A. Heterotrophs
1. Ingest food and digest in body
B. Cell structure
1. Eukaryotic
2. Multicellular
3. Do not have cell walls
4. Proteins external to plasma membrane
a. Connect cells to each other
b. Provide structural support
c. Collagen is most abundant
C. Organization
1. All animals have differentiated cells (specialized)
a. Perform specific functions
2. Most have differentiated tissues
a. Groups of cells
Common structure
Act as functional unit
3. Higher forms have differentiated organs
a. Made up of tissues
b. Adapted to perform specific function or group of functions
4. Muscle and nerve tissue
a. Defining characteristic
D. Reproduction - sexual, 2n (diploid) stage dominant
1. Meiosis
2. Fertilization
a. Small flagellated sperm
b. Fertilized larger, nonmotile egg
--> zygote (2n)
E. Development
Fig 32.2
1. Cleavage - series of mitotic cell divisions without cell growth between divisions
2. Blastula - typically a hollow ball of cells that surround a cavity called blastocoel (blastoseal)
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2. Blastula - typically a hollow ball of cells that surround a cavity called blastocoel (blastoseal)
3. Gastrulation - process in which the embryo folds inward, expands, and fills blastocoel. Produces a
gastrula.
4. Gastrula
a. Endoderm - inner layer of embryonic tissue
b. Ectoderm - outer layer of embryonic tissue
c. Archenteron - pouch, opens to outside via blastopore
5. Some animals will develop directly into adults (ex. Humans)
6. Other animals have at least 1 larval stage
a. Larva - sexually immature form, morphologically different from adult
b. May eat different foods, inhabit different habitats
c. Metamorphosis
--> juvenile - sexually immature
--> adult
7. Development is regulated by gene expression
a. Homeobox genes
Code for proteins that regulate expression of developmental genes
b. Ex. Hox genes - role in development of animal embryos
F. Evolution
Fig 32.3
1. Radial
a. Wheel or cylinder
b. Multiple planes that can divide the animal into mirror images
c. Many radial are sessile (don't move around) live attached to substrate
d. Others are planktonic
2. Bilateral - 2 sided
a. Body can be divided only by one plane through the midline
b. Cephalization
Development of a head region
Central nervous system
Coordinate complex movements
c. Dorsal - back/top
Ventral - underside
Anterior - toward head
Posterior - toward tail
Right and left
d. Bilateria
3. Asymmetry - no plant will produce mirror images
--> porifera (sponges)
D. Embryonic tissue development
Embryos of all eumetazoans because layered
1. Germ layers - concentric layers of eukaryotic tissue
a. Ectoderm - outer
Gives rise to outer covering
Nervous system in some phyla
b. Endoderm - inner
Lines archenteron
Gives rise to lining of digestive tract of other digestive organs
c. Mesoderm - middle
Gives rise to most other body structures
2. Diploblastic organisms
Only ectoderm and endoderm layers
3. Triploblastic organisms
Develop all 3 layers
Bilateria
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Bilateria
E. Body cavities
1. Coelom - body cavity
a. Fluid-filled space
b. Between body wall and digestive tube
c. Only in triploblastic organisms
2. 3 types
a. Acoelomate (NO SPACE)
Lack coelom
Are triploblasts
Body is solid
No fluid, just tissue
b. Pseudocoelomate (SPACE ENDO NOT COVERED BY MESO)
Have fluid-filled coelom
Body cavity is formed from endoderm and mesoderm
Not completely lined with mesoderm
c. Coelomate (SOME SPACE BUT MESO COVERS ENDO)
True coelom
Body cavity completely lined with mesoderm
Fig 32.9
3. Advantages of coelom/pseudocoelom
a. Hydrostatic skeleton
Fluid under pressure
--> movement
b. Circulating materials
Do not need to be flat
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IV. Diversification
A. Cambrian explosion (535 - 525 mill years ago - MYA)
1. Rapid appearance of many different animal body plans
2. 1st fossils of large animals with hard mineralized skeletons
B. Most of current phyla of animals established around 500 MYA
1. ~36 different phyla are extant
2. Kingdom animalia ~ 1.3 x 10^6 species, est. 10-20 x 10^6 species
C. Animal phylogeny
Fig 32.11
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c. Ecdysozoa
Only invertebrates
Ecdysis - molting - exoskeleton - cuticle
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11:12 PM
I. Invertebrates - Chapter 33
A. Animals that lack a backbone
B. > 95% of known animal species
C. Throughout animal phylogenic tree
Pg. 710 figure
3. Asymmetric
B. Typical simple sponge
1. Simple saclike body
2. Opening called osculum
3. Spongocoel
a. Central cavity
b. Passage cavity for water
c. Not digestive cavity
d. Filter feeder - filters food particles out of water
e. Water goes through spongocoel and comes out of osculum
4. Choanocytes - collar cells
Fig 32.3
a. Flagellated cells
b. Collar of microvilli
c. Line spongocoel
d. Ingest bacteria and tiny food
Fig 33.4
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1. Cells in tentacles
2. Defense
3. Capturing prey
IV. Lophotrochozoa
A. Intro
1. Most bilaterians
2. Bilaterally symmetrical
a. Triploblastic
3. Molecular data defines
4. Common features
a. Lophophore
- Crown of ciliated tentacles that are found around the mouth
b. Trochophore larva
- Stage of development
Fig 32.12
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B. Phylum Platyhelminthes
1. All dorsoventrally flattened
2. Acoelomates
3. Exist in a variety of habitats
Free living ex. Planarians
Fig 33.10
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C. Phylum Rotifera
Fig 33.13
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
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1. Lophophore
2. Coelomates
3. Found in fresh water and marine habitats
E. Phylum Mollusca
1. Snails, slugs, oysters, clams, squid, octopus
2. Soft body
a. Most are covered by a dorsal shell
- Comprised of CaCO3
3. Coelomates - has 3 main parts
Fig 33.15
a. Foot
- Muscular used to move around
- Tentacles
b. Visceral mass
- Contains viscera (organs)
c. Mantle
- Thin sheet of tissue
- Covers visceral mass
- Glands - secrete shell
1. Radula
a. Belt of teeth found in mouth area
b. Scrape up food
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b. Scrape up food
c. Most have but not all
- Not in bivalves
2. 3 of major clades
a. Gastropods
Fig 33.17
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V. Ecdysozoa
A. There are very many species - more than animals and plant species
1. Ecdysis = molting
2. Organism will shed external covering during growth
B. Phylum Nematoda
1. Roundworms - cylindrical tapered ends
2. Aquatic, soil, parasitic
3. Covering called cuticle - covers body
a. Gets shed as grows
4. Pseudocoelomates
a. No circulatory system
5. Do have alimentary canal
6. Ex. Heartworm
C. Phylum Arthropoda
1. Largest phylum - most species of all animals
2. Coelomates
3. Structure
a. Have a segmented body
- Specialized to perform certain functions
- Head
- Thorax - legs and wings
- Abdomen
b. Jointed appendages
- Adapted for variety of functions such as:
Swimming
Walking
Sensory
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Sensory
c. Exoskeleton - jointed
- Comprised of chitin and protein
- Covers entire body
- Advantages
Offers protection
Reduces water loss
Solid substrate so provides points of attachment for muscle
- Disadvantages
Limits growth
molts - sheds exoskeleton - and grows new larger one
4. Ex. Centipedes, spiders, ticks, horseshoe crabs, etc.
VI. Deuterostomes
A. Characteristics
1. Radial and indeterminate cleavage (during development)
2. Blastopore becomes anus, mouth forms second
B. Phylum Echinodermata (spiny skin)
1. Larvae
a. Exhibit bilateral symmetry
2. Adult stage - five-part body symmetry
3. Characterized by endoskeleton - internal skeleton
a. Comprised of - CaCO3
b. Spines project out through epidermis (outer covering)
4. Water vascular system
a. Fluid-filled canals and chambers - complex network
b. Functions in feeding and gas exchange
5. Ex. Sea star
Fig 33.42
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C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
G. Tetrapods
1. Characteristics
a. Four limbs
b. Neck
c. Fused pelvic girdle
- bones fused together, more efficient in transferring forces throughout body
2. Basal clade - Amphibia
a. First tetrapods
b. Eggs - water, damp
- Larvae -aquatic
c. Thin, moist skin - need damp environments
3. Ex. Frogs, salamanders
H. Amniotes
1. Characteristics
a. Amniotic egg
- Amnion - membrane that forms fluid-filled sac around embryo
- Can be on land
b. Ribcage ventilation - allow breathing
2. Reptilia
a. Hard, dry scales - contain keratin
- Help provide protection against drying out
b. Shelled eggs - laid on land
c. Lizards, snakes - ectothermic (temp fluctuates with environment)
d. Birds
- Anterior limbs wings
- Feathers
- Light skeleton
- Endothermic (use metabolic energy to maintain constant body temp)
3. Mammalia
a. Key characteristics
- Mammary glands - produce milk
- Birth to live young
- Have hair and fat (layer under skin)
Help retain heat
- Endothermic
- High metabolic rate
Have very efficient respiratory and circulatory system
b. Monotremes
- Lay eggs - ancestral characteristic
- Have hair
- Produce milk (no nipples - collects and young lap up)
- Australia
- Platypus and echidna
c. Marsupials
- Nipples
- Live young
- Placenta - allow nutrient and waste exchange between embryo and mother
- Born early in development
Complete during nursing
Marsupium - pouch
- Opossums, kangaroos, koala
d. Eutherians
- Placental mammals
Complex placenta
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Complex placenta
- Have long pregnancies (all embryonic development completes inside)
Fig 34.2
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11:12 PM
I. Introduction
A. Charophytes - green algae (closest relative of land plants)
B. Characteristics of charophytes
1. Inhabit shallow waters around edges of bodies of waters like ponds or lakes
possibility of drying out
a. Natural selection favors individuals that can withstand those conditions
2. Sporopollenin
a. Polymer layer
b. Prevents exposed zygotes from drying out
C. Land plants share a number of traits with only charophytes
1. Rings of cellulose synthesizing proteins
a. Found in plasma membrane
b. Synthesize cellulose microfibrils
cell wall
2. Flagellated sperm - similar in both groups
3. Share formation of phragmoplast
a. Group of microtubules
- Form between daughter nuclei during cell division
b. Cell plate
- Forms in middle of phragmoplast
- Gives rise to cell wall of new daughter cells
D. Derived traits of plants
Fig 29.3
Key traits which are found in land plants but not in charophytes
1. Alternation of generations
a. Plant will alternate between two multicellular stages
Bio II Page 50
3. Vascular tissue
a. Cells joined into tubes
b. Transport water and nutrients
4. Bryophytes - mosses, liverworts, hornworts
a. Nonvascular
- Lack specialized vascular system
b. Do not form monophyletic group (do not form clade)
c. Do form a grade
- Means a collection of organisms that share key biological features
5. Seedless vascular plants
a. Lycophytes - club mosses
b. Monilophytes - ferns
c. Do not form clade
d. Do share key biological features - grade
Fig 29.5
Bio II Page 52
Fig 29.5
Bio II Page 54
Fig 29.6
E. Importance of mosses
1. Common in moist forests and wetlands
2. Capable of colonizing bare, sandy soil
help to retain nitrogen in soil as a resource for other plants
3. In some forests mosses will harbor nitrogen fixing cyanobacteria
4. Peat - partially decayed organic material
a. Major component - sphagnum - peat moss
b. Fuel
c. Peatlands
i. cover 30% of earth's surface
ii. 30% of soil carbon
carbon resevior
III. Vascular plants
A. Earliest fossils date back ~425 MYA
B. Dominant today
C. Main traits
1. Sporophyte (2n) dominant stage so not dependent of gametophyte
2. Vascular tissues for transport
a. Xylem - conduct water and minerals dissolved in water
Lignin - polymer found in cell walls of water conducting cells (makes hard)
enables plants to grow very tall
has a lot of support
Bio II Page 55
3.
4.
5.
6.
Bio II Page 56
Fig. 29.13
A. Lycophytes
1. Most ancient vascular plants
2. Many are epiphytes - grow on trees
a. Not parasitic
B. Monilophytes
1. Ferns - most widespread of seedless vascular plant
I. Fern life cycle
A. Characterized by homosporous spore production (1 type of spore)
Bio II Page 57
Bio II Page 58
11:12 PM
A. Heteropory
1. Megaspore female gametophyte
2. Microspore male gametophyte
B. Ovules and production of eggs
1. Ovule = megasporangium
+ megaspore
+ integuments
2. Integuments
a. Layers of sporophyte tissue
b. Form seed coat
c. Protect megasporangium
3. Female gametophyte develops from megaspore and produces one or more eggs
4. Gymnosperms
a. Megasporangium surrounded by 1 intergument
5. Angiosperms
a. 2 interguments
C. Pollen and production of sperm
Bio II Page 59
Bio II Page 60
A. Gymnosperm diversity
1. Earliest fossils ~305 MYO
2. 4 phyla
Fig 30.7
a. Cycadophyta
- Most endangered of all plant species
b. Ginkgophyta
- Ginkgo biloba
Fan like leaves
c. Gnetophyta
- Welwitschia
W. Mirabilis
Found in Southwestern Africa
Long life span
Large leaves
- Ephedra
~ 40 species
Arid regions
Ephedrine - decongestant
- Gnetum
~ 35 species
d. Coniferophyta
- Largest phylum
- Woody cones
- Evergreens - retain leaves
I. Angiosperms
Bio II Page 62
I. Angiosperms
A. One phylum - Anthophyla
1. Seed plants with flowers and fruits
2. ~ 250k species (~90%)
B. Flowers
1. Structures specialized for sexual reproduction
2. Specialized shoot
Up to 4 types of sporophylls (modified leaves)
Called floral organs
a. Sepals - at base of flower
- Green
- Enclose flower before it opens
- Sterile floral organ
Do not produce egg or sperm
b. Petals
- Brightly colored
- Aid in attracting pollinators
- Some species are wind pollinated
Not brightly colored
- Sterile floral organ
c. Stamen
- Produce microspores pollen grains (male gametophyte)
- Consists of:
Filament - stalk
Anther - terminal sac, pollen produced
d. Carpel
- Produce megaspores female gametophyte
- "container" - seeds enclosed
- Distinguishes gymnosperms from angiosperms
- Some flowers - single carpel
- Other flowers - multiple carpels
- Stigma - sticky tip of carpel receives pollen
- Style - leads from stigma to ovary
- Ovary - one or more ovules
- If ovule becomes fertilized seed
Fig 30.8
- 1 or 2 cotyledons
Seed leaves
b. Triploid cell endosperm
- Rich in starch and nutrients
nourishes embryo
Fig 30.12
E. Summary
1. Ovary fruit
2. Ovule seeds
3. Seeds embryo, endosperm (nourishment), seed coat
4. Seeds disperse favorable conditions germinate seed coat ruptures
seedling
- Use stored food in endosperm & cotyledons
I. Angiosperm diversity
Fig 30.14b
Bio II Page 66
Fig 30.17
A. ~ 140 MYA
Bio II Page 67
A. ~ 140 MYA
B. Basal ~ 100 species
1. Amborella trichopoda
a. Base of angiosperm tree
2. Water lilies
3. Star anise
C. Magnoliids
1. ~ 1k species
2. Ex. Magnolias & black pepper
D. Monocots and eudicots
1. Monocots ~ 1/4 species of angiosperms
2. Eudicots ~ 2/3 species of angiosperms
Fig 30.16
Bio II Page 68
11:12 PM
I. Organization
A. Systems
1. Root - below ground
2. Shoot - above ground
B. Systems comprised of:
1. Cells
2. Tissues
a. Groups of cells
b. Function together
3. Tissue systems
a. Ground - photosynthesis, storage, support
b. Vascular - conduction of materials, support
c. Dermal - covering
Fig 35.8
1. Organs
a. All 3 tissue systems
b. Roots, stems, leaves, flowers, fruits
II. Plant organs
A. Roots
1. Variety of functions
a. Anchors plant to ground
b. Absorption of water and minerals
c. Storage
2. Primary root
a. Originates in the seed embryo
b. First root to emerge when seed germinates
3. Lateral roots
Bio II Page 69
3. Lateral roots
a. Branch off of primary root
4. Root hairs
a. Thin, fingerlike extensions of root epidermal cells
b. Near tips of elongating roots
c. Function to increase surface area (increase absorption)
5. Taproot system
a. Characteristic of tall plants - large shoot mass
b. Taproot - one main vertical root
i. Develops from primary root
ii. Does not function in absorption
iii. Support
iv. Allows plant to be tall (taller = more access to light)
v. Site of storage
6. Fibrous root system
a. Thick mat of slender roots
b. Spread out beneath soil surface
c. Primary root dies early on in development and doesn't form taproot
d. Subsequent small roots begin to emerge from stem
adventitious roots
e. Most monocots
B. Stems - part of shoot system
1. Bears leaves and bids
2. Structure
a. Nodes - points on stem where leaves are attached
b. Internodes - segments between nodes
c. Apical bud - growing shoot tip
d. Axillary buds
can form lateral branches
3. Main functions
a. Elongate and orient shoot
maximizes light uptake
b. Elevates reproductive structures
c. Green stems - photosynthesis
C. Leaves
1. Main photosynthetic organ in most vascular plants
2. Capture light and exchange gas
3. Blade - flattened leaf
4. Petiole - stalk
a. Joins leaf to stem at node
b. Many grasses - base of leaf form sheath that surrounds stem
no petiole
5. Veins
a. Vascular tissue in leaf
b. Monocots - parallel major veins
c. Eudicots - branched network of veins arise from midrib
Fig 35.2
Bio II Page 70
b. Phloem
i. Conducts sugars from leaves throughout
3. Stele
a. All of vascular root or stem
b. Arrangement varies
i. Ex. Angiosperms
- Root stele
Solid central cylinder of xylem and phloem
- Stem and leaf stele
Vascular bundles
C. Ground tissue system
1. Most of plant
2. Variety of cells
a. Storage
b. Photosynthesis
c. Support
d. Short distance transport
3. Pith - ground tissue internal to vascular tissue (in stele)
4. Cortex - ground tissue external to vascular tissue
IV. Plant cells
A. Cell wall
Fig 6.27
A. Parenchyma cells
Bio II Page 73
A. Parenchyma cells
1. Characteristics
a. Most common type of plant cell
b. Characterized by thin flexible primary cell wall
c. Do not have secondary cell wall
d. Alive at maturity
e. Least specialized
i. Ability to differentiate into other types of cells
2. Functions
a. Photosynthesis - have chloroplasts
b. Storage - starch, oils, water, salts
c. Secretion - tannins (protection), enzymes, hormones, nectar
d. Fruit - fleshy tissue
B. Collenchyma cells
1. Characteristics
a. Primary cell wall - unevenly thickened
b. Elongated
c. Alive at maturity
d. Found near stem surfaces and along leaf veins
e. Very flexible
2. Functions
a. Provide structural support (no metabolic functions)
b. Grouped in strands
provide support in soft, non-woody plant organs
c. No secondary cell wall no lignin
d. Provides support without restraining growth of plant
e. Ex. Celery strings
C. Sclerenchyma cells
1. Characteristics
a. Do have secondary cell walls lignin
i. Hard, strong
ii. Structural support
b. Maturity dead
c. Found in areas of plant that have stopped growing in length
d. 2 types
i. Sclereid cells
- Short, cubical
- Thick secondary cell wall (a lot of lignin)
- Ex. Nutshells, seed coats, grit in pears
ii. Fiber cells
- Long slender cells
- Bundles
- Wood and bark of flowering plants
- Protecting and supporting stem and roots
Bio II Page 74
C. Primary growth
1. Result of activity of apical meristems
a. Located at tips of roots and shoots
2. Increases growth in stem and root length
3. Roots - extends through soil
Shoots - taller
4. All plants
D. Secondary growth
1. Occurs in lateral meristems
a. Vascular cambium - adds layers of secondary xylem (wood) and secondary phloem
b. Cork cambium
i. Replaces epidermis with periderm (thicker and tougher than epidermis)
2. Increases girth of plant (circumference)
3. Only in gymnosperms and woody angiosperms (trees and shrubs)
4. Wood and bark
Fig 35.11
Bio II Page 77
11:12 PM
I. Root anatomy
A. Epidermis
1. Single layer of tissue covers the root
2. Root hairs
a. Absorption occurs here
b. No cuticle
B. Cortex
1. Loosely packed parenchyma cells (unspecialized cells)
2. Large intracellular spaces in between cells
a. Provide pathway for water uptake
b. Allows for aeration of root (gases)
C. Endodermis
1. Inner layer of cortex
2. Single layer of cells - fit snugly against each other
3. Forms boundary between cortex and stele (where vascular tissue is)
4. Regulates movement of water and minerals into xylem (inside stele)
5. Casparian strip
a. Surrounds each cell of endodermis
b. Not in cell wall
c. Suberin - fatty and waterproof
i. Does not completely cover
d. Radial (side) and transverse (upper and lower) walls - are covered by suberin
D. Stele = vascular cylinder (xylem and phloem located here)
E. Mycorrhizae (fungi) - increase uptake of materials
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Bio II Page 79
Phloem - STE
D. Fast
V. Bulk flow transport of water and minerals
A. Water and minerals in soil
1. Cross root epidermis root cortex endodermis vascular cylinder (stele) xylem
B. Xylem sap (water and minerals and nutrients)
1. Transported by bulk flow through plants
2. Transport involves loss of water through process of transpiration
C. Transpiration
1. Loss of water vapor from leaves and other aerial parts of plant
2. Leaf
a. Photosynthesis
b. Ground tissue
i. Mesophyll - photosynthetic tissue
ii. 2 sublayers
- Upper layer
Columnar cells
Tightly packed cells
Main site of photosynthesis
- Lower layer
Loosely arranged cells
Gas exchange can occur here
c. Dermal tissue
i. Epidermis
- Covers upper and lower surfaces
- Covered by cuticle which reduces water loss
No gas exchange
ii. Stomata
- Plants have to balance gas exchange and water loss
- Open during day
- Closed during night and during day in drought
D. Cohesion tension hypothesis
1. Explains long distance movement of water through plant
2. Ex. Sun comes up plant begins photosynthesis stomata open
Transpiration water diffuses out of leaf
3. Transpiration
a. ~99% of water that is absorbed by plant is lost through transpiration
b. Benefit
i. Mineral transport
ii. Evaporative cooling - movement of water cools plant
c. Creates tension
4. Tension
a. Transmitted from leaf to stem and down to root
b. When leaves lose water this tension is created (like using a straw - water from soil moves up)
c. Unidirectional movement of water
d. Water always moves from soil root tissues root xylem stem xylem
leaf xylem leaf mesophyll stomata atmosphere
5. Transpirational pull
a. Will only work if there is an unbroken chain of water molecules
i. Cohesion allows water to form solid unbroken column
ii. Adhesion water and xylem cells
E. Stomatal opening and closing
1. Controlled by shape of guard cells
a. Water moves into or out of guard cells
b. Every stoma has 2
c. Water moves into guard cell turgid
i. Bend and form pore
d. Water moves out of guard cell flaccid
i. Collapse and close pore
2. Mechanism
a. Stimulus blue light (400-500 nm)
i. Triggers H+ proton pumps in guard cell membrane
b. H+ out of cell and gradient is produces
c. Drives facilitated diffusion of K+ into guard cells
d. Also Cl- and other negative ions go in
e. Solute concentration very high inside cell
water moves into cell
guard cells turgid
Bio II Page 81
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.
3. Sink
a. Unloading
i. Sugar moves out of STE and into sink cell (root, seed, etc.)
ii. Active transport - requires ATP
iii. STE psi increases (less negative)
iv. STE now hypotonic relative to xylem
v. Water moves out of sieve tube and into xylem
Fig. 36.16
Fig 36.2
Bio II Page 83
8:15 PM
I. Intro
A. Anatomy - form
B. Physiology - function
C. Structural and functional organization
1. Cells
2. Tissues - groups of cells with similar appearance and function
3. Organs - different tissue types
4. Organ systems
5. Whole organism
a. Emergent properties
II. Exchange with environment
A. Animals are not closed systems (not isolated from environment)
1. Need to be able to exchange materials with environment
2. Substances have to dissolve in aqueous environment
a. Can then move across plasma membrane cell
B. Single-celled organisms
1. Surface area to volume ratio is sufficient
C. Animals - multicellular
1. Require exchange across plasma membrane of each cell
2. Every cell must have access to an aqueous environment
Fig 40.3
D. Most animals
1. Composed of compact masses of cells
2. Have complex internal organization
3. Increased number of cells
a. Decreases outer surface area to volume ratio (less plasma membrane in contact with env.)
4. Specialized surfaces
a. Extensively branched/folded
b. Increases surface area
c. Internal so protected from outside trauma
5. Internal body fluids
a. Link exchange surfaces with body cells
b. Interstitial fluid - found in spaces between cells
c. Circulatory fluid (ex. Blood)
Fig 40.4
Bio II Page 84
Fig 40.4
Bio II Page 85
B. Homeostasis
1. "steady state"
a. Internal environment is balanced and constant even if external conditions change
2. Wide range of chemical and physical properties to consider
a. Solute concentration
b. Temperature
3. Maintenance of a particular variable is usually at or near a particular value
a. Normal range (upper and lower limit ex. Body temp.)
C. Mechanisms
1. Stimulus - fluctuation in a variable
2. Sensor - detects stimulus
3. Response - particular physiological activity back to set point
D. Feedback control
1. Negative feedback
a. Response reduces the stimulus
b. Helps to restore preexisting state - brings system back to set point
2. Positive feedback
a. Response amplifies stimulus
Fig 40.8
Bio II Page 86
IV. Hormones
A. Chemical signaling molecule
B. Secreted into body fluids (most often blood)
C. Bind to target cells - any cells that contain specific receptors for particular hormones
D. Receptors
1. Proteins or glycoproteins on surface of target cells
2. Recognize and bind to specific hormones
3. Continuously synthesized and degraded
a. If hormone levels are too high
receptor-down regulation (fewer receptors synthesized)
b. If hormone levels are too low
receptor-up regulation (more receptors produced)
V. Intercellular communication
A. Endocrine signaling
1. Endocrine cells secrete hormones into extracellular fluid
2. Diffuse into blood and reach target cells
3. Functions:
a. Homeostasis
b. Respond to environmental stimuli
c. Growth and development
B. Paracrine and autocrine signaling
1. Produce and secrete local regulators
2. Diffusion target cells
3. Act over short distances
a. Act very quickly because of short distance
4. Paracrine
a. Target cell is near secreting cell
5. Autocrine
a. Secreting cells are themselves target cells
6. Ex. Prostaglandins - local regulators
a. ~ 16 different types
b. Produced by cells of most mammalian tissues
c. Regulate variety of functions
i. Blood pressure
Bio II Page 87
i. Blood pressure
ii. Contraction of smooth muscle
iii. Inflammation
iv. Blood clotting
C. Synaptic signaling
1. Neurons - basic unit of nervous system
a. Form synapses with target cells
b. Specialized junctions
2. At specialized junctions are neurotransmitters
a. Produced by neurons
b. Diffuse across synapse (short distance)
c. Bind to receptors on target cells
3. Functions
a. Memory, movement, sensation
D. Neuroendocrine signaling
1. Neurosecretory cells - specialized neurons
a. Secrete neurohormones
2. Diffuse from neuron endings into bloodstream
Fig 45.2
Bio II Page 88
E. Pheromones
1. Chemicals that are released into external environment
2. Targets are other individuals of the species
3. Functions
a. Define territory
b. Provide warning of predators
c. Attraction of mates
VI. Chemical properties of signaling molecules
A. Classes of local regulators (don't travel far)
1. Modified fatty acids
a. Hydrocarbon chains
b. Ex. Prostaglandins
Bio II Page 89
b. Ex. Prostaglandins
2. Gases
a. Ex. Nitric oxide (NO)
b. When oxygen levels in blood decrease, the endothelial cells (line blood vessels)
release NO
c. NO diffuses into smooth muscle (target cell)
d. Smooth muscle activates enzymes
relaxes muscle cells
vasodialation (diameter increases)
more blood will flow to tissues (more blood more oxygen)
Viagra prolongs activity of NO response pathway
3. Polypeptides
a. Cytokines and growth factors
B. Classes of hormones
1. 3 major chemical classes
a. Polypeptides - comprised of hundreds of amino acids
i. Ex. Insulin - consists of 2 peptide chains attached by disulfide bonds
b. Steroids - lipids comprised of 4 fused carbon rings
i. Derived from cholesterol
c. Amines
i. Hormones synthesized from a single amino acid
2. Vary in solubility
a. Aqueous environment - polypeptides and most amines
b. Lipid rich environment - steroid hormones and non-polar hormones
Fig 45.4
VII. Cellular response pathways - will vary between water soluble and lipid soluble hormones
A. Water-soluble hormones
Signal transduction
Bio II Page 90
Signal transduction
Series of changes in cellular proteins
Converts extracellular chemical signal into a specific intracellular response
(extracellular signal intracellular response)
1. Hormone secreted from endocrine cell by exocytosis
a. Travels freely in bloodstream
b. Insoluble in lipids - cannot diffuse across plasma membrane
2. Hormone will not enter cell
a. Binds to specific receptor in plasma membrane
b. Most common types of receptors - G protein-coupled receptors
3. Hormone-receptor complex is formed and binds to G protein in plasma membrane
a. G protein
i. Inactive - bound to GDP (similar to ATP)
b. G protein activated by receptor
i. Releases GDP
ii. Binds to GTP
produces comformational change in G protein
4. G protein binds to adenylyl cyclase (membrane-bound enzyme)
5. Adenylyl cyclase activates
a. Catalyzes conversion of ATP to cyclicAMP (cAMP) 2nd messanger of system
6. cAMP activates a protein kinase
7. Protein kinases - many different types
a. Phosphorylation (phosphate group added to protein)
i. Activates enzyme (produced by translation)
ii. Post-translational control
Fig 45.5
Bio II Page 91
B. Lipid-soluble hormones
1. Diffuse out across plasma membrane of endocrine cell
2. Bind to transport proteins
allow to be soluble in aqueous environment of blood
3. Target cell - diffuse into cell
a. Bind to receptors in cytoplasm - hormone receptor complex travels into nucleus
OR
b. Pass into nucleus hormone-receptor complex
4. Both cases
a. Complex will bind to specific sites on DNA
5. Binding causes conformational change in DNA
mRNA transcription or repression (message not transcribed)
protein synthesis or repression
Fig 45.6
Bio II Page 92
Fig 45.7
Bio II Page 95
11:13 PM
I. Regulation pathways
A. Simple endocrine pathway
1. Endocrine cells respond directly to a stimulus
a. Response is to secrete a hormone
b. Hormone enters bloodstream
c. Reaches target cell (specific receptors)
d. Signal transduction
e. Brings about response
2. Ex. pH in duodenum (in small intestine)
a. Stomach contents enter
i. Acidic
bicarbonate to neutralize
Fig 45.10
Bio II Page 96
C. Feedback regulation
1. Negative feedback - reduces initial stimulus
2. Positive feedback - reinforces stimulus
II. Invertebrate endocrine control
Ex. Moths
A. Molting
1. Larva grows in stages molt
2. Sheds exoskeleton and secretes new one (controlled by endocrine system)
B. Endocrine pathway
1. Neurosecretory cells in brain
a. PTTH (neurohormone)
2. PTTH signals prothoracic gland to produce ecdysteroid
a. Production not continuous
bursts each triggers a molt
b. Ecdysteroid also controls metamorphosis (change in form)
3. JH - juvenile hormone
a. Secreted by a pair of endocrine glands called corpora allata
b. Actions
i. Prevent metamorphosis
ii. In presence of high levels of JH, ecdysteroid stimulates
an increase in size and molting (juvenile state)
iii. After each molt, JH decreases
iv. When JH drops below specific concentration
pupa forms at next molt
adult emerges
metamorphosis
Fig 45.12
Bio II Page 97
A. Synthetic JH - insecticide
1. Preventing development of reproducing adults
III. Hypothalamus
A. Introduction
1. Key regulatory structure
2. Region of brain
3. Neuroendocrine tissue
neurohormones
4. Link between endocrine and nervous system
5. Controls most hormones
6. Connected to pituitary gland by portal vessels
B. 2 modes of action
1. Produces
a. releasing hormones (RH)
b. Inhibiting hormones (IH)
c. Released into pituitary portal vein (gets transported to pituitary gland)
d. Directly bathes anterior lobe of pituitary gland
e. Effect on anterior pituitary gland
i. Specific hormones released
2. Produce ADH (antidiuretic hormone) and oxytocin
a. Peptide hormones
b. Produced by cell bodies of neurons on hypothalamus
travel down axon into posterior pituitary
stored in vesicles in axon terminals until neuron stimulated
IV. Pituitary gland
A. Posterior pituitary
1. Secretes ADH and oxytocin (does not produce - produced by hypothalamus)
a. ADH
i. Kidney - target
ii. Released from pituitary when water needs to be conserved
iii. Making collecting ducts of kidney more permeable to water
more water being reabsorbed into blood
smaller volume of urine being produced
b. Oxytocin (produced by hypothalamus) - in both males and females
i. Stimulates smooth muscle contraction of uterus during childbirth
Bio II Page 98
Bio II Page 99
Fig 45.18
2. During adulthood
a. Acromegaly
b. Growth only in those parts of body still responsive to GH
c. Bones in hands, feet, and head
VI. Thyroid regulation
A. Ex. Thyroid hormone have dropped below normal range
1. Hypothalamus secretes TRH (thyrotropic releasing hormone) into blood in response
Target - anterior pit.
2. Ant. pit. secretes TSH into blood (tropic hormone) to stimulate thyroid gland
3. Thyroid gland
a. 2 lobes
i. Ventral surface of trachea
b. 2 hormones
i. Derived from amino acid tyrosine and iodine
ii. T3 = triiodothyronine - 3 iodines
iii. T4 - thyroxine - 4 iodines
4. T3 and T4
a. Effects
i. Stimulate cellular metabolism
ii. Maintain blood pressure, heart rate, muscle tissue
iii. Regulate digestive and reproductive functions
b. Negative feedback loop
i. Blocks TRH release from hypothalamus
ii. Blocks TSH release from anterior pit.
iii. Prevents overproduction of thyroid hormones
Fig 45.16
11:13 PM
I. Intro
A. Asexual
1. 2+ offspring
a. identical
b. so theyre clones
2. no meiosis
3. no fusion of gametes
4. types
a. budding
i. small part of parents body separates and becomes offspring
ii. only in invertebrates
iii. ex: sponges, cnidarians
b. fission
i. parent - 2 offspring (parent splitting)
ii. only in invertebrates
c. fragmentation and regeneration
i. parent body breaks into several pieces
ii. each piece produce missing parts
iii. ex: sea stars
d. parthenogenesis
i. unfertilized egg - adult (n)
ii. ex: bees, wasps, ants
5. advantages
a. rapid
b. if sessile, dont need to find mate
c. if not many individuals, dont need to find mate
B. sexual
1. gametes
meiosis (2n) - (n)
a. sperm
a. male parent, small, flagellated, motile
b. ovum (egg)
a. female parent, large, nonmotile, contains nutrients
2. fertilization
a. gametes fuse zygote (fertilized egg, 2n)
3. disadvantage
a. reproductive handicap of sex
Fig 46.3
4. advantages
a. genetic recombination
i. offspring may be better suited to environment than parents
ii. population may rid itself of harmful genes more easily
C. Reproductive cycles
1. Usually seasonal
a. Environmental cues trigger hormonal secretions - control cycles of reproduction
2. Offspring produced only when environment is suitable for survival
a. Ex: caribou in Greenland
i. Migrate to calving rounds in spring because there are sprouting plants
(nutrients to sustain life)
ii. Prior to 1993:
i. Arrive at calving grounds at same time as when plants were available
iii. Since 1993:
i. Average spring temperature increased 4 degrees C - plants sprout
earlier
iv. Caribou migration triggered by day length, not temp
v. So the average number of caribou offspring decreased by 75%
3. Some animals reproduce sexually and asexually
a. Ex: water fleas:
1. Two types of eggs
2. One type requires fertilization to develop (sexual)
i. Times of environmental stress
3. Other type- parthenogenesis (asexual)
i. Favorable environment
D. Hermaphroditism
sexual
1. One individual has male and female reproductive system
2. Some self-fertilizing (sexual)
3. Usually undergo cross fertilization
4. Sequential hermaphroditism
1. Individual reverses its sex during its lifetime
2. Protogenous - female first, then male
3. Protangrous - male first, then female
5. Ex: wrasses (reef fish)
1. Protogynous
2. Largest and oldest will change to female
3. Live in harenms (lots of females and one male)
4. If remove male, then larges female will change sex
II. Male reproductive system (Fig 46.9 - label/identify all structures)
Bio II Page 107
A. Fuction
1. Spermatogenesis
2. Delivers sperm into female reproductive tract
B. Testes (testis)
1. Male gonads
2. Consist of
a. Seminiferous tubules
i. Very long, hallow tubes
ii. Tiny diameter
iii. Spermanogenesis
b. Leydis cells
i. B/w tubulues
ii. Produce testosterone and other sex hormones
C. Epididymous
1. Coiled tube
Bio II Page 108
D.
E.
F.
G.
H.
I.
J.
1. Coiled tube
2. Fuctions
a. Transport of sperm (takes ~3 wks)
b. Maturation of sperm
c. Storage of sperm
Scrotum
1. Sac- contains testes and epidydmous
2. Suspended from groin - testes and epididymous located outside of body
a. Sperm cells dont develop at body temp ( 1-2 degrees cooler needed )
b. Temperature affects production and longevity
c. Some exceptions
i. Ex: elephants have low body temp ~35.9C (96.6F)
Ejaculation
1. Sperm travels from epididymous through vas deferens
Vas deferens
1. Sperm ducts- one from each epididymous
From scrotum to pelvic cavity
Vasectomy ligation
Each vas deferens empties into ejaculatory duct
Ejaculatory duct
1. Passes through prostate gland
2. Joins at urethra
Urethra
1. Urine and semen
2. Pass through penis
Penis
1. Copulatory organ
2. Urtethra- down middle
3. Erectile tissue
a. 3 parallel columns
b. sexual stimulation
i. release of NO from endotheral cells
ii. smooth muscle in arterial walls to relax
iii. arteries then dilate
iv. = erectile tissue swells
v. veins compressed
c. Viagra- promotes action of NO (nitrous oxide)
4. Glans penis
a. Tip, sensory neurons
5. Prepuse (foreskin)
a. Circumcision
Accessory glands
1. Seminal vesicles
a. Pair
b. Fluid
i. Fructose Energy
ii. Prostaglandins
- Simulate contractions of female uterus
- Help sperm move up female reproductive tract
iii. Secretes into vas deferens
iv. ~60% of total volume of semen
v. yellow pigment fluoresces
- forensic investigations
2. prostate gland
a. anticoagolate enzymes and citrate (nutrient)
Bio II Page 109
D. LH
1. Target tissue - Leydig cells of testes
2. Laydig cells - androgens
a. Primarily testosterone
E. Testosterone
1. Need high levels of testosterone in testes for spermanogensis
a. Healthy ~ 15-200 million sperm/ml of semen
b. Low sperm count <15 million/ml
2. Puberty
a. Period of sexual maturation
i. Sex characteristics
b. Adolescent growth spurt
c. Primary male sex characteristics
i. Reproduction organs developing
d. Secondary male sex characteristics
i. Facial/body hair, deeper voice, muscle development
F. FSH
1. Stimulate development of seminiferous tubules
2. Stimulate sertoli cells
a. Secrete ABP (angrogen binding protein)
i. Binds to testosterone
ii. Maintain high levels of testosterone in testes
iii. Testosterone is being sequestered
3. FSH secretion inhibited by inhibin
a. peptide hormone secretes by sertoli cells
Fig 46.13
11:13 PM
A. Ovary
1. Female gonad - pair
2. In abdominal cavity
3. Ligaments
4. Produces
a. Gametes - oocytes, oogenesis
Bio II Page 113
7. Maturing follicle
a. Enlarges and moves to surface of ovary
b. Ovulation takes place about one day after LH surge
i. Secondary oocyte is released into oviduct
8. Luteal phase
a. LH stimulates follicular tissue to transform into corpus luteum
Bio II Page 118
11:13 PM
I. Development
A. All changes that occur during the entire life cycle of an individual
1. Encompasses embryonic development following birth/hatching
B. Model Organisms
1. Species that have been chosen for research
a. Chosen because very easily studied
b. Ex: *sea urchin, frog, chick*, nematode
Fig 47.2
II. Fertilization
A. Intro
1. Sperm- flagellated, motile
a. Fuses with ovum or egg (larger non motile gamete)
b. Produces zygote fertilized eggs, single cell
2. Consequences of fertilization
a. Restored 2n number
b. Determines sex of offspring
c. Activates egg and stimulates reactions that allow development to take place
3. Egg surrounded by plasma membrane
a. 1 or more coverings
i. which are important because they aid in fertilization by sperm of the same
species
ii. function as barriers to interspecific fertilization
4. Steps
a. Sperm dissolve protective layers that are around the egg get to plasma
membrane
b. Molecules on sperm surface bine to receptors that are on eggs surface
c. Surface of egg changes prevents polyspermy
5. Sea Urchins (phylum Echinodermata)
Bio II Page 120
C. Mammals
1. Egg coverings
a. Plasma membrane
b. Zona pellucida
c. Follicle cells
2. Internal fertilizers
3. Acrosomal reaction
a. Sperm bind to ZP3(glycoprotein) found in zona pelucida
b. Binding triggers acrosome to burst
i. releases enxymes that are important because they help sperm get through
zona pelucida
4. No fast block to polyspermy in mammals
5. Sperm binding triggers cortical reaction
a. Calcium ions are going to be released into cytoplasm
b. Cortical granules stimulated to release their enzymes to outside of cell
c. Catalyze changes in zona pelucida
i. Hardens
ii. Sperm receptors altered
No additional sperm can bind
iii. No fertilization envelope
Slow block to polyspermy
Fig 47.5
b. Totipotent
i. Has potential to give rise to all cell types
F. End of fertilization
1. When cell undergoes 1st division
2. Sea urchin ~90 minutes after sperm binds
3. Mammals ~12-36 hours after binding
III. Cleavage
Single celled zygote a multicellular embryo
A. Intro
1. Series of rapid mitotic divisions
2. Cell cyclea. Consists mainly of S + M phases
b. S- synthesis, M- mitosis
c. Essentially no G1 or G2 phases
d. Little or no protein synthesis no growth
e. Cell # increases
i. Cells get smaller
ii. Embryo size does not increase
3. Cleavage furrow indentation in cell surface as cytokinesis divides cell in half
4. Pattern of divisions affected by presence of yolk
a. Mixture of protein, fats, phospholipids
b. Amount of yolk varies among species
5. Blastomere cell
B. Stages1. Zygote (1 cell)
a. Embryo (2 or more cells)
i. Humans 1st cell division ~ 24 hours after sperm binds
b. Lots of division
i. Blastula (At least 128 blastomeres)
ii. Forms a hollow ball
C. Pattern of cleavage
1. Sea urchinsa. Deuterostomes radial and indeterminate cleavage
b. Division is uniform across embryo
Fig 47.6
2. Frogs
a. Cleavage is asymmetric
i. Yolk distribution
ii. Most of yolk concentrated at one pole of egg (vegetal pole)
Bio II Page 124
3. 3rd division yolk begins to affect relative size of cells produced in 2 hemispheres
4. equatorial perpendicular to median
a. produces 8 celled embryo
b. Yolk near vegetal pole displaces mitotic apparatus toward animal pole
i. Cleavage furrow is displaced toward animal pole
ii. Results in 2 tiers of cells
Smaller blastomeres in animal hemispheres
5. Mammals (Echinodermata)
a. Little yolk
b. Heloblastic (cleavage furrow entirely through egg)
c. Blastocoel central
d. Blastomeres similar size
6. Birds, other reptiles, fish, insects
a. Lots of yolk
b. Cleavage furrow cannot pass through yolk
c. Only region lacking yolk cleavage
D. Regulation of cleavage
Bio II Page 125
D. Regulation of cleavage
1. Newly fertilized eggs
a. Single nucleus
b. Little DNA not enough mRNA
2. Initial development
a. Maternal RNA and proteins
3. Following cleavage
a. Many blastomeres many nuclei
b. Cells small
c. 3rd division
i. yolk begins to affect relative sizes of cells produced in 2 hemispheres
ii. equatorial perpendicular to meridian
iii. produces 8-celled embryo
iv. yolk near vegetal pole displaces mitotic apparatus toward animal pole
cleavage furrow is displaced toward animal pole
Results in 2 tiers of cells
d. Subsequent divisions yolk continues to displace cleavage toward animal pole
8:02 PM
Summary
1. Following cleavage
a. Normal cell cycle resumes, so rate of cell division slows down
2. Enters phase of morphogenesis
a. Cellular and tissue bases processes
animal body takes shape
b. Occurs in last 2 stages of embryonic development
i. Gastrulation
ii. Organogenesis
I. Gastrulation
A. Morphological process
1. Hollow blastula becomes layered embryo - gastrula
B. Embryonic germ layers comprise gastrula
1. Ectoderm - outer layer
2. Endoderm - lines embryonic digestive compartment and tract
3. Mesoderm - forms between ecto and endo
4. Diploblasts develop ectoderm and endoderm
a. Cnidarians and radially symmetrical
5. Triploblasts develop all three layers
a. Vertebrates and bilaterally symmetrical
C. Gastrulation in sea urchins
1. Highlights
a. Cell migration (during gastrulation)
b. Invagination (folding inwards of sheet of cells into embryo)
c. Archenteron develops from invagination
i. Becomes deeper and narrower
ii. Blind ended tube
iii. Future digestive tract
d. Blastopore
i. Open end of archenteron
anus
e. Second opening mouth (deutersotomes)
2. Sequence of events
a. Meseuchyme cells at vegetal pole
i. Migrate into blastocoel
ii. Some of these will later secrete calcium carbonate
forms simple internal skeleton
b. Cells at vegetal pole will flatten slightly
i. Causes vegetal pole to buckle inward
invagination
c. Endoderm cells form archenteron
i. Meseuchyme cells at tip of archenteron produce filopodia (thin extensions from cell)
- Extend toward blastocoel wall
d. Filopodia contract (at tip of archenteron)
i. Filopodia drag archenteron across blastocoel (hollow center)
ii. Blastopore (open end, becomes anus)
e. Archenteron fuses with blastocoel wall
digestive tube has both mouth and anus
gastrula - 3 germ layers covered in cilia (for feeding and movement)
Fig 47.8
D. Gastrulation in frogs
1. Highlights
a. 3 germ layers
i. Each layer will produce a distinct set of structures
Fig 47.9
v. Posterior - back
c. Cell movemenst that begin gastrulation occur on dorsal side of blastula
i. Region where gray crescent formed (opposite where sperm enters egg)
d. Blastopore - open end of archenteron anus
2. Sequence of events
a. Cells on dorsal side invaginate and form small indented crease blastopore
i. Dorsal lip located above crease
ii. More cells invaginate and blastopore gets longer and longer
- Extends around both sides of embryo and meet blastopore forms a circle
Fig 47.10
b. As blastopore is forming
i. Sheet of cells spreads out of animal hemisphere
- Sheet rolls inward over dorsal lip involution
- Cells move into interior of embryo
- In interior part of embryo develop into endo and meso
ii. Involution continues
expands endo and meso
- Archenteron forms and grows
- Blastocoel shrinks disappears
c. Other cells at animal pole change shape and spread out outer surface
i. Blastopore becomes smaller (indentation)
- Endoderm is growing and spreading over the surface
d. Late in gastrulation
i. Ectoderm is formed from those cells still remaining on surface
ii. Endoderm is the innermost layer
iii. Mesoderm is in between ecto and endo
iv. Blastopore surrounds plug of yolk-filled cells
Bio II Page 129
F. Gastrulation in humans
1. At the end of cleavage a blastocyst has formed (mammalian version of blastula)
~ 6 days after fertilization arrives at uterus
2. Blastocyst ~ 100 cells arranged around a central cavity
a. Trophoblast
i. outer single layer of cells
ii. When trophoblast cells come into contact with uterine lining
- Secretes enzymes that erode area of endometrium
- Embryo can now penetrate endometrium
iii. Trophoblast thickens and extends projections into endometrium
Implantation
b. Inner cell mass
i. Cluster of cells
ii. Becomes embryo proper (develops into individual)
iii. Source of embryonic stem cell lines
Bio II Page 130
II. Organogenesis
process of organ formation
embro begins to increase in size
A. Neurulation
1. Cells from dorsal mesoderm form notochord (serves as internal skeleton for embryos)
2. Induction
a. A process by which certain cells stimulate/influence differentiation of neighboring cells
b. Developing notochord sends signals to overlying ectoderm to thicken and form neural plate
3. Neural plate - embryonic region to become nervous system
a. Rolls up and forms neural tube (nerve cord is hollow)
4. Neural tube develops into central nervous system
Bio II Page 132
Fig 46.18
2. 3 stages
a. Dilation - cervix thins and opens
b. Delivery expulsion of baby
c. Delivery of placenta
3. Postnatal care
a. Lactation
11:13 PM
I. Nervous System
A. Function
1. Detect stimuli- any sort of change that occurs either inside or outside of the
body
2. Allows us to respond to the stimuli
B. Components
1. Central nervous system (CNS)
brain and spinal cord
2. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
consists of sensory receptors
nerves- communicate the signals between the CNS and the rest of the body
II. Neuron
A. Intro
1. Basic functional unit of the nervous system
2. Function is to conduct messages in the form of electrical signals
3. Variety of shapes and sizes
B. Cell body
Find typical organelles
Nucleus
Mitochondria
Golgi, etc.
C. Cytoplasmic Extensions
1. Dendrite
function is to receive info from environment or from another neuron
sends signals to cell body
2. Axon
a. Transmit neural impulse away from cell body
i. To another neuron
ii. Effector- produces the response to the stimulus
ex. will be muscles and glands
b. Usually only one long axon
c. Axon hillock
cone-shaped base of an axon where axon extends from the cell body
significant because location where signals are going to be generated
d. End of the axon- divide into many branches
e. Find synaptic terminals at tips of branches
f. Nerve- comprised of axons of many neurons
held together by connective tissue
<Fig 48.2>
H. Threshold
For most neurons, its -55 mV**
Result in action potential
V. Action Potential
A. Result when membrane potential shifts sufficiently so there is a massive change in
voltage
There is a depolarization which causes the membrane potential to reach
threshold (-55mV)
<Fig 48.10c>
Have membrane proteins which control the passage of specific ions (gates open
or closed)
Channels are regulated by changes in voltage which control the shape of protein
Facilitated diffusion is taking place- ions follow concentration gradient
Dont need ATP
Voltage-gated K+ channels and voltage-gated Na+ channels
C. Chain of events
1. Neuron at resting potential (not excitement)
voltage-gated K+ channels and voltage-gated Na+ channels are closed
2. Stimulus being detected
a. Cause voltage-gated Na+ channels to open
Na+ enter the axon
Membrane depolarize membrane potential becoming less negative
Getting closer to -55 mV
b. Magnitude of change depends on strength of the stimulus
i. If stimulus is small, only a few voltage-gated Na+ channels will open
threshold not reached
neuron will stay at rest
ii. Strong stimulus
many voltage-gated Na+ channels open (lots of Na+ will go in)
large change in permeability (larger depolarization)
if membrane potential reaches threshold (-55mV), get an action
potential
3. Rising phase
membrane suddenly becomes very permeable to Na+
at this point, most of voltage-gated Na+ channels are open
Na+ rush down gradient and into cell
At this time, voltage-gated K+ channels are closed
Causes rapid depolarization
Inside of cell is positive
Spike of +35 mV
At this spike, where membranes permeability to Na+ is at max
4. Downward motion is called falling phase
a. most voltage-gated Na+ channels are now going to close (no longer rush
in)
Bio II Page 142
in)
refractory period
no other action potential can be generated because voltage-gated
Na+ channels are closed and not open until have been reset
b. Voltage-gated K+ channels begin to open at threshold, but slowly
only fully open at peak depolarization (+35mV)
at falling phase, K+ rush out following their concentration gradient
5. Undershoot
voltage-gated Na+ channels closed
some voltage-gated K+ channels still opened
hyperpolarization
membrane potential is more negative than resting potential
then voltage-gated K+ channels close
membrane potential returns to resting potential
<Fig 48.11>
B. Myelin Sheath
1. Electrical insulation
2. Produced by two types of glial cells (supporting cells)
a. Oligodendrocytes CNS
b. Schwann cells PNS
3. Plasma membrane myelin, lipid, white
4. Glial cells wrap around regions of axon
5. Regions called the internodes
regions on axons covered in glial cells
6. In between those regions, nodes of Ranvier
gaps in myelin sheath
occur between glial cells
<Fig 48.13>
9. Multiple sclerosis
myelin sheath deteriorate and is replaced by scar tissue
characterized by a progressive loss of coordination
C. Synapse
1. Is a junction between a synaptic terminal and either another neuron or an
effector
2. That junction is a space called a synaptic cleft space between membranes
(>20 nm)
3. Most are chemical synapses
4. Neurotransmitters
a. Chemicals released from presynaptic membrane thatll diffuse across the
synaptic cleft to specific receptors that are on the post-synaptic cell
ex. simple synapse
Axon with dendritic membrane (post-synaptic membrane)
b. Examples of neurotransmitters
acetylcholine- humans with muscle stimulation
memory
learning
glutamate- amino acid
Bio II Page 145
11:13 PM
I. Comparison
A. Cnidarians - ex. Hydra
1. Simplest animals with nervous system
2. No central organ
3. Nerve net
4. Impulses are conducted in both directions
B. Sea star (echinoderm)
1. Nerves are formed from axons of multiple neurons
2. Nerve ring - central control structure
3. Radial nerves - receive information from nerve ring send signal to muscles
C. Bilaterally symmetrical
1. Planarian (Platyhelminthes)
a. Simplest clearly defined central nervous system
b. Brain and eyespot that can detect stimuli
anterior end
c. Ladder - type nervous system
i. 2 longitudinal nerve cords
ii. Transverse nerves
2. Annelids and arthropods
a. Increased complexity
b. Brain - complex
c. Ganglia - clusters of neurons
Fig 49.2
D. Lifestyle
1. Chiton - slow-moving organism simple nervous system
2. Squid - active predator complex nervous system
E. Vertebrates
1. Brain and spinal cord CNS
2. Nerves and ganglia peripheral nervous system (PNS)
II. Glial cells - support cells within nervous system
A. Types
1. Ependymal cells
Bio II Page 147
1. Ependymal cells
a. Line cavities of CNS
b. Have cilia - help circulate cerebrospinal fluid
2. Astrocytes
a. In CNS
b. Dilate blood vessels near active neurons
c. Regulate composition of CNS fluids
i. Remove excess K+ and neurotransmitters
d. Stimulate endothelia cells (line blood vessels)
form tight junctions
i. Formation of blood/brain barrier - protects brain
3. Digodendrocytes
a. In CNS
b. Myelin
c. Myelin sheath around axons
provides electrical insulation
4. Microglia
a. Near blood vessels in CNS
b. Function as immune cells
i. Phagocytic cells (eating cells)
5. Schwann cells
a. Located in PNS
b. Have myelin (fatty white substance)
c. Myelin sheath wraps around axons
Fig 49.3
B. Radial glia
1. Function during embryonic development
2. Form tracks
3. Newly formed neurons will migrate from neural tube and move along tracks
III. Central Nervous System
A. Spinal cord - serves as link between brain and rest of nervous system
1. Structure
a. Small, central canal
b. Gray matter surrounds canal (not surrounded by myelin)
Bio II Page 148
C. 2 components
1. Afferent sensory (toward CNS)
a. Neurons from sensory receptors to CNS
b. No effector
c. Visceral
i. Functions we are not aware of (internal environment)
d. Somatic
i. We are aware of (external environment)
2. Efferent motor (away from CNS)
a. Motor system
i. Efferent neurons - go to skeletal muscles
ii. Aware of control
iii. Reflexes involving spinal cord
b. Automatic nervous system
i. Efferent neurons - go to glands, heart, smooth muscle
ii. Not aware of control
3 divisions
i. Enteric
- Digestive tract
- Pancreas
- Gall bladder
ii. Sympathetic
- Fight or flight
- Fight or frolic
- Prepares body for action
- Increases heart rate, respiration rate, and metabolic rate
- Dilates air passages
- Slows digestive processes
Bio II Page 150
B.
C.
D.
E.
1. Diffuse network
a. Primarily formed by neurons in midbrain and pons
b. Control of
i. arousal - state of awareness of external world
ii. Sleep - external stimuli receives, but not consciously perceived
c. Surveys incoming stimuli and determines general level of arousal of brain
i. Relaxed and few stimuli
VII. Cerebral cortex
A. 3 areas
1. Sensory - info from sense organs
2. Motor - transmits info to body
3. Association areas - link sensory and motor
B. 4 lobes
1. Frontal lobe
a. Motor cortex - controls skeletal muscle
b. Prefrontal cortex - involved in decision making and planning
c. Broca's area - motor part of speech
2. Temporal lobe
a. Auditory cortex - hearing
b. Wernicke's area - comprehend language
3. Occipital lobe
a. Visual cortex - visual info
b. Visual association cortex - combines images and object recognition
4. Parietal lobe
a. Sensory association cortex
b. Somatosensory cortex - touch
c. Body awareness
Fig 49.16
11:13 PM
I. Sensory Pathways
A. Sensory reception
1. Detection by sensory receptor
2. Types of sensory receptors
a. Single cell
i. Neuronal afferent neuron axon extends directly into CNS
ii. Non-neural from chemical synapse with afferent neuron
D. Perception
1. Brain processes info that reaches it via sensory neurons
2. Exists only in brain
3. Distinguish between types of stimuli?
a. Action potential from sensory receptors specific stimuli
i. AP then travel down specific sensory neurons
II. Types of sensory receptors
A. Mechanoreceptors
1. Mechanical E ex: pressure, stretch, sound
2. Activated when they change shape
3. Ion channels linked to hairs (cilia) bent or stretched, which changes ion channel
Bio II Page 159
3. Ion channels linked to hairs (cilia) bent or stretched, which changes ion channel
permeability
4. Fig 50.5
B. Chemoreceptors
1. Chemical compounds
2. Stimulus molecule bind to specific receptor of sensory cell
a. Triggers change in ion permeability
3. Taste gustation
4. Smell olfaction
C. Electromagnetic receptors
1. Electromagnetic E
a. Ex: light, electricity, magnetism
2. Electroreceptors
a. Ex: sharks, rays, and bony fishes
i. Detect electrical fields, muscle activity of their prey
3. Photoreceptors light
D. Thermoreceptors heat and cold
E. Pain receptors = nociceptors
1. Withdraw from danger
III. Ear hearing
Sound waves of air or water pressure
Hearing the ability to sense changes in pressures
1. Mechanoreceptors
a. Hair cells
Bio II Page 160
a. Hair cells
A. Ear 3 components
1. Outer ear pinna, auditory canal
2. Middle ear auditory bones
3. Inner ear cochlea, (semicircular canals) equilibrium
B. Pathway
1. Sound waves enter outer ear
a. Pinna collects waves and channels into auditory canal
b. Auditory canal channels waves to tympanic membrane
c. Tympanic membrane
i. Thin
ii. Separates outer ear from middle ear
iii. Vibrate
2. Vibrations transmitted to middle ear
a. Middle air is an air-filled cavity
b. Connected to the throat by the eustachion tube
i. Equalizes Pressure between middle ear and atmosphere pop
c. Ossicles 3 very small bones
i. Malleus in contact with tympanic membrane
ii. Incus- in contact with malleus
iii. Stapes in contact with the oval window
Oval window membrane separates middle ear from inner ear
d. Middle ear
i. Amplifies sound
3. Vibrations of oval window are transmitted to cochlea
a. Fig 50.10 (is page long attached at end)
4. Cochlea spiral tube
a. 3 chambers fluid filled
i. perilymph
ii. vestibular canal
iii. cochlear duct
iv. tympanic canal
b. Basilar membrane floor of cochlear duct
c. Pressure from stapes causes oval window to bow in and out
i. Pressure waves transmitted into fluid in the vestibular and tympanic canals
ii. Fluid vibrates good conductor
iii. Basilar membrane vibrates up and down
d. Organ of Corti
i. Located on floor of cochlear duct
(basilar membrane)
ii. auditory organ
iii. mechanoreceptors
~18000 hair cells
detect changes in P waves
iv. Located between 2 membranes
Rests on basilar membrane
o Overhands hair cells (in contact)
o Stiff doesnt vibrate much
v. When basilar membrane vibrates up and down
Hair cells deflected by tectorial membrane
e. Translated into AP
i. Hair cells stimulated
Depolarization (Receptor potential)
o AP
Bio II Page 161
o AP
ii. Axons of hair cells join to form auditory nerve
iii. Auditory nerve message to brain
Fig 50.11
5. Last, Pressure waves pass through vestibular canal and strike round window
pressure waves dissipate
a. dampens sound waves
IV. Ear balance / equilibrium
A. Inner ear
1. All vertebrates have inner ear, not all have outer and middle ears
B. Saccule and utricle
1. Contain
a. hair cells mechanoreceptors
b. Otoliths (ear stones)
i. Fine grains consisting of calcium carbonate, gravity receptors
2. Change tilt in head
a. Otoliths cause the hair cells to bend
b. Receptors stimulated Action potential
3. Awareness of position relative to the ground regardless of the position of head
a. Linear movement
C. 3 semicircular canals
1. filled with fluid
2. cupula
a. enlargements at base of each canal
b. contain hair cells
3. skull moves
a. fluid moves in canals
i. hair cells in cupula bend
ii. Action potential
4. Canals are positioned at right angles to each other
a. Detection of turning in any direction
5. Fig 50.13
V. Eye visual
A. Structure
1. Sclera
a. tough, opaque
b. outer coat
2. Cornea
a. front surface
b. sclera becomes thin
c. transparent
d. fixed lens (doesnt change)- focuses light
3. Choroid
a. Layer inner to sclera
b. Black pigment
i. Absorbs light
ii. Protects from excess light
4. Iris pigmented
a. Muscular
i. Regulates size of pupil
5. Pupil opening in the center of the iris
6. Retina
a. Covers the inside of choroid
b. Light sensitive
2 types of photoreceptors (specialized neurons)
i. Rod cell detect shape and movement
Respond to low levels of light
Night-vision
ii. Cones cells
Color vision
Bright light vision
Fine detail
3 types
o each sensitive to particular wavelengths red, blue, green
o other colors are combinations
color blindnesso due to deficiency or absence of 1 or more types of cones
7. Fovea
a. Tightly packed cone cells (no rods)
b. High visual activity
i. Images most clearly focused
8. Optic Disc (blind spot)
Bio II Page 163
VI. Gustation
A. Taste buds
1. Each ~100 receptor cells
B. Molecules (tastants)
1. Dissolve in saliva
2. Bind to receptors
a. Causes depolarization
Bio II Page 165
a. Causes depolarization
b. Action potential
C. 5 tastes
1. salt
2. sweet
3. bitter
4. sour
5. umami (savory, glutamate)
6. Fig 50.24
VII. Olfaction
A. Molecules (odorants)
1. Dissolved in mucus in nose
2. 100 million olfactory receptor cells
3. bind to receptors => action potential
4. olfactory nerve
B. Smells shape of molecules
1. We can perceive ~10,000 scents
Fig 50.25
11:13 PM
I. Muscle
A. Generates mechanical force in response to nervous system motor input
B. Types - skeletal, smooth, cardiac
II. Vertebrate skeletal muscle - attached to bones by tendons
A. Muscle fiber
1. Long cylindrical cell
2. Multi nucleate (many nuclei)
3. T (transverse) tubules - infoldings of plasma membrane
4. Sarcoplasmic reticulum (is endoplasmic reticulum)
a. Specialized found in muscle tissue
5. Myofibrils
a. Long fibers
b. Lengthwise through muscle fiber
c. Comprised of two types of filaments
i. Thin filaments
- 2 strands of actin
Contractile protein
Actin molecules have myosin-binding sites
- Tropomyosin
Regulatory protein
- Troponin complex
Set of regulatory proteins
ii. Thick filaments
- ~ 350 myosin (contractile proteins) molecules
Each myosin molecule has head and tail
Tails associate with each other
thick filament
d. Actin and myosin
i. In many cells
ii. Highly organized in muscle cells
iii. Skeletal muscle
- Filaments are arranged in such a way that
Muscle fiber has striped appearance
= striated muscle (skeletal muscle)
B. Sarcomere - basic unit of contraction
1. Repeating unit comprised of overlapping thin and thick filaments
2. 100s of sarcomeres lined up end to end myofibril
3. Z lines
a. Locations where thin filaments are attached
b. Join sarcomeres together at their ends
4. Each thin filament is attached to a Z line
a. Each extends only partway across the sarcomere
5. Thick filaments
a. Centered in sarcomere
b. Anchored at M line
Fig 50.26
Fig 50.29
Fig 50.30
Bio II Page 172
Fig 50.30
4. Energy supply
Each head - forms and reforms ~ 5 cross bridges per second
a. ATP is required to break cross bridges
i. Rigor mortis - result of cross bridges in place (no breaks occurring)
ii. ATP cannot be stockpiled
b. Muscle cells have relatively large pool of creatine phosphate
i. Can be stockpiled
ii. Transfers its phosphate to ADP ATP
iii. Resting supply of CP
15 sec of contractions
c. Glycogen - chemical energy
i. A lot stored in muscle fibers
ii. Gets broken down to form glucose
Bio II Page 173
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
B. Types
1. Hydrostatic skeleton (not hard)
a. Fluid filled cavity
i. Closed compartment - fluid under pressure
b. Soft-bodied invertebrates
i. Most cnidarians, nematodes, annelids
c. Ex. Hydra
i. 2 layers of contractile cells
- Work antagonistically (opposite)
ii. Outer later
- Arranged longitudinally
Contract hydra shortens and widens
iii. Inner layer
- Arranged circularly
Contract hydra gets thinner and taller
d. Peristalsis
i. Movement produced by rhythmic waves of muscle contraction
Fig 50.35
i. Cartilage
- Flexible skeletal tissue
- Consists of connective tissue comprised of
cartilage cells (chondrocytes)
Collagen fibers
Cells and fibers embedded in lipoprotein
- Class chondrichthyes (sharks and rays)
ii. Bone
- Collagen - protein secreted by osteoblasts
- Hydroxyapatite - CaPO4
- Calcium carbonate
e. Bone remodeling
i. Continual change throughout lifetime
ii. Osteoblasts - bone building cells
iii. Osteoclasts - resorb (break down) bone
- Secrete H+ and enzymes dissolves bone and collagen
iv. Osteoblasts and osteoclasts
- Synergistic
- Together help shape bones
- Skeletons replaced ~ every 10 yrs
v. Osteoporosis
- Progressive, degenerative bone disease
- Bone resorption more rapid than bone formation
- Loss of bone mass
- Drugs inhibit osteoclasts
C. Human skeleton
1. > 200 bones
a. Some fused together
b. Others connected at joints by ligament
Fig 50.36
2. Joints
a. Junctions between 2 or more bones
b. Flexibility and movement
Fig 50.37
V. Types of locomotion
A. Active travel
B. Land
1. Need to support self and move against gravity
C. Water
1. Buoyancy
2. Friction - organisms streamlined
D. Air
1. Gravity wings lift to overcome downward force
2. Light bodies
a. Ex birds - no teeth, no urinary bladder, bones - air filled regions
11:13 PM
I. Introduction
A. All animals are heterotrophs (organic molecules produced by other animals)
B. Food processing
Fig 41.5
2. Digestion
a. Process of breaking down complex organic molecules into smaller
molecules
can now be taken up into cells
b. Mechanical - makes so more surface area (breaking down via teeth)
c. Chemical
i. With enzymes
ii. Hydrolysis
3. Absorption - cells
4. Elimination - undigested material passes out of digestive system
C. Digestive compartments - critical (body not digested too)
1. Intracellular digestion
a. Food vacuoles - fuse with lysosomes (has hydrolytic enzymes)
2. Extracellular digestion
a. Breakdown of food in compartments that are continuous with outside of
body
Bio II Page 181
body
b. Some organisms this takes place in Gastrovascular cavity
Fig 41.7
B. Before ingestion
1. Triggered in nervous system salivary secretion
C. Oral cavity
1. Ingestion and initial steps of digestion
2. Mechanical digestion via teeth
3. Chemical digestion occurs as a result of salivary glands
a. Enzyme - salivary amylase
i. Hydrolyzes starch and glycogen
ii. Broken down into smaller polysaccharides and maltose
(disaccharide)
4. Mucus - acts as lubricant
a. Mucins - glycoproteins
b. Protects lining of mouth
5. Tongue - moves food
a. Forms food into bolus - lump of food moved toward pharynx
swallowed
D. Pharynx
Fig 41.10
IV. Absorption
- Most nutrients absorbed through villi in small intestine
A. Intestinal villi
1. Each have capillary (blood vessel)
2. Lacteal - lymph vessel
a. One way transport of fluid and nutrients from tissues into blood
3. 2 single layers of cells separate nutrients in lumen of small intestine from
bloodstream
a. One layer is villus cell layer
b. Second is capillary or lacteal cell layer
Fig 41.13
B. Transport processes
1. Simple diffusion - ex. Water
2. Facilitated diffusion - need transport proteins
a. ex. Fructose into epithelium and into capillary
3. Active transport
a. Requires metabolic energy and transport protein
b. Ex. Ions - Na+, K+
4. Combination
a. Ex. Glucose and amino acids
i. Transported via active transport into epithelial cells of intestine
ii. Via facilitated diffusion into bloodstream
C. Absorption of fats
1. Free fatty acids and monoglycerides
a. Enters epithelial cell of small intestine via simple diffusion
b. Reassembled as triglycerides in smooth endoplasmic reticulum
2. Triglycerides get coated with cholesterol, phospholipids, and proteins
a. Packaged into chylomicrons
3. Chylomicrons inter lacteal
4. Transported to lymph then to blood
D. What is left?
1. Most nutrients are absorbed by time it gets to end of small intestine
2. Everything else moves into large intestine
a. Undigested protein, fats, carbohydrates
b. Indigestible material - cellulose
c. Dead cells
V. Large intestine = colon
A. Larger diameter than small intestine but shorter
B. Ileocecal valve
1. Sphincter between small intestine and large intestine
C. Divisions
1. Ascending colon
2. Transverse colon
3. Descending colon
4. Sigmoid colon
D. Absorption - mainly water is absorbed
E. Bacteria
1. Produce variety of vitamins that can be absorbed
a. K, riboflavin, thiamine, B12
Bio II Page 189
11:13 PM
I. Introduction
A. Nutrition
1. taking food into body
2. broken down
3. used by body
B. Animals - heterotrophs
1. Herbivores
2. Carnivores
3. Omnivores
C. Proper nutrition (eating right amounts and types of food)
II. 3 nutritional needs
A. Chemical energy
1. Ingest to produce ATP
a. Calories = kilocalorie = 1000 calories
i. Amount of heat required to raise temp of 1 kg of water by 1 deg. Celsius
2. Carbs
a. Starch and cellulose
b. Principle source of energy in human diet
i. Provide ~ 50% of total Calories
ii. 1g of carbs = 4 C (Calories)
3. Proteins
a. 1 g ~ 4 C
4. Lipids
a. 1 g ~ 9 C
b. Triacylglycerol (glycerol + 3 fatty acids)
B. Organic building blocks
assembled into macromolecules body needs
1. Need source of carbon
2. Need source of nitrogen
C. Essential nutrients
1. Cannot be made by body
a. must be ingested
2. Carbs - not essential
3. Essential amino acids
a. 20 amino acids required by animals to make all needed proteins
i. Most animals have enzymes to make about 1/2 of amino acids
Sulfur, nitrogen in diet
ii. Other amino acids essential
b. Humans
i. Adults - 8 essential amino acids
ii. Infants - 9 essential amino acids
c. Complete proteins
i. Include all essential amino acids in proper ratios
ii. Most animal sources of protein are complete proteins
Meat, eggs, cheese
d. Incomplete protein
i. Most plant sources
ii. Vegetarian - need to consume multiple sources of protein
4. Essential fatty acids
a. Animals can synthesize many fatty acids
i. But lack enzyme to form double bonds in some fatty acids
Bio II Page 191
6. Minerals
a. Inorganic
i. Ingested in form of salts dissolved in food and water
b. Major minerals - required in at least 200mg/day
i. Calcium
Bones and teeth
Blood clotting
Nerve transmission and muscle function
ii. Phosphorus
Bones and teeth
ATP
Nucleic acids
Phospholipids
iii. Sulfur
Proteins - disulfide bridges
iv. Potassium and sodium
Principle positive (+) ions in cells and interstitial fluids
Nerve function
Ion balance
Water balance
v. Chloride
Principle negative (-) ion
Water balance
Nerve function
Production of gastric juice (HCl)
vi. Magnesium
Enzyme cofactor
Necessary for muscle and nerve function
c. Trace elements - required in amounts less than 200mg/day
i. Iron
Bio II Page 193
i. Iron
Hemoglobin
Cytochromes (found in mitochondria, electron transport chain)
ii. Iodide
Thyroid hormones
Table 41.2
III. Malnutrition
A. Diet lacks one or more essential nutrients
1. Ex. Kwashiorkor
a. Severe protein deficiency in children
b. Diet lacks in essential amino acids
c. Growth stunted
d. Muscle wasting
e. Edema - fluid imbalances swelling of abdomen
B. Diet that consistently supplies less chemical energy than required
1. Undernutrition
IV. Regulation of digestion
Arrival of food in alimentary canal compartments
triggers secretion for chemical digestion and triggers peristalsis
A. Oral cavity
1. Nervous system triggers arrival of saliva
2. swallowing
B. Stomach
1. Arrival of food stretches stomach wall
a. Triggers release of gastrin (hormone)
i. gets into blood
ii. stomach (target)
iii. stimulated to produce gastric juices
b. Triggers churning
2. Also regulated by enteric division of autonomic nervous system
C. Small intestine
1. Chyme
a. Acidic mixture - comprised of partially digested food
b. Amino acids and fatty acids in chyme trigger release of digestive hormones by duodenum
2. Digestive hormones
a. CCK - cholecystokinin
Bio II Page 194
a. CCK - cholecystokinin
i. Transferred in bloodstream
ii. Stimulates release of digestive enzymes from pancreas and bile from gall bladder
b. Secretin
i. Transported in bloodstream
ii. Stimulates pancreas
iii. pancreas releases HCO3- (neutralizes chyme)
3. If chyme rich in fats
a. levels of CCK and secretin are high
b. Act on stomach inhibit peristalsis and secretion of gastric juices
Fig 41.20
Fig 41.20
Fig 41.21
11:13 PM
a. 1 or 2 depending on species
b. Pump blood into arteries
3. Pericardium - sac that encloses heart
IV. Comparison of circulatory patterns of vertebrates
A. Fish - characterized by single circulation
1. Heart
a. 1 atrium and 1 ventricle
2. Blood flow is a single circuit
a. Atrium pumps blood into ventricle
b. Ventricle contraction pumps blood into an artery
c. blood flows to capillary beds in gills
d. Net diffusion of oxygen into blood and carbon dioxide out of blood
e. Capillaries converge into vessel that carries blood to capillary beds in
rest of body
f. Blood returns via veins to atrium
Fig 42.4a
Fig 42.5
V. Human heart
A. Cardiac cycle
1. One complete sequence of filling and pumping ~ 0.8 seconds ~ 75BPM
2. 2 portions of cycle
a. Systole - contraction
b. Diastole - relaxation
Fig 42.7
B. Cardiac output
1. volume of blood that is pumped/min by left ventricle into systemic circuit
2. = heart rate x stroke volume
Bio II Page 204
a. atria contract
3. During atrial contraction
a. Impulses from SA node reaches AV (atrioventricular) node
b. AV node located in wall between right atrium and right ventricle
c. Impulse delayed ~1/10 sec at AV node
i. Allows atria to complete their contraction before ventricles start
4. Bundle branches
a. Conduct signals from AV node to heart apex (lowest part of heart)
5. Signal continues to spread through specialized structures called Purkinje fibers
a. ventricles
Fig 42.8
VII. Capillaries
A. Site of movement of substances between blood and tissues
1. Diffusion
2. Gas exchange
3. Waste removal
4. Nutrients arriving
B. Plasma
1. Fluid component of blood
2. Blood under high pressure
a. Some of plasma will be forced out of circulatory system and into tissues
b. interstitual fluid now
C. Interstitial fluid
1. Does not contain red blood cells
2. Contains ~25% of proteins found in blood
3. hypotonic relative to blood
D. Fluids - move back and forth
1. Blood pressure
a. Pressure exerted by blood on capillary wall
b. Caused by beating of heart
Bio II Page 207
11:13 PM
I. Introduction
A. The average person has approximately 5L of blood
B. Functions of blood
1. Transport
2. Fluid balance
3. Defense against pathogens
C. Composition
1. Cells in fluid (red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets)
2. Liquid is called plasma
II. Plasma
Approximately 55% of blood
A. ~ 92% is water
B. Inorganic salts - dissolved ions (blood electrolytes)
1. Buffers blood against drastic pH changes (normal is 7.4)
2. Maintain osmotic balance
3. Effect composition of interstitial fluid (fluid that is bathing tissues)
C. Plasma proteins
1. Regulate the distribution of fluid between the plasma and the interstitial fluid
a. Increase osmotic pressure so that fluid returns to capillaries
2. Act as buffers
3. Albumin - regulates pH and fluid balance
4. Immunogloblins (antibodies) found in the plasma and important in the defense of invaders
into the body
5. Apolipoproteins - lipid transport
a. Lipids are insoluble so they must be bound to a protein
6. Fibrinogens - involved in blood clotting
a. Serum = plasma minus fibrinogens
D. Transported blood
1. Nutrients (digestion)
2. Hormones (endocrine)
III. Cellular components
A. Cells are produced in the bone marrow of certain bones
1. Ribs, vertebrae, sternum, and pelvis
2. Multipotent stem cells
a. Have the potential to specialize into any type of blood cell
3. When a stem cell divides
a. One daughter cell differentiates
b. Other daughter will remain a stem cell
B. Erythrocytes (red blood cells)
1. Most numerous of all blood cells
a. 25 trillion in adult (5-6 million per cubic mL of blood)
2. Lifespan is about 120 days (4 months)
3. Flexible biconcave (bowed in) discs increases surface area
a. Elastic internal framework allows them to move through the capillaries (small
diameter)
4. Mammals - have no nuclei in their erythrocytes
5. Lack mitochondria (all species)
a. Rely on anaerobic metabolism to generate ATP
6. Specialized to transport oxygen
7. Hemoglobin - a protein whose function is to transport oxygen (gives blood red color)
8. Erythrocyte production is controlled by the hormone erythropoietin (EPO)
Bio II Page 209
7. Hemoglobin - a protein whose function is to transport oxygen (gives blood red color)
8. Erythrocyte production is controlled by the hormone erythropoietin (EPO)
a. Produced by the kidneys
b. Controlled by a negative feedback mechanism
i. Triggered by the amount of oxygen reaching the tissues
c. Not enough oxygen
i. Kidney stimulated to produce more EPO
ii. Stimulates the production of erythrocytes in the bone marrow
d. Too much oxygen reaches the tissues
i. Kidneys produce less EPO
ii. Erythrocyte production goes down
C. Leukocytes - white blood cells
1. Specialized to defend the body against invading pathogens
2. Not confined to the circulatory system (also found in interstitial fluid and lymph nodes)
D. Platelets
1. Not whole cells
2. Formed by pinching off cytoplasmic fragments of large cells in the bone marrow
3. No nuclei
4. Important in blood clotting
Fig 42.16
Fig 42.17
1. Phagocytosis
a. Phagocytic cells have Toll-like receptors (TLR)
i. Bind to molecules that are characteristic of a set of pathogens, but are normally
absent from vertebrate body
ii. Ex. TLR3 - bind to double stranded RNA
iii. TLR4 - bind to lipopolysaccharides gram negative bacteria
Fig 43.6
ii. Phagocytosis
e. Increases blood flow which brings in phagocytic cells, nutrients, oxygen, and
antimicrobial peptides
f. Pus - fluid containing white blood cells, dead pathogens, and cell debris
g. Usually local response
h. May involve whole body fewer (elevated body temperature)
i. Interferes with growth and replication of microorganisms
Fig 43.8
11:13 PM
I. Introduction
A. Timing
1. Takes several days to mobilize adaptive immunity (specific defenses)
2. Until then - innate defenses will destroy pathogens
B. Lymphocytes - types of white blood cells
1. Function in innate and adaptive immunity
2. 2 types in adaptive immunity
a. Both originate from stem cells located in bone marrow
b. Some remain in bone marrow in process of maturation
i. B cells
c. Others migrate to thymus
i. T cells
C. Antigen (Ag)
1. Any foreign substance that elicits a B cell or T cell response
2. Most are proteins or large polysaccharides
a. Found on surface of pathogen or blood cells or tissue cells from other individuals
3. Epitope
a. Specific region that is exposed on the surface of antigen molecule
b. Binds to antigen receptor
c. Each B cell and T cell displays specificity for a specific epitope
II. B cells
A. Y-shaped receptors - consist of 4 polypeptide chains
1. 2 are identical called heavy chains (embedded in plasma membrane)
2. Other 2 are identical light chains
3. Disulfide bridges link chains together
4. Transmembrane region of receptor
a. Near one end of each heavy chain
b. Anchors receptor in B cell's plasma membrane
5. Constant (c) region
a. Portions of light and heavy chains
b. Amino acid sequences vary little among B cells
6. Variable (v) region
a. Found within tips of Y shape
b. Each tip is binding site for antigen
c. Each receptor has 2 identical antigen binding sites
Fig 43.9
B. B cell classes
1. 5 types of immunoglobulins based on distinct heavy chain c regions
2. IgA, IgD, IgE, IgG, and IgM
C. B cell activation
Bio II Page 217
C. B cell activation
1. When no pathogen present
a. B cell is inactive
2. Activation begins when a B cell antigen receptor (tips) binds to antigen
a. Leads to formation of cells that secrete soluble form of receptor
b. antibodies (Ab) = immunoglobulin (Ig)
3. Antibodies
a. Have same Y-shaped structure as B cell antigen receptors
b. Not membrane bound
c. Antibodies (not B cell) that do actual defense against pathogens
Fig 43.10
III. T cells
A. T cell antigen receptors
1. Bind only to fragments of antigen that are displayed on surface of host cell
2. Host cells characterized by major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules
3. host protein that displays antigen fragment on cell surface
B. Antigen receptor - 2 different polypeptide chains
1. Alpha chain and beta chain disulfide bridges
2. Transmembrane region 0 anchor
3. V region - at ends of chain
a. single antigen binding site
4. C region - rest of molecule
Fig 43.11
C. Recognition of protein antigen by T cells begins when pathogen infects or part of pathogen taken in by host cell
1. Enzymes cleave antigens into smaller peptides antigen fragments
2. Antigen fragments bind to MHC molecules]antigen
3. MHC molecule and bound antigen move to cell surface
4. display of antigen fragment
5. host cell now called APC (antigen presenting cell)
Fig 43.12
D. Immunological memory - Long term protection that occurs from prior infection
1. Primary immune response to first exposure to an antigen
a. Peaks 10-17 days after exposure
b. Selected B cells and T cells effector forms
2. Secondary response
a. Exposed to same antigen
b. Response
i. Faster - peaks 2-7 days after exposure
ii. Stronger
iii. More prolonged
c. Less antigen to stimulate response
d. Result of B cell and T cell memory cells
Fig 43.15
B. Antibody function
1. Do not kill pathogen directly
a. Binds to antigen and either
i. interferes with pathogen activity or
ii. marks pathogen for inactivation or
iii. Destruction
2. Neutralization
a. Ex. Antibody bind to surface of virus prevents infection of host cell
3. Opsonization
a. Antibody bind to surface of bacteria promotes phagocytosis
i. Macrophages
ii. Neutrophils
4. Activation of complement system
a. Antibody binds to antigen on foreign cell
b. Complement protein binds to antibody-antigen complex
c. Produces membrane attack complex forms pores in cell's membrane
Fig 43.19
11:13 PM
VI. Air
A. Why no gills in terrestrial organisms?
1. Desiccation - need water environment
2. Support - not enough support in air
B. 2 major types of respiratory structures
1. Tracheal system - insects
2. Lungs
VII. Tracheal systems
Characterized by network of air tubes branched throughout body
A. Trachea - largest tubes
1. Open to outside
B. Finest branches
1. Close to almost all cells in body
C. Gas exchange across moist epithelium that lines tips of tracheal branches
Bio II Page 226
C. Gas exchange across moist epithelium that lines tips of tracheal branches
D. Oxygen and carbon dioxide transport occurs without circulatory system
Fig 42.23
VIII. Lungs
A. Respiratory system
1. Lungs and system of tubes
2. Lungs are not in direct contact with other parts of body
a. need circulatory system to transport gases
B. Structures
1. Nostrils
a. Air enters
b. Open to nasal cavities
2. Nasal cavities
a. Air warmed and moistened
3. Pharynx
a. Leads into
i. Larynx via glottis
ii. Esophagus
b. Epiglottis - covers glottis during swallowing
4. Larynx
a. Chamber surrounded by wall - cartilage
b. Vocal cords found here
i. Elastic folds of tissue
ii. When air passes over vibrate
iii. Voluntary muscles
Can be tensed pitches of sound
c. Cough reflex
5. Trachea = windpipe
a. Air duct from larynx into thoracic cavity (chest cavity)
b. c-shaped cartilage embedded in walls support
c. Divides into 2 bronchi
6. Entire system up to this point is lined with ciliated epithelium and many mucous cells
a. Mucus
b. Cilia - move mucus toward throat
c. Swallowed expelled through digestive system
7. Lungs
a. Pair, spongy, elastic within thoracic cavity
Bio II Page 227
C. Breathing
1. Mechanical process
a. Inhalation and exhalation
2. Negative pressure breathing
a. Pressure in lungs is lowered to below pressure of air outside of body
b. Gas flows from outside to inside
c. air is being pulled in
3. Inhalation
a. Rib cage consists of 12 pairs of ribs and rub muscles
i. External intercostal muscles contract
lift ribs upward
Change in angle of ribs increase size of thoracic cavity
b. Diaphragm contracts
i. Domed sheet of skeletal muscle
ii. Attached along lower ribs
iii. Forms bottom wall of thoracic cavity
iv. Increase thoracic cavity size
c. Air rushes in
4. Exhalation
a. Passive
Bio II Page 228
a. Passive
b. Diaphragm and rib cage relax resting position
c. Moves air out
5. Each lung
a. Enclosed by a double-walled sac
i. Pleural membrane
b. Inner later - adheres to lungs
c. Outer layer - adheres to wall of thoracic cavity
d. Layers separated by thin space filled with fluid
e. Surface tension
i. Layers stick together
ii. Slide past each other
iii. Not easily pulled apart
iv. volume of thoracic cavity and volume of lungs change togetther
Fig 42.27
D. Control of breathing
1. Can hold breath voluntarily for a short time
a. Mostly - autonomic mechanisms regulate breathing
2. Medulla oblongata
a. Breathing control centers
i. Establish breathing rhythm
b. pH of cerebral spinal fluid serves as indicator of blood carbon dioxide concentration
c. CO2 + H2O H2CO3 HCO3- + H+
3. Higher CO2 concentrations when metabolic rate increases
a. lower pH
b. Sensors in medulla and major blood vessels - detect change in pH
c. Medulla sends signals to increase depth and rate of ventilation
Fig 42.28
B. Respiratory pigments
1. Circulate with blood or hemolymph
2. Within specialized cells
3. Increase capacity to transport oxygen
4. Consist of metal bound to protein
5. Hemoglobin (Hb)
a. Found in most vertebrates
b. In erythrocytes
c. 4 polypeptide chains each with heme group iron atom
d. Each iron atom binds one O2
C. Cooperativity in oxygen binding
1. Hb binds oxygen reversibly
a. Loads in lungs (gills)
b. Unloads in tissues
2. When an oxygen molecule binds to first Hb subunit, the other subunits change shape
a. increases affinity for oxygen
3. Cooperatively unloads oxygen
4. Partial pressure of oxygen
a. Determines if Hb loads or unloads
i. Partial pressure oxygen is high Hb loads oxygen (in lungs)
ii. Partial pressure oxygen is low Hb unloads (in tissues)
Fig 42.30a
5. In lungs
a. CO2 diffuses out of blood
b. Decrease in CO2 favors conversion of HCO3- to CO2
c. more CO2 dissfuses out of blood
11:13 PM