Lecture 7 - Respiratory

CH.
13
RESPIRATORY
PHYSIOLOGY
UNIT OUTLINE:
I.
INTRODUCTION
i.
II.
Basic Functions of Respiratory System
LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION
i.
ii.
Thoracic Cavity Membranes

Respiratory Tract Organization
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
Respiration
Lung Volumes & Capacities
Gas Properties
Breathing
Transport
III. STRUCTURE & FUNCTION
IV. HOMEOSTASIS
i.
Hemoglobin Saturation
ii. Ventilation-Perfusion Mismatch
iii. Hyperventilation
V.
INTEGRATION
i.
Clinical
Biol340 - Mammalian Physiology
Remember that these Learning Outcomes make for a great basis for your studying. (Try turning the statements into questions.)
UNIT LEARNING OUTCOMES:

Student will be able to
1. Distinguish between the structural organization and the functional organization of the respiratory
system.
2. Trace the movement of air through the respiratory system.
3. Describe the relationship between pressure, volume and air movement (and how muscles influence
this)
4. Explain the difference in respiratory volumes and how these are functionally relevant.
5. Differentiate how the oxygen and carbon dioxide are carried in the blood.
6. Explain the significance of the oxygen-hemoglobin saturation curve for both alveolar and systemic
gas exchange.
7. Compare and contrast Hb-O binding during different conditions.
8. Explain how hyperventilation and hypoventilation influence the chemical composition of blood.
9. List three types of cells found in alveoli and their functions.
10. Name the two anatomic features of the respiratory membrane that contribute to the efficient alveolar
gas exchange.
I. INTRODUCTION
BASIC FUNCTIONS OF RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
I. Introduction
The main function of the respiratory system is to supply the body

tissues with oxygen and dispose of carbon dioxide generated by
cellular metabolism.
Respiration is collectively made up of 4 processes:
1. Pulmonary ventilation (breathing)
2. External respiration (movement of O2 from lungs into blood;
CO2 from blood to lungs)
3. Transport of respiratory gases in the blood
4. Internal respiration (movement of O2 from blood into tissue
cells; CO2 from cells into blood)
I. Introduction
Cells engage in aerobic cellular respiration

Aerobic cellular respiration is necessary for life
Requires an uninterrupted supply of oxygen
Requires removal of carbon dioxide waste
The respiratory system provides the means for gas exchange

Respiration, collective process by which oxygen and carbon
dioxide are continuously exchanged between the atmosphere
and the bodys cells
I. Introduction
Air passageway
Air is moved from the atmosphere to the alveoli as we breathe in
Air is moved from the lungs to the atmosphere as we breathe out
Site for oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange

Oxygen diffuses from alveoli into blood
Carbon dioxide diffuses from blood into alveoli
takes place between the alveoli and the pulmonary capillaries
Odor detection
Olfactory receptors in the superior nasal cavity
Air moving across receptors
Sensory input relay to the brain
Sound production
Air moves across the vocal cords of the larynx (voice box)
Vocal cords of the larynx vibrate, producing sound
Sounds resonate in the upper respiratory structures
Defense/Protection
Defends against inhaled microbes

Traps foreign particles (dust etc)
I. Introduction
Rate and depth of breathing influences:

blood levels of oxygen
blood levels of carbon dioxide
blood levels of hydrogen ion
venous return of blood
venous return of lymph
II. LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION

i.
ii.
Thoracic Cavity Membranes

Respiratory Tract Organization
II. Levels of Organization

Structural organization
Functional organization
Nose
Nasal cavity
Upper
respiratory
tract
Pharynx
Larynx
Trachea
Conducting
zone
Bronchus
Lower
respiratory
tract
Bronchiole
Terminal bronchiole
Lungs
Respiratory bronchiole
Alveolar duct
Alveoli
Respiratory
zone
10

Larynx
Also called the voice box
Several major functions
Air passageway
Prevents ingested materials from
entering the respiratory tract
Produces sound for speech
Assists in increasing pressure in
the abdominal cavity
Esophagus
Posterior
Esophagus
Trachealis muscle
Larynx
Thyroid
cartilage
Cricoid
cartilage
LM 8x
The trachea
Flexible, slightly rigid,
tubular organ
Known as the windpipe
Goes from the larynx to the
main bronchi
Immediately anterior to the
esophagus
Lumen of trachea
Mucosa
Submucosa
Trachea
Tracheal
cartilage
Tracheal cartilage
(b)
Anterior
Anular
ligament
Trachea
Carina (internal
projection)
Right main
bronchus
(a)
Right main
bronchus
Left main
bronchus
Left main
bronchus
(c) Carina
11
Main bronchi
Lobar bronchi
Segmental bronchi
Smaller bronchi
Larynx
Trachea
Right main
bronchus
Right lobar
bronchus
Right segmental
bronchus
Smaller
bronchi
(b)
Left main
bronchus
Left lobar
bronchus
Tree continues to divide into

smaller passageways
Left
segmental
bronchus
Smaller
bronchi
Leads to tubes of < 1mm, the

bronchioles
Leads to terminal bronchioles (last
part of conducting zone)
Leads to respiratory bronchioles
(first part of respiratory zone)
12

Trachea
Left main
bronchus
Cartilage rings
Cartilage
Cartilage plates
Lobar
bronchi
Segmental bronchi
Smaller bronchi
Bronchiole
Cross sections of bronchioles
Terminal
bronchiole
Respiratory
bronchiole
Muscularis
Submucosa
Mucosa
Alveoli
Bronchoconstricted
Bronchodilated
No
cartilage
13
Respiratory Zone
Branch of
pulmonary artery
Composed of respiratory
ducts, alveolar ducts, and
alveoli
Respiratory bronchioles
subdivide to alveolar ducts
Alveolar ducts lead to alveolar
sacs, clusters of alveoli
Alveoli = saccular
outpouchings
Epithelium
Bronchiole
Terminal bronchiole
Pulmonary
arteriole
Pulmonary
capillary
beds
Pulmonary
venule
Branch of
pulmonary vein
Respiratory bronchioles lined

with simple cuboidal epithelium
Alveoli and alveolar ducts lined
by simple squamous
Thinner than in the conducting
portion
Respiratory bronchiole
Alveolar duct
Alveoli
Alveolar pores
Interalveolar
septum
facilitates gas exchange
Alveolar
sac
Elastic fibers
Connective tissue
14
Terminal
bronchiole
Alveoli
Alveoli
Respiratory
bronchiole
Alveolar
duct
contain elastic fibers: help the

lungs contract and expand
SEM 180x
Each lung containing 300-400

million
Openings in their walls, alveolar
pores
Provide for collateral ventilation
Surrounded by pulmonary
capillaries
Divided by interalveolar septum
(c)
Dr. David Phillips/ Visuals Unlimited
15
Cell types of
the alveolar
wall
Erythrocyte
Simple squamous alveolar type I cells
Pulmonary
capillaries
95% of alveolar surface area

form part of the thin barrier separating air from
blood
moist environment makes prone to collapse (high
surface tension)
Alveolar
type I cell
Alveolar
type II cell
Alveolar type II cells (septal cells)
Alveolar
macrophages
almost cuboidal shaped

secrete pulmonary surfactant, an oily substance
coats inner alveolar surface
helps oppose the collapse of alveoli
Alveolar pores
Interalveolar
septum
Alveolar macrophage (dust cells)

(a)
leukocytes that engulf microorganisms

either fixed in alveolar wall or free to migrate
16
Characteristics of respiratory membrane

Thin barrier between alveoli and pulmonary
capillaries
Consists of:
Interalveolar
septum
alveolar epithelium and its basement membrane

capillary epithelium and its basement membrane
two basement membranes fused
Nucleus of capillary
Nucleus endothelial cell
of alveolar
Erythrocyte
type I cell
Capillary
Oxygen diffuses from alveolus into capillaries

erythrocytes become oxygenated
Diffusion of CO2
Carbon dioxide diffuses from blood to

alveolus
Diffusion of O2
expired to external environment
Alveolus
Respiratory
membrane
(b)
Alveolar epithelium
Fused basement membranes
of the alveolar epithelium and
the capillary endothelium
Capillary endothelium
17
RELATION OF THE LUNGS TO THE THORACIC WALL

The pleurae form a thin double-layered
serosa. The parietal pleura covers the
thoracic wall and superior face of the
diaphragm. The visceral pleura covers
the external surface of the lung.
The pleura produce fluid that remains in
the pleural cavity. This lubricates the lung
to prevent friction while breathing.
Pleural cavity
Parietal pleura
Visceral pleura
(Intrapleural Pressure)
Lung
Intrapulmonary
pressure
18
III. STRUCTURE/FUNCTION
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
Respiration
Lung Volumes & Capacities
Gas Properties
Breathing
Transport
19
III. Structure/Function
STEPS OF RESPIRATION
20
LUNG VOLUMES AND CAPACITIES
21
22
Pulmonary ventilation has two definitions:

process of moving air into and out of the lungs
amount of air moved between atmosphere and alveoli in one minute
Tidal volume = amount of air per breath

Respiration rate = number of breaths per minute
Tidal volume x respiration rate = pulmonary ventilation
500 mL x 12 breaths/min = 6 L/ minute (typical amount)
23
Anatomic dead space

Space in respiratory tract in the
conducting zone
No exchange of respiratory gases
here
About 150 mL
Alveolar ventilation
Amount of air reaching the alveoli
per minute
(Tidal volume anatomic dead
space) x respiratory rate =
alveolar ventilation
(500 mL 150 mL) x 12 = 4.2 L/min
Deep breathing maximizes
alveolar ventilation
24
Physiologic dead space

Normal anatomic dead space + any loss of alveoli
Some respiratory disorders decrease number of alveoli participating in gas
exchange
due to damage to alveoli or changes in respiratory membrane
(e.g., pneumonia)
Normally physiologic dead space = normal anatomic dead space
25
Boyles gas law:

Relationship of Volume and
Pressure
At a constant temperature, the
pressure (P) or a gas decreases if
the volume (V) of the container
increases, and vice versa
P1 and V1 represent the initial
conditions and P2 and V2 the
changed conditions
P1V1 = P2V2
Inverse relationship between gas
pressure and volume
Decreased
pressure
Increased
volume
Pressure decreases as
volume increases
(a) Boyles Law
Increased
pressure
Decreased
volume
Pressure increases as
volume decreases
26
Question
According to Boyle's law, the pressure exerted by a constant

number of gas molecules in a container is inversely
proportional to the volume of the container. Therefore,
increasing the volume of the container will cause a decrease in
its pressure.
A. True
B. False
27
Area A
Area A
Area A
Airflow
Area B
Pressure A = Pressure B
No net movement of air
(b) Pressure gradients
Decreased
pressure B
Volume B
Area B
Area B increases in volume and
decreases in pressure. Air
moves from area A into area B
Airflow
Increased
pressure B
Area B
Volume B
Area B decreases in volume and

increases in pressure. Air
moves from area B into area A
Flow (F) = Pressure/Resistance
28
HOW LUNGS REMAIN INFLATED
Anatomic arrangement
Outward pull of chest and inward pull of lungs with
consequent suction
Pressure in the pleural cavity = intrapleural pressure
Pressure inside the lungs = intrapulmonary pressure
Intrapulmonary pressure > intrapleural pressure
Difference in pressure keeps the lungs inflated
if pressures become equal, lungs deflate
29
IF Pip = Palv THE LUNGS WILL IMMEDIATELY COLLAPSE!
Atmosphere
Atmospheric
pressure
(760 mm Hg)
756 mm Hg
760 mm Hg
(c) Volumes and pressures with

breathing (at the end of an expiration)
Intrapleural pressure (Pip)

Fluctuates with breathing
Is always lower than the intrapulmonary
pressure to keep lungs inflated
Prior to inspiration, is about 4 mm lower than
intrapulmonary pressure (756 mm Hg)
Pleural cavity
(intrapleural pressure)
Alveolar volume of lungs
(intrapulmonary pressure)
Intrapulmonary pressure (Palv)
Fluctuates with breathing
May be higher, lower, or equal to
atmospheric pressure
Is equal to atmospheric pressure at
end of inspiration and expiration
30
Question
That the lung surface and the thoracic wall will move in and out
together, rather than separately, during ventilation is assured by
the
A.Diaphragm
B.Inhalatory/inspiratory intercostal muscles
C.Exhalatory/expiratory intercostal muscles
D.Intrapleural fluid
E.Alveoli
31
Pressure gradient
Airflow
Amount of air that moves into and out
of the lungs with each breath
Function of two factors:
1) the pressure gradient established
between atmospheric pressure and
intrapulmonary pressure
2) the resistance that occurs due to
conditions within the airways,
lungs, and chest wall
Can be changed by altering the volume of the

thoracic cavity
small volume changes during quiet respiration

allow 500 mL air to enter the lungs
if accessory muscles of forced inspiration are
used, volume increases more
airflow increases due to greater pressure
gradient
Resistance
Includes all factors that make it more
difficult to move air from the atmosphere
to the alveoli
May be altered in three ways:
1) decrease in elasticity of the chest wall
2) change in the bronchiole diameter or the size
of the passageway through which air moves
3) collapse of alveoli
32
VENTILATION AND LUNG MECHANICS
33
Quiet inspiration
1 Intrapulmonary pressure = atmospheric pressure
Quiet expiration
3
Intrapulmonary pressure = atmospheric pressure
atm =
760 mm Hg
atm =
760 mm Hg
756 mm Hg
(Intrapleural
pressure)
760 mm Hg
(Intrapulmonary
pressure)
754 mm Hg
(Intrapleural
pressure)
Diaphragm
2 Intrapulmonary pressure becomes less than

atmospheric pressure; air flows in
atm =
760 mm Hg
754 mm Hg
759 mm Hg
Air flows in
(~500 mL per quiet
breath)
Pleural cavity volume
increases
Intrapleural pressure
decreases
Alveolar volume
increases
Intrapulmonary
pressure decreases
760 mm Hg
4
Intrapulmonary pressure becomes greater than

atmospheric pressure; air flows out
atm =
760 mm Hg
756 mm Hg
761 mm Hg
Air flows out

(~500 mL per
quiet breath)
Pleural cavity volume
decreases
intrapleural pressure
increases
Alveolar volume
decreases
intrapulmonary
pressure increases
34
Inspiration
Expiration
Thoracic
cavity
Thoracic
cavity
Vertical
changes
Diaphragm contracts;
vertical dimensions of
thoracic cavity increase
Diaphragm relaxes;
vertical dimensions of
thoracic cavity narrow
Lateral
changes
Ribs are elevated and

thoracic cavity widens
Ribs are depressed and

thoracic cavity narrows
Anteriorposterior
changes
Inferior portion of
sternum moves anteriorly and
thoracic cavity expands
Inferior portion of
sternum moves posteriorly and
thoracic cavity compresses
35
CHANGES ASSOCIATED WITH QUIET BREATHING
36
Inspiration
Expiration
37
Sternocleidomastoid
Scalenes
Serratus posterior
superior
Pectoralis minor
Erector spinae
Transversus thoracis
External intercostal
Skeletal Muscles of
Breathing
Classified into three
categories:
muscles of quiet
breathing
muscles of forced
inspiration
muscles of forced
expiration
External
intercostal
Serratus posterior
inferior
Internal intercostal
Diaphragm
Diaphragm
External oblique
Transversus abdominis
Anterior view
Posterior view
Muscles of Breathing
Muscles of
quiet breathing
The diaphragm forms the rounded floor of the thoracic cavity and is dome-shaped when relaxed. It alternates between the relaxed
domed position and the contracted flattened position and changes the vertical dimensions of the thoracic cavity.
The external intercostals extend from a superior rib inferiomedially to the adjacent inferior rib. These elevate the ribs and increase the
transverse dimensions of the thoracic cavity.
Muscles of
forced inspiration
The sternocleidomastoid attaches to sternum and clavicle; lifts rib cage.

The scalenes attach to ribs 1 and 2; elevates ribs 1 and 2.
The pectoralis minor attaches to ribs 35; elevates ribs 35.
The serratus posterior superior attaches to ribs 25 on its anterior surface; lifts ribs 25.
The erector spinae is a group of deep muscles along the length of the vertebral column; extends the vertebral column.
Muscles of
forced expiration
The internal intercostals lie deep and at right angles to the external intercostals; depress the ribs and decrease the transverse
dimensions of the thoracic cavity.
The abdominal muscles (primarily the external obliques and transversus abdominis) compress the abdominal contents, forcing the
diaphragm into a higher domed position and the rectus abdominus pulls the sternum and rib cage inferiorly.
The transversus thoracis extends across the inner surface of the thoracic cage and attaches to ribs 26; depresses ribs 26 .
The serratus posterior inferior extends between the ligamentum nuchae and the lower border of ribs 912; depresses ribs 912.
38
Question
In an average-size subject with a resting breathing rate of 10

breaths per minute at sea level, what is the approximate alveolar
O2 ventilation in liters?
A.5.0
B.3.5
C.1.5
D.0.7
E.0.2
39
LUNG COMPLIANCE
Compliance can be considered the inverse of
stiffness.
The greater the lung compliance, the easier it
is to expand the lungs at any given change in
transpulmonary pressure.
There are two major determinants of lung
compliance:
1. The stretchability of the lung tissues
2. The surface tension at the air-water
interfaces within the alveoli
Surfactant lowers surface tension
40
Difference between Atmospheric & Alveolar:

air from the environment mixes with the air remaining
in the anatomic dead space
oxygen diffuses out of the alveoli into the blood; carbon
dioxide diffuses from the blood into the alveoli
more water vapor is present in the alveoli
Partial pressure
The pressure exerted by each gas

within a mixture of gases
Measured in mm Hg
Written with P followed by gas
symbol (i.e., PO2 )
Each gas moving independently
down its partial pressure gradient
during gas exchange
Atmospheric pressure
Total pressure all gases collectively

exerting in the environment
Includes nitrogen, oxygen, carbon
dioxide, water vapor, and minor
gases
760 mm Hg at sea level
41
Gas Solubility and Henrys Law

Henrys law
At a given temperature the solubility of a gas in liquid is dependent upon:
the partial pressure of the gas in the air
the solubility coefficient of the gas in the liquid
Partial pressure
The driving force to move a gas into a liquid
Determined by total pressure and percentage of gas in the mixture
E.g., carbon dioxide in soft drinks
CO2 forced into soda under high pressure
Solubility coefficient
The volume of gas that dissolves in a specified volume of liquid at a given temperature and pressure
A constant that depends upon the interactions between molecules of both gas and liquid
Gases vary in their solubility in water

Carbon dioxide about 24 times as soluble as oxygen
Carbon dioxide with greater solubility coefficient
Nitrogen about half as soluble as oxygen
42
Efficiency of Gas Exchange at the Respiratory Membrane

Efficiency of diffusion dependent upon certain features:
anatomic features of the respiratory membrane
large surface area (70 square meters)
minimal thickness (0.5 micrometers)
physiologic adjustments
some alveoli well ventilated at a given time, some not

some regions of lung with ample blood, some not
smooth muscles of bronchioles and arterioles able to contract to maximize
gas exchange
Ventilation-perfusion coupling
Ability of bronchioles to regulate airflow and arterioles to regulate blood flow
Ventilation
Altered by changes in bronchodilation and bronchoconstriction

Dilation in response to increase in PO2 or decrease in PCO2
Perfusion
Altered by changes in pulmonary arteriole dilation and constriction

Dilation in response to increased in PO2 or decrease in PCO2
43
Oxygen
Travels from the alveoli through pulmonary veins to left side of
heart
Travels to systemic circulation
Diffuses from systemic capillaries into systemic cells
The ability to transport oxygen is

dependent upon two factors:
solubility coefficient of oxygen in blood
presence of hemoglobin
Oxygens solubility coefficient is very low

Only small amounts are dissolved in plasma
98% of oxygen in the blood is transported within

erythrocytes
Oxygen is attached to iron within hemoglobin molecules
Oxygen bound to hemoglobin is oxyhemoglobin (HbO2)
Hemoglobin without bound oxygen is deoxyhemoglobin
(HHb)
44
Carbon dioxide
Travels from systemic cells within deoxygenated

blood
Travels through systemic circulation to right side
of heart
Diffuses from the pulmonary capillaries into the
alveoli
Carbon dioxide has three means of transport:

as carbon dioxide dissolved in plasma (7%)
as carbon dioxide attached to the globin portion of
hemoglobin (23%)
as bicarbonate dissolved in plasma (70%)
Transport as bicarbonate
Carbon dioxide diffuses into erythrocytes and

combines with water to form bicarbonate and
hydrogen ion
Bicarbonate diffuses into plasma
Carbon dioxide is regenerated when blood moves
through pulmonary capillaries and the process is
reversed
45
TRANSPORT OF HYDROGEN IONS BETWEEN TISSUES AND LUNGS
46
Question
Most of the CO2 that is transported in blood is

A.Dissolved in the plasma
B.Bound to hemoglobin
C.In carbonic acid
D.In bicarbonate ion
E.In carbonic anhydrase
47
Hemoglobin transports:
oxygen attached to iron (4/Hb)
carbon dioxide bound to the globin
hydrogen ions bound to the globin
Binding of one substance

causes a change in shape of
the hemoglobin molecule
Influences the ability of hemoglobin
to bind or release the other two
substances
48
What is the effect of pO2 on hemoglobin saturation?
The amount of oxygen bound to a hemoglobin

Expressed as the percent oxygen saturation of hemoglobin
Determined by several variables
PO2 the most important variable
Cooperative binding effect of oxygen
Saturation increases as PO2 increases
loading
Binding of each oxygen molecule causes a
conformational changemakes it progressively
easier for more oxygen to bind
Relationship between PO2 and hemoglobin

saturation
Graphed in the oxygen-hemoglobin
saturation curve
S-shaped, non linear relationship
Relatively large changes initially
At 60 mm Hg, oxygen 90% saturated
Higher than 60 mm Hg, relatively small
changes
49
Oxygen-Hemoglobin Saturation Curve

Oxygen released from hemoglobin while traveling through systemic
capillaries
75% saturation in systemic cells during rest (at sea level)
98% saturation as it leaves the lungs (at sea level)
Only 20-25% of oxygen transported by hemoglobin released
Oxygen reserve
Oxygen that remains bound to hemoglobin after passing through the systemic circulation
Provides a means for additional oxygen to be delivered under increased metabolic demands
Oxygen that remains bound to hemoglobin after passing through the systemic circulation
Provides a means for additional oxygen to be delivered under increased metabolic demands
Vigorous exercise produces a significant drop in PO2

Produces large decrease in hemoglobin saturation
More hemoglobin unloaded to tissues
50
IV. HOMEOSTASIS
i. Hemoglobin Saturation
ii. Ventilation-Perfusion Mismatch
iii. Hyperventilation
51
IV. Homeostasis
Question
During hyperventilation, what happens to the partial

pressures of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the alveoli
(compared to normal ventilation)?
A. Both increase
B. Both decrease
C. Oxygen partial pressure decreases and carbon dioxide partial
pressure increases
D. Oxygen partial pressure increases and carbon dioxide partial
pressure decreases
52
IV. Homeostasis
Temperature
EFFECTS ON HEMOGLOBIN SATURATION
Elevated temperature interferes with

hemoglobins ability to bind and hold
oxygen
Hydrogen ion binding to

hemoglobin
Hydrogen ion binds to hemoglobin
and causes a conformational change
This causes decreased affinity for O2
and oxygen release
called the Bohr effect
Presence of 2,3-BPG
Molecule binds to hemoglobin,
causing the release of additional
oxygen
Glycolytic pathway produces 2,3-BPG
Certain hormones stimulate
production
CO2 binding to hemoglobin

Binding causes release of more
oxygen from hemoglobin
53
IV. Homeostasis
MATCHING OF VENTILATION AND BLOOD FLOW IN ALVEOLI
54
IV. Homeostasis
Control of ventilation by pO2,

pCO2, and H+ concentration
Hyperventilation
Breathing rate or depth above the

bodys demand
Caused by anxiety, ascending to high
altitude, or voluntarily
pO2 levels up in the alveoli
CO2 levels down in the alveoli
Changes affect the blood
Additional oxygen does not enter the

blood because hemoglobin is 98%
saturated
Additional carbon dioxide leaves the
blood to enter the alveoli
Blood CO2 decreases

below normal levels
Termed hypocapnia
Hyperventilation may cause:

feeling faint or dizzy, numbness,
tingling, cramps, and tetany
if prolonged, disorientation, loss
of consciousness, coma, death
55
IV. Homeostasis
During exercise:
breathing depth increases while breathing rate remains the same
known as hyperpnea
blood PO2 and Blood PCO2 remain relatively the same

increased cardiac output occurs
the respiratory center is stimulated from one or more causes
sensory signals relayed in response to movement
motor output in the cerebral cortex relaying signals to the
respiratory center
conscious anticipation of participating in exercise
56
V. INTEGRATION
57
IV. Homeostasis
Question
Assume a normal female with a resting tidal volume of 400 ml,

respiratory rate of 13 breaths/min, and dead space of 125 ml. When she
exercises, which of the following scenarios would be most efficient for
increasing her oxygen delivery to the lungs?
A. Increase respiratory rate to 20 breaths/min but no change in tidal
volume
B. Increase tidal volume to 550 mL but no change in respiratory rate
C. Increase tidal volume to 500 mL and respiratory rate to 15 breaths/
min
58
V. Integration
HYPOXIA
Hypoxia is an inadequate oxygen delivery to tissues.

The pathophysiology of emphysema is a major cause of hypoxia.
1.
Anemic hypoxia: poor O2 delivery because of too few RBCs or abnormal

hemoglobin
2.
Ischemic hypoxia: blood circulation is impaired
3.
Histotoxic hypoxia: the bodys cells are unable to use O2 (cyanide causes
this)
4.
Hypoxemic hypoxia: reduced arterial O2

(can be caused by lack of oxygenated air, pulmonary problems, lack of
ventilation-perfusion coupling)
59
V. Integration
CARBON MONOXIDE POISONING
This is a type of hypoxemic hypoxia. It is the leading cause of death from fire.
CO is an odorless, colorless gas that competes with O2 for the binding sites on the
hemoglobin. It has a 200-times greater affinity for hemoglobin than O2 does.
The symptoms are confusion, respiratory distress, the skin becomes cherry red.
NO CYANOSIS is detectable.
To treat it, hyperbaric treatment or 100% oxygen is used.
60
V. Integration
Clinical Views: Pneumothorax and Atelectasis

Pneumothorax = free air in the pleural cavity
Air introduced externallypenetrating wound to the chest

Air introduced internallyrib lacerates lung or alveolus ruptures
May cause intrapleural and intrapulmonary pressures to equalize
Small pneumothorax resolves spontaneously
Large pneumothorax is a medical emergency
need to insert a tube into the pleural space to remove air
Atelectasis = deflated lung portion

Occurs if intrapleural and intrapulmonary pressures equalize
Remains collapsed until air removed from pleural space
61
V. Integration
ASTHMA
Asthma is a disease characterized by intermittent episodes in which airway smooth
muscle contracts strongly, markedly increasing airway resistance.
The basic defect in asthma is chronic inflammation of the airways, the causes of
which vary from person to person and include, among others; allergy, viral
infections, and sensitivity to environmental factors.
The underlying inflammation makes the airway smooth muscle hyperresponsive
and causes it to contract strongly in response to such things as exercise (especially
in cold, dry air), cigarette smoke, environmental pollutants, viruses, allergens,
normally released bronchoconstrictor chemicals, and a variety of other potential
triggers.
62
V. Integration
ASTHMA
The first aim of therapy for asthma is to reduce the chronic inflammation and
airway hyperresponsiveness with anti-inflammatory drugs, particularly
leukotriene inhibitors and inhaled glucocorticoids.
The second aim is to overcome acute excessive airway smooth muscle
contraction with bronchodilator drugs, which relax the airways.
For example, one class of bronchodilator drugs mimics the normal action of
epinephrine on beta-adrenergic (beta-2) receptors. Another class of inhaled
drugs block muscarinic cholinergic receptors, which have been implicated in
bronchoconstriction.
63
V. Integration
CHRONIC OBSTRUCTIVE PULMONARY DISEASE

The term chronic obstructive pulmonary disease refers to emphysema, chronic
bronchitis, or a combination of the two.
These diseases cause severe difficulties not only in ventilation, but in oxygenation of
the blood.
Emphysema is caused by destruction and collapse of the smaller airways.
Chronic bronchitis is characterized by excessive mucus production in the bronchi
and chronic inflammatory changes in the small airways. The cause of obstruction is
an accumulation of mucus in the airways and thickening of the inflamed airways.
64
V. Integration
Clinical View: Emphysema

Emphysema causes:
irreversible loss of pulmonary gas exchange surface area
inflammation of air passageways distal to terminal bronchioles
widespread destruction of pulmonary elastic connective tissue
dilation and decreased total number of alveoli
patients inability to expire effectively
65
V. Integration
Clinical View: Bronchitis

Inflammation of the bronchi, caused by bacterial or viral infection or inhaled
irritants
Acute bronchitis
Occurs during or after an infection
Coughing, sneezing, pain with inhalation, fever
Most cases resolving in 10-14 days
Chronic bronchitis
Occurs after long-term irritant exposure

Large amounts of mucus, and cough > 3 months
Permanent changes to bronchi occur
Increases likelihood of future bacterial infections
66

Lecture 7 - Respiratory

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Lecture 7 - Respiratory

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

CH.

Basic Functions of Respiratory System

Thoracic Cavity Membranes

III. STRUCTURE & FUNCTION

Biol340 - Mammalian Physiology

UNIT LEARNING OUTCOMES:

Biol340 - Mammalian Physiology

Biol340 - Mammalian Physiology

The main function of the respiratory system is to supply the body

Biol340 - Mammalian Physiology

Cells engage in aerobic cellular respiration

The respiratory system provides the means for gas exchange

Biol340 - Mammalian Physiology

Site for oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange

Defends against inhaled microbes

Biol340 - Mammalian Physiology

Rate and depth of breathing influences:

Biol340 - Mammalian Physiology

II. LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION

Thoracic Cavity Membranes

Biol340 - Mammalian Physiology

II. Levels of Organization

Biol340 - Mammalian Physiology

II. Levels of Organization

Biol340 - Mammalian Physiology

II. Levels of Organization

Tree continues to divide into

Leads to tubes of < 1mm, the

II. Levels of Organization

Biol340 - Mammalian Physiology

II. Levels of Organization

Respiratory bronchioles lined

facilitates gas exchange

Biol340 - Mammalian Physiology

II. Levels of Organization

contain elastic fibers: help the

Each lung containing 300-400

Dr. David Phillips/ Visuals Unlimited

II. Levels of Organization

Simple squamous alveolar type I cells

95% of alveolar surface area

Alveolar type II cells (septal cells)

almost cuboidal shaped

Alveolar macrophage (dust cells)

Biol340 - Mammalian Physiology

leukocytes that engulf microorganisms

II. Levels of Organization

Characteristics of respiratory membrane

alveolar epithelium and its basement membrane

Oxygen diffuses from alveolus into capillaries

Carbon dioxide diffuses from blood to

expired to external environment

Biol340 - Mammalian Physiology

II. Levels of Organization

RELATION OF THE LUNGS TO THE THORACIC WALL

Biol340 - Mammalian Physiology

Biol340 - Mammalian Physiology

LUNG VOLUMES AND CAPACITIES

Biol340 - Mammalian Physiology

Biol340 - Mammalian Physiology

Pulmonary ventilation has two definitions:

Tidal volume = amount of air per breath

Biol340 - Mammalian Physiology

Anatomic dead space