The Process of Making Soap from Oil.

Oils are fats in liquid form. Oils are large organic compounds formed by the reaction between fatty
acids and glycerol and can also be described as large ester molecule..
Fatty acids + Glycerol > Fats and water.
The fatty acids are acids with long hydrocarbon chains and may be saturated or unsaturated.
Examples of fatty acids are oleic acid, palmitic acid and stearic acid.
Soaps are produced by boiling concentrated alkalis such as sodium hydroxide (lye) with various fats.
The fatty acid in fat will react with sodium hydroxide to produce an organic salt which is soap.
Lye (Sodium Hydroxide) + Fat ( Fatty acid + Glycerol ) > Soap (salt) + Glycerol

Lye is a corrosive alkaline substance, commonly sodium hydroxide (NaOH, also known as caustic
soda)
Soap is the result of a chemical reaction between oil or fat and lye called the saponification process.
The saponification process is defined as the reaction of combining a base (fat) with an alkali (sodium
hydroxide) to produce a salt (soap) and a free alcohol (glycerine). The goal of the process is to create
soap with no leftover fat or lye.
The oil or fat used in the soap making process may be either animal or vegetable. Animal fats that are
used include tallow and lard. Vegetable oils used either alone or in combination include avocado oil,
coconut oil, castor oil, olive oil, palm oil, soybean oil, vegetable oil and numerous others. Each type of
fat has its own saponification value. The saponification value determines the amount of lye needed to
turn the fat to soap.
As boiling of fat and sodium hydroxide takes place, common salt (sodium chloride) is added to make
the soap solidify and float on the surface of of the solution. The soap can be added with dyes and
perfumes to make the soap look and smell better. The soap can then be separated from the solution
through filtration. The type of soap produced depends on the type of oil and alkali used.

Homemade lye soap

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Posted by perawatsiber on 05/11/2012 in Chapter 4 - Carbon Compounds, Sains Ting 5 (Form 5) - SPM

The Uses of Palm Oil

04NOV
There are wide range of processed palm oil products nowadays. About 80% of all oil palm products
are used for food applications, while the other 20% is used for non-food applications.
Edible uses of palm oil include:
The composition of palm oil, together with its natural consistency, appearance, pleasant smell and its
resistant nature makes it an ideal ingredient in the development and production of a variety of edible
oils, in particular margarines and fats. Palm oil is also ideal when making the following products: dry
cake mix used for baking biscuits, cakes and sponge cakes, soaps, sauces, fat substitutes used when
making condensed milk, powdered milk, non lacteous cream used in coffee and ice-cream.

Palm oil is also considered one of the best oils for frying. This is because it can resist high
temperatures and does not produce unpleasant smells.Palm oil as such is used in the home, in
restaurants and during the mass production of fried potatoes, French fries, puffy hordourves, pies,
ring-shaped pastries and doughnuts.

Non-edible uses of palm oil include:

Soaps and detergents
Candles
Cosmetics
Lubricating greases for machinery used in the production of edible foods
Grease for bread molds and bread making equipment
Glue
Printing inks
Biodiesel
Acids to lubricate fibers in the textile industry
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Posted by perawatsiber on 04/11/2012 in Chapter 4 - Carbon Compounds, Sains Ting 5 (Form 5) - SPM

Palm Oil : Great Vegetable Oil for Better Health

04NOV

Palm oil is extracted from the oil palm fruits. An oil palm fruit consists of three main parts, namely the
mesocarp, shell and kernel.

Palm oil is more than just your every day vegetable oil. Its packed with nutrients that contribute to
your daily energy needs. Palm oil provides a valuable source of beta carotene and vitamin E. Studies
have found that tocopherols and tocotrienols, which are isomers of vitamin E found in palm oil, are
antioxidants and may be associated with more favorable cholesterol profiles, and lower risk of heart
disease and some types of cancer.

A member of the vegetable oil family, palm fruit oil is cholesterol free and it supplies our bodies with
some basic daily energy needs.Palm fruit oil contains a variety of fats, vitamins and nutrients, but NO
trans-fatty acids. Trans-fatty acids are found pre-dominantly in hydrogenated oils. Several recent

studies have implicated trans-fatty acids in increasing the risk of cancer, interfering with fat
metabolism, enhancing fatty deposits in the arteries, and reducing the bodys ability to rid itself of
carcinogens, drugs and other toxins.

Palm fruit oil is made up of a mixture of fatty acids and contains valuable vitamins and nutrition that
our bodies need. Human studies have shown that a palm oil-enriched diet does not raise the level of
LDL or total cholesterol, and may even lead to lower plasma levels of LDL, the plasma cholesterol
most commonly linked to heart disease. The majority of palm oils use in foods in the baking of
cookies and crackers, for example- is in a non-hydrogenated form.
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Posted by perawatsiber on 04/11/2012 in Chapter 4 - Carbon Compounds, Sains Ting 5 (Form 5) - SPM

Understanding The Effects of Unsaturated and

Saturated Fats on Health
31OCT
The fat in foods contains a mixture of saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids. In
foods of animal origin, a large proportion of fatty acids are saturated. In contrast, in foods of plant
origin and some seafood, a large proportion of the fatty acids are monounsaturated and
polyunsaturated.

Fats are a source of energy. If we take in more food than we need, the excess nutrient will be stored
as body fat. Triglycerides are the main form of fat in our bodies and in our diets. They provide us with
energy, insulation, and protect our internal organs from damage. They also enable our bodies to
metabolize proteins and carbohydrates more efficiently. Despite the many benefits triglycerides have,
too much in our blood circulation can cause major health problems.
Obesity is a medical condition in which excess body fat has accumulated to the extent that it may
have an adverse effect on health. Obesity will lead to diseases such as heart disease, diabetes
mellitus and strokes. Saturated fats are linked to raised cholesterol levels, particularly the bad
cholesterol.
Cholesterol is a kind of fat needed for producing cell membranes and hormones. There are two types
of cholesterol, Low density lipoprotein (LDL) and High density lipoprotein (HDL). LDL is considered
thebad cholesterol which causes health problem, while HDL is the good cholesterol.
The bad cholesterol in the blood can cause furring up of arteries ( arteriosclerosis). This will narrow
down the passage through which blood flows and thus increases the blood pressure which leads to
heart attacks and strokes.
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Posted by perawatsiber on 31/10/2012 in Chapter 4 - Carbon Compounds, Sains Ting 5 (Form 5) - SPM

Fats and Their Effects on Health

30OCT
Fat is an essential food class which originate from either plants or animals. Examples of fats originate
from plants are palm oil, coconut oil, peanut oil, corn oil and olive oil.

Examples of fats originate from animals are butter and ghee.

Butter

Ghee

Fats are organics compounds made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.Fats can be classified into
two types, namely saturated fats and unsaturated fats.
Saturated fats are found in animal products and processed foods, such as meats, dairy products,
chips, and pastries. The chemical structure of a saturated fat is fully saturated with hydrogen atoms,
and does not contain double bonds between carbon atoms. most saturated fats are solids at room
temperature because they have higher melting points.
Unsaturated fat is a fat or fatty acid in which there is at least one double bond within the fatty acid
chain. Most plant fats are unsaturated fats.The fatty acid with a single double bond is called mono
unsaturated fatty acid (e.g. oleic acid), and if it has multiple double bonds, its polyunsaturated (e.g.
linoleic acid). Unsaturated fats are liquids at room temperature due to their lower melting points. Fats
liquid form are called oils.
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Posted by perawatsiber on 30/10/2012 in Chapter 4 - Carbon Compounds, Sains Ting 5 (Form 5) - SPM

The Effects of Alcohol on Health

30OCT
Alcohol in alcoholic drinks can affect the functioning of the brain and the nervous system. Alcohol
slows down the transmission of impulses between the brain cells, causing impaired judgement and
poor balance.

Alcohol comes into direct contact with the mouth, throat, esophagus, abdomen and intestines as well
as being absorbed into the bloodstream. Well being issues can start as headaches, feeling
nauseated, sore throat or indigestion. Nonetheless, if alcohol abuse continues, these and different
alcohol and well being symptoms can turn into extra severe sicknesses and diseases.

Alcohol effect on body health involved many organs in the body, lengthy-term heavy ingesting places
you at risk for creating severe health circumstances and illnesses. Listed here are examples of long
run effects of alcohol on the physique:
Liver Irritation and Cirrhosis of the Liver liver irritation signs embody irregular yellowing of the skin,
eyeballs and urine, fever and belly pain. And in the case of cirrhosis, as many as one in 5 heavy
drinkers will develop cirrhosis of the liver. Alcohol is especially dangerous to the liver since the liver is
needed to metabolize alcohol. Alcohol destroys liver cells, and it destroys the power of the liver to
regenerate new cells.

Drinking alcohol any time during pregnancy can affect the baby. Every time a pregnant woman drinks,
her fetus is exposed to alcohol. When she drinks, alcohol passes from the mothers blood through the
placenta to her baby. Since, alcohol crosses the placental barrier it can directly interfere with her
babys development. Drinking alcohol during pregnancy can seriously affect the babys development.
It results in irreversible damage during the babys development.

Drinking alcohol can also lead to spontaneous abortion and other pregnancy complications. The baby
could develop a group of problems known as fetal alcohol syndrome(FAS). FAS leads to mental
retardation, birth defects and developmental impairment.

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Posted by perawatsiber on 30/10/2012 in Chapter 4 - Carbon Compounds, Sains Ting 5 (Form 5) - SPM

Uses of Alcohol
29OCT
Alcohol is one of the organic compounds which has many uses in our daily life.
a) Alcohol is widely used as solvent in making medicines. Alcohol such as ethanol is used as an
antiseptics where iodine is dissolved in ethanol to produced iodine solution. Iodine solution is used as
antiseptics on wounds.

b) Alcohol is used as a solvent for cosmetics substances, perfumes, ink, shaving lotion, skin
conditioners, etc.

c) Alcohol is used to make chemical substances such as formalin, esters, and paints.Methanol is an
example where alcohol is used in the making of methyl metacrylate. The methyl metacrylate monomer
is used to make Perspex ( glass plastic).

d) Alcohol can be used as fuel.

e) Alcohol by product such as ester is widely used to manufacture artificial food flavourings. Esters
like
i) Pentyl pentanoate tastes of apple
ii) Methyl butanoate tastes of pineapple
iii) pentyl ethanoate tastes of banana
f) Ethanol is used to make alcoholic drinks
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Posted by perawatsiber on 29/10/2012 in Chapter 4 - Carbon Compounds, Sains Ting 5 (Form 5) - SPM

Characteristics of Alcohol
29OCT

Physical characteristics of Alcohol

a) It is a colourless, volatile liquid which means it changes into vapour easily at room temperature.
b) It has a sweet smell.
c) It is soluble in water and organic solvents such as ether, chloroform and benzene. Ethanol and
water are
also miscible; it mixes with water to form a homogenous solution in all proportions.
d) It is neutral
e) It has low melting point and low boiling point.
Chemical characteristics of Alcohol

a) It burns in air with a blue flame, The burning of alcohol produces

water and carbon dioxide. The combustion of alcohol in oxygen is an
exothermic reaction, Hence , alcohol can be used as fuels in
vehicles.
b) Alcohol reacts with organics acids to produce esters through
esterification reaction. This reaction needs a little concentrated
sulphuric acid to act as an enzyme.
Alcohol + Organic Acid > Ester + water
The ester formed is colourless liquid which does not dissolve in water. It will float on the surface of the
water. Various esters can be produced by reacting alcohols with different organic acids.

Esters are sweet-smelling and volatile, thus they are widely used in food flavouring, fragrances and
cosmetics.
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Posted by perawatsiber on 29/10/2012 in Chapter 4 - Carbon Compounds, Sains Ting 5 (Form 5) - SPM

Alcohol
29OCT

Alcohols are organic compounds that contain carbon, oxygen and hydrogen. Each of them has an
-OH functional group that gives it its special properties, for example ethanol,

Ethanol is the best known alcohol and is the only alcohol that can be used in making alcoholics drinks.

The other alcohols are far more poisonous than ethanol. Methanol is broken down in the body to the
highly poisonous formaldehyde, which cause blindness or death.
The production of ethanol
Ethanol is commercially produced using a process called fermentation. Many other alcohols can be
made this way, but are more likely to be produced by synthetic routes from natural gas, oil or coal.
Fermentation is the process in which yeast breaks down sugar into alcohol and carbon dioxide. Yeast
are tiny single-celled fungi that contain special enzymes responsible for this reaction.
The word equation for this process is:
Glucose + yeast > alcohol + carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide gas bubbles out of the fermenting solution into the air leaving a mixture of ethanol and
water.
Starchy foods such as malt, rice, barley and potatoes can be converted into ethanol through
fermentation process.
The alcohol obtained through fermentation is purified by distillation.

This process is made possible because there is a difference between the boiling point of ethanol and
water.
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Posted by perawatsiber on 29/10/2012 in Chapter 4 - Carbon Compounds, Sains Ting 5 (Form 5) - SPM

Hydrocarbons
24OCT
Hydrocarbons are organics compounds which consist of only carbon and hydrogen elements.
Common sources of hydrocarbons are natural gas, petroleum and coal. They are called fossil fuels.
Fossil fuels originated from living things which died and were buried underground for hundreds of
millions of years ago.

As plants and animals died, their remains settled on the ground on land and in swamps, lakes, and
seas. Over time, layer upon layer of these remains accumulated. Eventually, the layers were buried so
deeply that they were crushed by an enormous mass of earth. The weight of this earth pressing down
on these plant and animal remains created intense heat and pressure. After millions of years of heat
and pressure, the material in these layers turned into chemicals called hydrocarbons.

Hydrocarbons can be solid, liquid, or gaseous. The solid form is what we know as coal. The liquid
form is petroleum, or crude oil. Natural gas is the gaseous form.

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Posted by perawatsiber on 24/10/2012 in Chapter 4 - Carbon Compounds, Sains Ting 5 (Form 5) - SPM

Carbon Compounds
24OCT
Carbon compounds are compounds made up of carbon and one or more other elements such as
hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. All living things are made of carbon compounds. There are two types
of carbon compounds, namely organic compounds and inorganic compounds.
Organics compounds are carbon compounds obtained from living sources such as plants and
animals. Examples of organic compounds are sugars, fats, proteins and fossil fuels. When heated ,
most organic compounds burn and give out heat energy. for example, fossil fuels such as petrol

combine with oxygen chemically during combustion to produce a large amount of heat energy.
Organic compounds normally do not contain metallic elements.

Inorganic compounds are carbon compounds obtained from non-living origins. Oxides of carbon such
as carbon dioxide and carbonates such as calcium carbonate are good samples of inorganic
compounds. Inorganic compounds are found naturally in the air, water or soil. Other than carbon and
oxygen , metallic elements are also present in most inorganic compounds.

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Posted by perawatsiber on 24/10/2012 in Chapter 4 - Carbon Compounds, Sains Ting 5 (Form 5) - SPM

Cleansing Action Of Soap

24JUN
The cleansing ability of soap is related to its structure. Each soap molecule has two component parts,
that is long hydrocarbon chain and the ionic end.

Soaps (once dissociated in water) consists of:

a hydrophobic (water-repelling), non-polar alkyl (hydrocarbon) tail that can interact with dispersion
forces with oils. A polar, negatively charged, hydrophilic (water-loving) carboxylate head that can form
ion-dipole and dipole-dipole interactions with water, as well as hydrogen bonds.

Both soap and detergent molecules consist of long hydrocarbon chains with one end being polar (that
is, with an apparant charge) that causes the end of the molecule to be attracted to water molecules
(which are also polar). Its that polar end on the soap molecule that makes it soluble in water. The
hydrocarbon chain isnt soluble in water, and so when soap dissolves in water it forms microscopically
tiny balls called miscelles.

When a greasy stain is added to a soap-water mixture, the long hydrocarbon chain tails of the soap
start to dissolve in the stain. The charged heads remain at the surface of the grease, interacting with
the water molecules. These interactions are sue to the fact that like dissolves like.

Cleansing action of soap

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Posted by perawatsiber on 24/06/2011 in Chapter 4 - Carbon Compounds, Sains Ting 5 (Form 5) - SPM