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Mechanical properties of concrete at high temperature were reviewed.
Physical and chemical changes of concrete at high temperature were reviewed.
Factors affecting thermally mechanical properties of concrete were reviewed.
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 9 October 2014
Received in revised form 11 May 2015
Accepted 14 May 2015
Keywords:
Concrete
High temperature
Mechanical properties
a b s t r a c t
High temperature is well known for seriously damaging concrete micro- and meso-structure, which
brings in a generalised mechanical decay of the concrete and even detrimental effects at the structural
level, due to concrete spalling and bar exposure to the ames, in case of re. Because of the relevance
of concrete behaviour at high temperature and in re, many studies have been carried out, even very
recently, on cementitious composites at high temperature, and the most relevant parameters have been
identied and investigated. Within this framework, the authors provide a comprehensive and updated
report on the temperature dependency of such parameters as the compressive strength, modulus of elasticity, strength in indirect tension (bending and splitting tests), stressstrain curves and spalling, but the
roles played by the waterbinder ratio (w/b), aggregate type, supplementary cementitious materials
(SCMs) and bres are investigated as well. Among the objectives of the paper, the approaches currently
adopted to improve concrete mechanical properties at high temperature are treated as well. Meanwhile,
the inuence of test modalities on the mechanical properties of concrete at high temperature is also discussed in the paper.
2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Contents
1.
2.
3.
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Mechanical properties of concrete at high temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1.
Compressive strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.
Flexural strength, splitting tensile strength and modulus of elasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.
Stressstrain relationship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.
Physical and chemical changes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.1.
Water evaporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.2.
Hydration products. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.3.
Pore structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.4.
Microstructure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.5.
Aggregates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5.
Spalling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Factors influencing the performance of concrete subjected to high temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.
w/b and moisture content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.
Type of aggregate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.
SCMs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
372
372
372
372
372
373
373
373
373
373
374
374
375
375
375
377
372
4.
5.
3.4.
Fibres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Influence of test modalities on the mechanical properties of concrete at high temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.
Hot and residual tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.
Stressed and unstressed tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3.
Uni-axial and multi-axial tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4.
Specimen size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. Introduction
1.6
1.4
1.2
fcu/fcu,20
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0
200
400
600
800
Temperature ( C)
1000
1200
1.2
1
0.8
ff,T / ff,20
378
379
379
379
380
380
380
381
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
Temperature (
(1) Room temperature300 C, compressive strength of concrete keeps constant or even increases slightly.
1.4
1.2
ft,T / ft,20
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0
200
400
600
Temperature (
800
1000
1200
1.2
1
0.8
ET / E20
373
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0
200
400
600
Temperature (
800
1000
strain curves become atter, and the peak stress shifts downwards
and rightwards, as shown in Fig. 5. These indicate that the peak
stress and the modulus of elasticity of concrete decrease with the
increase of temperature, but the strain at peak stress increases
with temperature.
2.4. Physical and chemical changes
With the elevation of temperature, concrete would experience
the following physical and chemical changes and these changes
374
Temperature
Temperature
Pore pressure
Pore pressure
Temperature
Pore pressure
Pore pressure
2.4.5. Aggregates
At around 573 C, siliceous aggregates transform from a-phase
to b-phase causing expansion of concrete [81,83]. Disintegration
of calcareous aggregates, such as limestone, occurs at a temperature above 600 C [101].
6
Maximum pore pressure (MPa)
2.5. Spalling
Spalling may occur for concrete at high temperature, which will
greatly reduce mechanical properties of concrete structure and
even cause collapse of the structure [103]. The mechanisms of spalling of concrete at high temperature could be mainly explained
from vapour pressure in pores and thermal stresses these two
aspects [103].
Hardened concrete is saturated with water in its pores at different extents. The moisture content in concrete is dependent on w/b,
age of concrete and environment. When concrete surface is subjected to sufciently high temperature, a portion of water will be
vaporised and move out from concrete into atmosphere. There is
also certain amount of water will be vaporised and move opposite
to the inner part of concrete. Due to thermal gradient, the inner
part of concrete is cooler and the vapour there will be condensed.
With the accumulation of the condensed water, a saturated layer is
gradually formed. This layer will resist the further movement of
vapour into the inner of concrete, but move towards the dry region
of the concrete surface with an attempt to escape out of concrete
into atmosphere. If the pore structure of the concrete is sufciently
dense and/or the heating rate is sufciently high, the escape of the
vapour layer would be not fast enough, resulting in a large increase
of pore pressure in the concrete. If the tensile stress of concrete
could not resist the pore pressure, spalling of concrete would occur
[104]. Fig. 7 illustrates the whole process of the thermal spalling of
concrete as a result of the pore vapour pressure.
Ref. [106]
Ref. [107]
Ref. [108]
4
3
2
1
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
Distance from the heated surface (mm)
60
Fig. 8. Pore pressure in concrete at high temperature (radiant heating to 600 C).
Tensile
stress
Compressive
stress
Temperature
Compressive
stress
Tensile stress
375
w/b concrete (w/b = 0.28, 0.35). Phan et al. [10] found that compared to the concrete with w/b of 0.22, the losses of both compressive strength and modulus of elasticity were higher for the
concrete with w/b of 0.57. Similar results have been found for concrete containing slag [86,110], y ash [86,111] and metakaolin
[111] when w/b ranged from 0.3 to 0.5 [86,111] and from 0.23 to
0.71 [110]. Lightweight concrete also gave similar results when different w/b of 0.43 and 0.46 was studied [27].
However, a lower w/b is prone to cause spalling of concrete at
high temperature. As reported by Phan et al. [10], spalling occurred
for the concrete with w/b of 0.22 when temperature was elevated
to 450 C, while the concrete with w/b of 0.33 was still intact at the
same temperature. As discussed in the previous section, spalling
occurs when pore vapour pressure in concrete accumulates to a
certain extent. It is considered that such an accumulation would
become faster when the pore structure is denser, which could be
caused by using a lower w/b. That is why spalling of concrete is
easy to occur at high temperature when a lower w/b is used.
Despite of w/b at the beginning of concrete mixing, spalling is also
much dependent on the moisture content of concrete at the time of
its exposure to high temperature. Fig. 10 gives an example of spalling of concrete at different moisture contents. It is clear to see that
the possibility and the extent of spalling increase with moisture
content of concrete as a result of the increased pore vapour
pressure.
3.2. Type of aggregate
strength concrete is exposed to high temperature, the vapour generated is not easy to escape out from the concrete, therefore resulting in the larger maximum pore pressure. Fig. 7 also simulates the
development of pore pressure in the concrete at high temperature,
and which is corresponded to the steps of the pore vapour pressure
induced spalling of concrete.
Simultaneously, thermal gradient will also be formed between
the heated surface and the inner part of concrete when the concrete is subjected to high temperature. This is particularly true
when temperature increases very fast, which is always named as
thermal shock. With temperature increases faster at the surface
of concrete, compressive stress is generated parallel to the heated
concrete surface, while tensile stress is generated in the inner concrete in a perpendicular direction. When the compressive stress
exceeds the tensile stress, spalling of concrete occurs [109], as
shown in Fig. 9.
Both the above two causes would result in cracking of concrete
at high temperature. Besides, the cracking of concrete at high temperature would also be caused by the decomposition of hydration
product, shrinkage of cement matrix and expansion of aggregates.
The different thermal response between cement matrix and aggregates is also considered to distribute cracks in the ITZ between the
two phases, damaging concrete meso-structure. Finally, all the
causes mentioned above make the spalling of concrete at high temperature to occur in the models of aggregate spalling, surface spalling, corner spalling and explosive spalling [103].
376
Fig. 10. Relationship between moisture content and possibility and extent of spalling.
1.8
1.2
1.6
1.4
ff,T/ff,20
fcu,T/fcu,20
1.2
1
0.8
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.2
0
0
200
dolomite
gravel
regression for limestone
regression for basalt
400
600
800
Temperature (C)
limestone
basalt
regression for granite
1000
1200
1400
granite
regression for dolomite
regression for gravel
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
Temperature (C)
dolomite
limestone
granite
gravel
basalt
regression for dolomite
regression for limestone
regression for granite
regression for gravel
regression for basalt
1.4
1.2
ft,T/ft,20
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0
200
400
600
800
Temperature (C)
limestone
gravel
regression for limestone
regression for gravel
1000
1200
1400
granite
basalt
regression for granite
regression for basalt
1.2
MT/M20
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
Temperature (C)
dolomite
limestone
granite
gravel
regression for dolomite
regression for limestone
regression for granite
regression ofr gravel
377
378
Table 1
Summary of the researches carried out on the effect of SCMs on the residual mechanical properties of concrete.
PFA
Slag
SF
Refs.
Type of specimen
Replacement (%)
[11]
[17]
[18]
[80]
[86]
[97]
[119]
[120]
[121]
[122]
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
25, 55
10, 30
30
25, 35, 45
20, 30, 40
20, 40, 60
10, 20, 30
30
5, 10, 15, 20
25, 55
20,
20,
20,
20,
20,
20,
20,
20,
20,
20,
250,
100,
100,
400,
200,
300,
200,
100,
150,
200,
450,
300,
200,
700
400,
600,
400,
300,
300,
400,
650, 800
600, 750
400, 600
fcu
fcu,
fcu,
fcu,
fcu
fcu,
fcu,
fcu
fcu
ft
[38]
[63]
[86]
[110]
[120]
[123]
[124]
[125]
[63]
[126]
[127]
Concrete
Concrete
Concrete with granite
Paste
Concrete with limestone
Pumice mortar
Paste
Mortar
Concrete
Concrete with limestone
Concrete
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
10, 30, 50
20, 40, 60
30, 40
5, 10, 20, 50, 80
30
20, 40, 60, 80
35, 50, 65
20, 50, 80
20, 40, 60
30, 40, 50
30, 40, 50
20,
20,
20,
20,
20,
20,
20,
20,
20,
20,
20,
150,
100,
200,
105,
100,
300,
100,
150,
100,
400
400
300,
200,
400,
200,
300,
600,
200,
300,
200,
400,
350
600,
440,
450,
900
300,
600,
350
[10]
[27]
[32]
[61]
[80]
[86]
[91]
[121]
[128]
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
10
5, 10
10
10
2.5, 5, 7.5
5, 10
5, 10, 15, 20
5, 10, 15, 20
6, 10
20,
20,
20,
20,
20,
20,
20,
20,
20,
100,
100,
100,
100,
400,
200,
250,
150,
100,
200,
400,
200,
200,
700
400,
450,
300,
200,
300,
800,
300,
300,
600,
900
800
450,
450,
600,
800
600
600, 750
800
500, 600, 700
800
580, 800, 1050
600
400, 500, 600, 700, 800
900
450
1000
600
600
600, 800
600
450, 600, 750
300, 600
fcu,
fcu,
fcu
fcu,
fcu
fcu,
fcu
fcu,
fcu
ft
ff
E
E
ff
ff
ft
E
ft, E
E
ff
ft
fcu, E
fcu
fcu
ft
fcu, ff
fcu
fcu
fcu
fcu
Note: fcu, compressive strength; E, modulus of elasticity; ft, splitting tensile strength; ff, exural strength.
temperature, the left pores radiate out to form microcracks, connecting the existing capillary pores to provide channels for the
escaping of water vapour. Consequently, it is found that the
polypropylene bre reinforced concrete has much better resistance
to thermal spalling compared to the concrete without bre
[47,52,60,130133]. This is particularly true for high performance
concrete as water vapour is more difcult to escape in a denser
matrix. An optimum dosage of polypropylene bre around 0.1
0.5% by volume of mix is recommended for concrete to obtain a
proper high temperature resistance [134136], and it is found that
the resistance of polypropylene bre reinforced concrete to high
temperature increases with the increase of the length of the bre
[131].
The addition of steel bre can generally improve the residual
mechanical properties of concrete at high temperature when compressive strength, exural strength and splitting tensile strength
are considered. The improvement in the residual modulus of elasticity is not clearly observed. The reason for such improvements
could be attributed to the fact that the testing temperatures are
not high enough to allow steel bre to be melted so that its ductility could effectively contribute to concrete resisting the failure
under tension during the whole test period. Furthermore, steel
bre has higher thermal conductivity than cement matrix and
aggregates. Consequently, heat can transmit more uniformly in
the concrete reinforced with steel bre to reduce the cracks caused
by thermal gradient in concrete, improving the performance of
concrete under both compression and tension [55,57,136]. Also
due to the reduced thermal gradient, the steel bre reinforced concrete shows resistance to thermal spalling [49,137]. However, the
resistance to spalling provided by steel bre is weaker than that
provided by polypropylene bre, which may indicate that water
vapour is the primary reason to cause spalling of concrete at high
temperature [57].
379
PP bre
Steel bre
Refs.
Dimension of bre
Replacement (% by volume)
[43]
[45]
[47]
[48]
[51]
[53]
[55]
[57]
[63]
[67]
[126]
[127]
[128]
[129]
[130]
[131]
[132]
[133]
[134]
L: 19 mm; D: 45 lm
L: 12 mm; D: 18 lm
N/A
L: 19 mm
L: 19 mm; D: 35 lm
L: 15 mm; D: 100 lm
L: 6 mm, 30 mm; D: 60 lm
L: 12 mm
L: 19 mm; D: 53 lm
L: 30 mm
L: 12 mm; D: 18 lm
L: 13 mm; D: 20 lm
L: 3, 6, 12, 19, 30 mm; D: 40 lm
L: 15 mm; D: 100 lm
L: 20 mm; D: 20 lm
L: 12 mm; D: 50 lm
L: 6 mm; D: 18 lm
L: 15 mm; D: 45 lm
L: 19 mm; D: 45 lm
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
20, 200,
20, 200,
20, 200,
20, 200,
20, 200,
20, 200,
20, 200,
20, 100,
20, 600,
20, 100,
20, 100,
ISO 834
ISO 834
20, 200,
20, 200,
20, 600,
20, 200,
20, 100,
20, 200,
400,
400,
300,
300,
400,
400,
400
200,
800
300,
450,
600,
600,
400,
400,
600,
600,
ff
ft, ff
ft
ft, ff
ff
ft
ft, E
ft
E
400,
400,
900
400,
200,
300,
600
600, 800
fcu,
fcu,
fcu,
fcu,
fcu,
fcu,
fcu,
fcu,
fcu,
fcu
fcu,
fcu,
fcu
fcu
fcu,
fcu,
fcu
fcu,
fcu,
[44]
[45]
[51]
[53]
[55]
[56]
[58]
[63]
[67]
[132]
[135]
[136]
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0,
0.5, 1
0.6
0.4
0.6
0.25, 0.5
1
0.5, 1, 1.5, 2
1
0.5
1
1
2
20,
20,
20,
20,
20,
20,
20,
20,
20,
20,
20,
20,
500
400,
400,
400,
400
600,
500,
800
300,
900
400,
500,
fcu,
fcu,
fcu,
fcu,
fcu,
fcu,
fcu,
fcu
fcu
fcu,
ft
fcu,
E
ft, ff
ff
ft
ft, E
ft
ft
150,
200,
200,
200,
200,
400,
300,
600,
100,
600,
200,
350,
800
800
800
600, 800
800
800
300, 600
500, 700
650
600
300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900
400, 500, 600, 700, 800, 900
600, 800
600, 800
600, 800
800
800
500, 700
600, 800
600, 700
ff
E
ft
ff, E
ff
ft, ff
ff, E
ft
Note: fcu, compressive strength; E, modulus of elasticity; ft, splitting tensile strength; ff, exural strength.
380
5. Conclusion
Deterioration of mechanical properties of concrete occurs at
high temperature.
During the high temperature exposure, concrete experiences a
series of physical and chemical changes, such as water evaporation, disintegrations of hydration products and aggregates,
coarsening of microstructure and increase of porosity. These
changes are considered to be responsible for the deterioration
of mechanical properties of concrete at high temperature.
Spalling may occur for concrete at high temperature. Water
vapour pressure and thermal stress at high temperature may
induce the spalling.
The residual compressive strength and modulus of elasticity of
the concrete with lower w/b are higher than the concrete with
higher w/b. A lower w/b at the beginning of mixing and/or a
higher moisture content at the time when concrete is exposed
to high temperature is prone to induce spalling of concrete at
high temperature as a result of high vapour pressure.
Calcareous aggregates provide greater high temperature resistance to concrete compared to siliceous aggregates.
Lightweight concretes have a high resistance to heat due to
the natural characteristics of lightweight aggregates. However,
the pre-saturation regime of lightweight aggregates which is
usually used in practice would induce spalling of lightweight
concretes at high temperature.
The addition of PFA and slag in concrete could increase its resistance to high temperature, while the addition of SF would
reduce such resistance.
Polypropylene bre generally has no signicant inuence on the
improvements of residual compressive strength and modulus of
elasticity for concrete after heating to high temperature. Its
improvement on residual splitting tensile strength and exural
strength would be greatly lost after around 400 C. However,
polypropylene reinforced concrete has great resistance to spalling due to the release of vapour pressure.
Steel bre could generally improve the residual mechanical
properties of concrete after heating to high temperature. It
could also increase the resistance of concrete to spalling, but
the extent of such increase is less than that provided by
polypropylene bre.
When temperature is below 400 C, the compressive strength of
concretes tested at hot state is lower than the one tested after
the heating. 400 C afterwards, the residual compressive
strength is lower than the one tested at hot condition. The
residual bending strength of concretes is higher than the one
tested at hot state.
The compressive strength of concretes at high temperature
tested under stressed state is higher than the one tested under
unstressed state.
Compared to uni-axial test, bi-axial and tri-axial tests bring
more serious damage for concretes at high temperature.
When the difference of specimen size is signicant enough, the
specimens with smaller size exhibits higher residual compressive strength than the larger specimens at high temperature.
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