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Mighty River Power, 283 Vaughan Rd, PO Box 245, Rotorua 3040, New Zealand
maxwell.wilmarth@mightyriver.co.nz
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Figure 2: Sumikawa geothermal field with merged 500 m buffer around production wells after Nakao et al (2005).
2.3 Temperature Estimate
Average reservoir temperature was the most difficult parameter to estimate. Many fields have consistent, authoritative published
values for average reservoir temperature. However many other fields have a relatively wide range of temperatures from productive
well entries corresponding to reservoir compartmentalization or the existence of multiple vertically separated reservoirs possibly
with different phase conditions and well enthalpies. The best estimates were made based on the available published data, but an
average error of 10C could be assumed for each field.
2.4 Other Sources of Error
There are many other possible sources of error in this methodology. Power plant efficiencies are not considered. Wells that are
labeled as producers and located on the edge of reservoirs, but are not actually currently producing to the station could significantly
alter the area estimate. Fields that have been producing for more than 10 years but have been recently expanded may have an
unsustainable power output. Some fields could expand their production area by moving injection from zones of possible production
(e.g. Salak), or through stepout exploration into high-power density areas of reservoir. Some fields have wells that produce acid
fluids or high gas in otherwise good reservoir area (e.g. Mahanagdong) which may reduce power output.
3. RESULTS
The distribution of the 53 power densities is log-normal with a range of 4.1 to 48.3 MW/km2. The mean value of the population is
16.2 MW/km2, the median is 12.0 MW/km2, and the standard deviation is 9.9 MW/km2.
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Figure 3: Histogram and modeled log-normal distribution of power density for 53 high-temperature fields.
3.1 Relationship to Temperature
Plotting power density versus average reservoir temperature yields a scatter of data with a weak positive correlation, similar to that
presented by Grant (2000).
Figure 5: Power Density vs. Temperature for 53 high-temperature geothermal field with interpreted affiliations.
4.1 The Main Sequence
Fields on the Main Sequence are located in a variety of different tectonic and structural settings, including fault-based, extensional
Basin and Range fields like Dixie Valley, arc volcanoes like Momotombo, arc volcanoes in complex tectonic settings like
Tongonan, and fields in extensional rifting settings like the Salton Sea. What these fields all seem to have in common is an
extensional structural setting, either regional like a rift or local like a releasing bend in a strike-slip fault. The trendline for the Main
Sequence has a slope of ~2 MW/km2 per 10C of reservoir temperature and all the fields lie within a band of about 5 MW/km2
width.
The median power output of fields on the Main Sequence is 112 MW, but only 70 MW for those fields not in the Rifts subset.
4.2 Rifts
The Rifts group are generally very high-temperature (>270C) and located in extensional tectonic environments like the East
Kilauea Rift Zone (Puna), The Reykjanes Ridge (Nesjavellir), the Salton Trough (Cerro Prieto and Salton Sea), and the Taupo
Volcanic Zone (Rotokawa, Mokai and Kawerau). This group continues the trend of the Main Sequence to higher temperatures with
power densities above 20 MW/km2. Berlin, Kakkonda, Tiwi and Tongonan do not fit this profile, but are located in structural
environments which allow for local extension, such as the complicated Philippine Fault System.
The median power output of the Rifts group is 160 MW.
4.3 Arc Volcanoes
The Arc Volcanoes group are generally very high-temperature (>270C) and located in compressive tectonic environments like
volcanic arcs along subduction zones. This group does not have a positive correlation between power density and temperature and
may in fact have a weak negative correlation. All the fields have power densities less than 15 MW/km2. Although these fields have
lower power density than might be expected from their temperatures, they are not necessarily small fields. Six of the fields have
power outputs above 100 MW and three are above 150 MW.
The median power output of the Arc Volcanoes group is 70 MW, identical to those Main Sequence fields not located in the Rifts
subset.
4.4 Mature Fields
One might expect that fields operated for many decades would tend toward vapor-dominated conditions, temperatures near that of
the maximum enthalpy of steam (~240C), lower reservoir pressure and lower power density. Only one long-produced field,
Larderello, inhabits this area of the plot between 230-250C and below 5 MW/km2. The Geysers would also plot in this area if not
for two municipal wastewater injection systems that were built in the early 1990s which succeeded in mitigating the reservoir
pressure decline and stabilizing output at ~850 MW. The Azores does not fit this profile, but consists of two underdeveloped well
fields in the same reservoir. If this field were fully developed it may have a significantly higher power density.
4.5 The Exception that Proves the Rule
Other than the Azores, seven other fields do not fit nicely into the above groups. Some of these are underdeveloped for
idiosyncratic economic or regulatory reasons, e.g. Hatchobaru is constrained by a national park and the production area is limited to
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