Communications

The Radio Frequency Spectrum

Band name

ABBR

ITU
band

frequency

wavelength

< 3 Hz

> 100,000 km
100,000 km 10,000
km
10,000 km 1000 km
1000 km 100 km
100 km 10 km
10 km 1 km
1 km 100 m
100 m 10 m
10 m 1 m
1 m 100 mm
100 mm 10 mm
10 mm 1 mm
< 1 mm

Extremely low frequency

ELF

330 Hz

Super low frequency

Ultra low frequency
Very low frequency
Low frequency
Medium frequency
High frequency
Very high frequency
Ultra high frequency
Super high frequency
Extremely high frequency

SLF
ULF
VLF
LF
MF
HF
VHF
UHF
SHF
EHF
THF

2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11

30300 Hz
3003000 Hz
330 kHz
30300 kHz
3003000 kHz
330 MHz
30300 MHz
3003000 MHz
330 GHz
30300 GHz
300 GHz 3000GHZ

Tremendously high frequency

propagation
mode
Ground Wave
Ground Wave
Ground Wave
Sky Wave
Space Wave
Space Wave
Space Wave
Space Wave

Satellites
Orbit Height
Orbital velocity
Orbital time (period)
Satellite Availability
Operating Frequency

Low Earth Orbit (LEO)

Medium Earth Orbit (MEO)

100 - 300 mi
17,500 mph
1.5 hours
15 min per orbit
1.0 GHz to 2.5 GHz

6,000 - 12,000 mi
9580 mph
5-12 mph
2 - 4 hours per orbit
1.2 GHz - 1.66 GHz

Motorola's Iridium Satellite system (66satellite constellation for mobile phone

system)

GPS, NAVSTAR

Satellite classification to size

Size
Large Satellite
Small Satellite
Mini Satellite
Micro Satellite
Nano Satellite

Mass
> 1,000 kg
500 - 1,000 kg
100 - 500 kg
10 - 100 kg
< 10 kg

Loudness level
Cost
> $ 100 M
$ 50 - 100 M
$ 5 - 20 M
$2-3M
<$1M

Microwave frequency bands

Band
L
S
C
X
Ku
K
Ka
Millimeter
Sub-millimeter

Geostationary /
Geosynchronous (GEO)
22,300 mi
6879 mph
24 hours
24 hours per orbit
2 GHz - 18 GHz

Frequency in GHz
1-2
2-4
4-8
8-12
12-18
18-27
27-40
40-300
>300

0 - 15 dB
15 - 30 dB
30 - 60 dB
60 - 80 dB
80 - 130 dB
130 dB

very faint
faint
moderate
loud
very loud
deafening

10 Octaves of human hearing

1st octave
2nd octave
3rd octave
4th octave
5th octave
6th octave
7th octave
8th octave
9th octave

20 - 40 Hz
40 - 80 Hz
80 - 160 Hz
160 - 320 Hz
320 - 640 Hz
640 - 1280 Hz
1280 - 2560 Hz
2560 - 5120 Hz
5120 - 10240 Hz

10th octave

10240 - 20480 Hz

Lower Bass
Upper Base
Lower Midrange
Upper midrange
Treble

Optimum volume per person for various

types of hall
Optimum Volume
/person (m3)
7.1

Type of Hall
concert halls
Italian-type opera
houses
churches
cinemas
Rooms for speech

4.2 - 5.2
7.1 - 9.9
3.1
2.8

Sound Pressure Levels

Optimum reverberation (@500 to 1kHz)
Room Function
Recording and
broadcasting studios
Elementary classrooms
Playhouses, intimate
drama production
Lecture and conference
rooms
Cinema
small theaters
High school auditoriums
General purpose
auditoriums
Churches

Reverberation time (s)

0.45 - 0.55
0.6 - 0.8
0.9 - 1.1
0.9
0.8
1.2
1.5

1.1
1.2
1.4
1.6

1.5 - 1.6
1.4 - 3.4

Source
faintest audible sound
whisper
Quiet residence
Soft stereo in residence
Speech range
cafeteria
Pneumatic jack hammer
Loud crowd noise
Accelerating motorcycle
Rock concert
Jet Engine (75 feet away)

SPL (dB)
0
20
30
40
50-70
90
90
100
100
120
140

Super Group Carrier Frequency

L600 Mastergroup

U600 Mastergroup

Supergroup

Carrier
frequency
(kHz)

Supergroup

Carrier
frequency
(kHz)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

612
Direct
1116
1364
1612
1860
2108
2356
2724
3100

13
14
15
16
17
18
D25
D26
D27
D28

1116
1364
1612
1860
2108
2356
2652
2900
3148
3396

AT&Ts FDM Hierarchy

Group
supergroup
mastergroup
Jumbogroup
Superjumbogroup

VB channels
12
60
600
3600
10800

Groups
5
50
300
900

supergroups
10
60
180

mastergroups
6
18

jumbogroups
3

CCITTs FDM Hierarchy

supergroups mastergroups
5
TV channel Frequency allocation
15
3
channel
Frequency band
#
(MHz)
Digital Multiplexing Hierarchy (North
2
54 - 60
American)
3
60 - 66
Line
Digital
Bit rate
Channel
# 4of T1
Services
Offered
Medium
66 - 72
Low VHF
Channels
Type
Signal
(Mbps)
Capacity
5
76 - 82
1/24 of T-1
twisted pair
DS0
64Kbps
6
82 - 88
24
1
VB
twisted
T1
DS1
1.544
88 telephone
- 108
FM
bandpair
48
2
VB
telephone
twisted
pair,
7
174 - 180
T1C
DS1c
3.152
microwave
8
180 - 186
96
4
VB tel, picture phone
Coax, microware
T2
DS2
6.312
9
186 - 192
672
28
VB tel, picture phone,
Coax,
fiberVHF
optics
High
Band
T3
DS3
44.736
10
192 - TV
198
Channels
same198
as T3-but
more capacity
11
204
4032
168
fiber optics
T4M
DS4
274.176
12
204 - 210
Japanese Multiplexing Hierarchy
13
210 - 216
14-83
470-890
UHF
Group
supergroup
mastergroup
Jumbogroup

VB channels
12
60
300
900

Groups
5
25
75

Level
1
2
3
4
5

Data Rate (Mbps)

1.544
6.312
32.064
97.728
565.148

Channel Capacity
24
92
480
1140
7680

European standard
Data Rate
(Mbps)
2.048
8.448
34.368
139.264
565.992

Level
E-1
E-2
E-3
E-4
E-5

Channel
Capacity
30
120
480
1920
7680

time
slots
32
128
512
2048
8192

ELECTRONICS
Summary for all 2-input gates
Inputs
A
B
0
0
0
1
1
0
1
1

Resonant Circuit Feedback Oscillators

Oscillator Type
Hartley
Colpitts
Clapp
Pierce Crystal

Output of each gate

AND

NAND

OR

NOR

EX-OR

EX-NOR

0
0
0
1

1
1
1
0

0
1
1
1

1
0
0
0

0
1
1
0

1
0
0
1

X1
L
C
C
C

X2
L
C
C
C

X3
C
L
Series LC (net L)
Crystal (net L)

Typical Characteristics of IC Logic Families

IC Logic Family

Fan Out

Power
Dissipation (mW)

Propagation
Delay (ns)

Noise
margin (V)

Standard TTL
Schottky TTL
Low power Schottky
TTL
ECL
CMOS

10
10

10
22

10
3

0.4
0.4

20

10

0.4

25
50

25
0.1

2
25

0.2
3

Motors

Level of Integration
Level Of Integration
Small Scale Integration (SSI)
Medium Scale Integration (MSI)
Large Scale Integration (LSI)
Very Large Scale Integration
(VLSI)
Ultra Large Scale Integration
(ULSI)

No. of gates per chip

less than 12
12-99
100-9,999
10,000-99,999

efficiency
50%
51-99%
78%
85%

A
B
F
H

max
temperature
(0C)
105
130
155
180

100,000 or more

Amplifier
Amplifier
class
A
AB
B
C

Motor
class

conduction
angle
360
181 to 359
180
0 to 179

input signal
used
100%
> 50% < 100%
50%
50%

Mode identification for

Multivibrator
CN1

CN2

Mode

The
good you do toResistor
others will alwaysBistable
come back to you
Resistor
pay it forward!!

Resistor
Capacitor

Capacitor
Capacitor

Monostable
Astable