Precambrian Research 97 (1999) 115134

www.elsevier.com/locate/precamres

Characterization of fluvial deposits interbedded with flood

basalts, Neoproterozoic Catoctin Formation,
Central Appalachians, USA
K.A. Dilliard a, E.L. Simpson b, *, R.C. Noto c, M. Wizevich b
a Department of Geology, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ 86001, USA
b Department of Physical Sciences, Kutztown University, Kutztown, PA 19530, USA
c Department of Geological Sciences, University of NevadaLas Vegas, Las Vegas, NV 89154, USA
Received 04 February 1998; accepted for publication 04 May 1999

Abstract
The Catoctin Formation infills a Neoproterozoic-age rift basin associated with the development of the Laurentian
continental margin, one of several similar basins that are distributed along the length of the southern to central
Appalachian Basin. The Catoctin Formation consists of a flood basalt sequence with intercalated sedimentary deposits.
Two types of architectural elements, channel element (CE ) and sheet element (SE ), are recognized within these
sedimentary deposits.
Massive (structureless) sandstones and conglomerates are the dominant facies within the CE and SE and are
interpreted to record deposition from hyperconcentrated flows. Lack of vegetative binding of sediment, coupled with
a relatively high stream gradient and possibly a high water table enhanced the probability of developing hyperconcentrated flows by the process of bulking (addition of sediment to a flow). Additional facies present are the
products of normal stream flow that developed from waning hyperconcentrated flows.
Basaltic effusive rate, sediment supply, and extension (subsidence), controlled the generation of CE and SE. All
CE reflect deposition in isolated fluvial channels incised into lava flows and are present within the lower member of
the Catoctin Formation. The presence of CE most likely indicates a high rate of lava extrusion, low sediment supply,
and possible high subsidence rates. The SE, composing the sedimentary member of the Catoctin Formation, reflects
a decrease in effusive and subsidence rates and a increase in sediment supply from the hinterland. Overlying the SE,
is the last phase of basin infill characterized by basalts with minor interbedded clastic rocks. The final phase of
infilling was effected by an increase of effusive and subsidence rates and a potential cutoff of sediment supply. The
Catoctin Formation basin displays a more complex infill history than generally associated with the rift deposits of the
Laurentian margin. 1999 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Fluvial sedimentation; Flood basalts; Neoproterozoic; Rift sedimentation

* Corresponding author. Fax: +1-610-683-1352.

E-mail addresses: kad7@dana.ucc.nau.edu ( K.A. Dilliard ), simpson@kutztown.edu ( E.L. Simpson),
notor@nevada.edu (R.C. Noto), wizevich@aol.com (M. Wizevich)
0301-9268/99/$ see front matter 1999 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
PII: S0 3 0 1- 9 2 68 ( 9 9 ) 0 00 2 5 -X

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K.A. Dilliard et al. / Precambrian Research 97 (1999) 115134

1. Introduction
Before the advent of land plants, braided fluvial
systems were predominant over meandering
(Schumm, 1968; Cotter, 1978; Long, 1978;
Snderholm and Tirsgaard, 1998); the dominance
of the braided-fluvial style in the Precambrian has
been documented by many workers (see Eriksson
et al., 1998). Furthermore, Schumm (1968) argues
that without the presence of binding grasses,
especially in combination with a high annual precipitation, the frequency of hyperconcentrated
stream-flow events should be greater.
Typically, hyperconcentrated flows produce
massive (structureless) beds, as opposed to tractional processes that generate stratified beds
(Harms et al., 1982; Lowe, 1982; Smith, 1986;
Scott, 1988; Smith and Lowe, 1991; Martin and
Turner, 1998). Hyperconcentrated flows fall within
a continuum of properties between normal stream
(clear water of Martin and Turner, 1998) and
debris flows (Beverage and Culbertson, 1964; Bull,
1972; Wasson, 1977). Beverage and Culbertson
(1964) proposed that hyperconcentrated flows possess a 4080 wt% sediment content. Alternatively,
Smith (1986) defines hyperconcentrated flow as a
high-discharge flow in which turbulence is not the
sole sediment-support mechanism and deposition
does not occur en masse.
The Catoctin Formation is a thick sequence of
metabasalts with intercalated metasedimentary
rocks that fills a Neoproterozoic rift basin in the
Southern Appalachians. A detailed processoriented examination of metasedimentary rocks
of the Catoctin Formation identified hyperconcentrated flow deposits with only minor components of typical tractional braided-stream
deposits. Analysis of the sandstone bodies within
the Catoctin Formation shows the presence of two
distinctive elements, channel (CE ) and sheet (SE),
dominated by hyperconcentrated-flow deposits.
The absence of vegetation during deposition of
this Neoproterozoic unit was an important factor
that led to the development of hyperconcentrated
flows as seen within CE and SE. These elements
were identified on the basis of overall geometry,
sedimentary structures and texture. Further analysis of the stratigraphic distribution of these ele-

ments, CE and SE, within the Catoctin Formation

basin provides a more refined understanding of a
complex fill history of this rift basin.

2. General geology
The bulk of the Catoctin Formation consists of
basaltic volcanic rocks with lesser amounts of
rhyolitic flows, tuffs and detritus ( Table 1). The
Catoctin Formation is exposed on both limbs of
the Blue Ridge Mountains of Virginia ( Fig. 1;
Rankin 1975, 1976; Badger, 1986, 1992; Badger
and Sinha 1988). On the western limb, the Catoctin
Formation consists of basaltic lava flows and lesser
amounts of volcaniclastic and epiclastic deposits
accumulated in a predominately subaerial setting
(Reed, 1955; Badger, 1986,1992; Espenshade,
1986). Both Mesoproterozoic (1.21.0 Ga)
gneissic basement or the Neoproterozoic Swift
Run Formation underlies the Catoctin Formation
( Fig. 2). Locally, basalts onlap basement highs
and colluvium shed off the paleotopography
interfingers with these basalt flows (Reed, 1955,
1969; Gathright, 1976; Dilliard et al., 1999). The
Weverton Formation, the lowest formation of the
Chilhowee Group, overlies the Catoctin Formation
and is composed of feldspathic and quartz sandstones. Bloomer and Werner (1955), Reed (1955)
and Badger and Sinha (1988) concluded that the
CatoctinWeverton contact is conformable. In
contrast, Wehr and Glover (1985) argued that a
significant breakup unconformity is located at this
lithostratigraphic boundary.
The study area lies on the western limb of the
Blue Ridge anticlinorium (Fig. 1). An extensive
detrital unit, informally referred to as the sedimentary member, subdivides the Catoctin
Formation into a lower member characterized by
mafic volcanic rocks with subordinate clastic sedimentary rocks and an upper member dominated
by mainly basalts ( Fig. 1). Geological maps of the
surrounding area show that this sedimentary
member is a distinctive marker horizon that
extends in the strike direction for ca 45 km
(Gathright, 1976; Gathright et al., 1977;
Bartholomew, 1977).

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117

Table 1
Characteristics of Catoctin Formation Volcanic Rocks within the study area
Facies
Mafic
volcanic
rocks

Characteristics

Flows are quartz-normative tholeiites

with minor olivine-normative compositions restricted to lowermost
Catoctin Formation (Badger and
Sinha, 1988). Preserved volcanic features include: massive flows, columnar
joints, flow breccias (110 m thick),
amygdules restricted to upper 13 m of
the flows (Gathright, 1976; Badger,
1986, 1992), and rare pillow basalts
from a few centimeters to 1 m thick
(Badger, 1986; 1992). Flow thicknesses
range from 50 m to <1 m (Reed, 1955;
Badger, 1986; 1992). Basalt flows are
more numerous and thin southward in
the study area (Badger, 1986; 1992).
Pyroclastic Rare felsic tuffs display flattened
rocks
pumice fragments and vesicles
(Badger, 1986). Well-preserved, microscopic vitroclastic textures are present
in some purple tuffs (Gathright, 1976).

Process

Setting

Vertical compositional change of bas- Quesent subaerial flows locally enteralts results from primary magmatic ing streams, lakes or ponds.
processes (Badger and Sinha, 1988;
Badger, 1986, 1992). Preserved volcanic features are consistent with quiescent, effusive lava flows. Pillow
basalts are local features developed as
flows entered streams or interacted
with a shallow lakes or the groundwater table (Badger, 1986; Spencer
et al., 1989). Variations in flow thickness indicate possible flow source
directions from north to south within
the basin (Badger 1986; 1992).

Tuff beds are ash-flow tuffs or ignim- Subaerial deposits.

brites blown from fissures during more
violent eruptions or from stream
deposits composed of ash-flows
(Gathright, 1976; Gathright et al.,
1977; Bartholomew, 1977).

Thickness of the Catoctin Formation can only

be estimated due to multiple phases of deformation, greenschist metamorphism, and recent erosion. Spencer et al. (1989) calculated a minimum
thickness of 1.4 km for this unit south of the study
area, whereas, Gathright et al. (1977) estimated
the total thickness in the southern portion of the
study area to be between 0.5 and 1.0 km.
Determination of the Catoctin Formations
absolute age is hampered by greenschist metamorphism and a lack of dateable mineral assemblages.
Rhyolites, restricted to the lower portion of the
Catoctin Formation in northern Virginia, have
yielded a zircon UPb age of 564A9 Ma (Aleinkoff
et al., 1995; Fig. 2). RbSr whole-rock age dating
technique applied to various greenstones, collected
within the study area, yields an age of 570A36 Ma
(Badger and Sinha, 1988). The overlying
Chilhowee Group spans the Neoproterozoic
Cambrian boundary (Simpson and Sundberg,
1987; Walker and Driese, 1991).

3. Methods
In central and northern Virginia, the Catoctin
Formation is exposed on several thrust sheets.
Primary sedimentary structures and textures are
preserved even though the strata have been subjected to a complex deformational and metamorphic history. Henceforth, in order to simplify rock
description, the prefix meta has been omitted
from lithologic nomenclature.
Stratigraphic sections were chosen based on
exposure quality, the degree of deformation and
accessibility ( Fig. 1). Lateral extent of outcrops is
limited. At several localities epiclastic deposits
associated with the Catoctin Formation volcanic
rocks were examined in centimeter detail, recording grain size, mineralogy, sedimentary structures
and bedding geometry. Block and hand samples
were collected of all facies. Observations made
from subsequent polished slabs and thin sections
were integrated with the field data to characterize

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K.A. Dilliard et al. / Precambrian Research 97 (1999) 115134

Fig. 1. ( Upper) Geologic map of the Blue Ridge Geomorphic Province [modified from] Rankin et al. (1993)]. Map inset shows the
aerial extent of the Catoctin Formation, shaded black, along the Blue Ridge Anticlinorium. &, Location of the lower geologic map.
(Lower) Geologic map of Rockfish Gap area, Waynesboro East Quadrangle [modified from Gathright et al. (1977)]. The white area
within the Catoctin Formation represents the sedimentary member. Measured sections are represented by dashed lines. Dashed line
along I-64 represents the CE. Both 250 sections are within the sheet-sandstone element.

K.A. Dilliard et al. / Precambrian Research 97 (1999) 115134

119

the facies. Facies were constructed and interpretation of depositional sedimentary processes was
conducted at the facies level. Facies were grouped
into elements on the basis of overall lithosome
geometry.

4. Sedimentology
4.1. Channel element
Several CEs were recognized in the lower
member of the Catoctin Formation ( Fig. 1); one
well-exposed CE is located at the base of the upper
member of the Catoctin Formation. Beds of the
CE have a lenticular geometry and are isolated
between laterally extensive basalt flows (Fig. 3).
An individual CE can be traced for over 70 m
(Fig. 3) but, mapping by Bartholomew (1977)
suggests some CE may extend over 1 km. Typical
channel thicknesses, observed in outcrop during
this study, ranges from 0.3 to 1.1 m, whereas
the laterally extensive channels reported in
Bartholomew (1977) are on the order of tens of
meters. CE consist of conglomerate, sandstone and
mudstone lithologies ( Fig. 4). Sand-size grains are
composed of rounded and sorted monocrystaline
quartz with subordinate amounts of potassium
feldspars and basaltic volcanic fragments.
Four facies, symbols after Smith (1987, 1988),
are found within the CE ( Table 2; Figs. 4 and 5):
1. matrix to clast-supported conglomerate
[Gm(a)];
2. massive sandstone [Sm(g)];
3. trough cross-stratified sandstone (St); and
4. massive mudstone (Fl ).
The absence of well-developed stratification in the
Gm(a) and Sm(g) within the Catoctin Formation
is interpreted to be primary and not structural
because:
1. well-preserved bedforms and sedimentary structures are present in close proximity to facies
Gm(a) and Sm(g);
2. grain deformation is minimal in thin section in
facies Gm(a) and Sm(g); and
3. significant grain size variations are recognizable
in slab and thin section.
The relative abundance of facies varies within

Fig. 2. Cartoon of the western limb of the Blue Ridge

Geomorphic Province, illustrating the relationship between various lithostratigraphic units [modified from Gathright (1976)].
Basal Catoctin age from Aleinkoff et al. (1995).

individual CE with Gm(a) being the most

common. Within CEs the following vertical facies
transitions (bottom to top) are found:
1. Gm(a) Sm(g)St;
2. Gm(a) Sm(g)StFl;
3. Sm(g)St; and
4. Sm(g)StFl (Figs. 35).
Typically, sharp, erosional contacts separate
basalt flows and the overlying sediments. Some
flow tops have fissures and small-scale cracks

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K.A. Dilliard et al. / Precambrian Research 97 (1999) 115134

Fig. 3. Drawing of a typical CE in the I-64 section. Diagram limited by outcrop ( left-side) and fault (right-side).

infilled with sediment [Fig. 5(A) and (B)].

Sediment-filled fissures are perpendicular to the
flow tops and have a complex infill history reflected
in alternations of fine-grained sandstone and siltstone [Fig. 5(A) and (B)]. Additionally, finegrained sandstone infill cracks that parallel the
basalt-flow tops. Cracks filled with sand have been
observed connecting the flow surface to flowparallel cracks. In one basalt flow, vesicles filled
with fine-grained sandstone are found 2 cm
beneath the flow top.
In most cases, the CEs upper contacts with
basalt flows show synvolcanic alteration by hot
magmatic fluids. Bases of some overlying basalt
flows contain centimeter-scale, ball-like load structures that penetrate up to 10 cm into the underlying
sediment. These ball-like structures display a gradation, from the margin to the interior, from lightto dark-green and from a fine- to coarser-grained
aphanitic texture. Primary sedimentary structures
are absent in the underlying sandstones when
loaded by overlying basalts. Sedimentary dikes
have been observed penetrating 1.5 m into an
overlying basalt flow ( Reed, 1969).
4.2. Sheet element

Fig. 4. Photographs of the CE. (A) Matrix-supported conglomerate. Basalt clasts are flattened into the cleavage. Slab is cut
perpendicular to the cleavage. (B) Field photograph of matrixsupported, basalt-clast conglomerate. Clasts are flattened into
cleavage. Cleavage plane cuts at an oblique angle to bedding.
Note the reduction in clast size from bottom to top of photo
reflecting a vertical change in clast size.

The sheet elements (SEs) are confined to the

regionally extensive sedimentary member of the
Catoctin Formation (Fig. 1). Approximately
200 m stratigraphically separates the lower (Figs. 6
and 7) from the upper measured section (Figs. 8
and 9) of SE. SE is composed of conglomerates,
sandstone, with minor mudstones (Fig. 10). From

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121

Table 2
Facies of the Catoctin Formation
Facies

CE

SE

Interpretation

Gm (a)
matrix to
clastsupported
conglomerate

Gm(a) is composed of poorly sorted

amygdaloidal and aphanitic basalt
clasts supported by a fine-grained sand
(Fig. 4) or if clast-supported, little to
no sand matrix. Clasts range in size
from cobble to granule and display
normal [Fig. 5(A) and (C )]), inverse
to normal, or non- to normal grading.
Gm(a) is found in direct contact, either
flat or channelized, with underlying
basalt flows [Figs. 3 and 5(C )].
Sm (g) is characterized by the absence
of tractional structures [Figs. 3 and
5(C )]. Stringers of basaltic pebbles
define internal scour surfaces. Distinct
stratification is not recognized above
the scours. Sm (g) preserved thickness
range from 10 to 40 cm.

Gm(a) range in thickness from 5 to

30 cm ( Figs. 6 and 8). Clasts of granite
and rare basalt and red mudstone compose Gm(a). Matrix consists of fine- to
medium-grained sandstone. Although
most Gm(a) are sand-matrix supported, one occurrence of conglomerate is clast supported [Fig. 10(A)].

Gm(a) records bedload transport

involving the coarse-grained portion of
fluvial sediment load probably under
hyperconcentrated flow conditions.

Sm (g) is composed of fine- to coarsegrained sandstone with a few pebble

stringers; poorly defined subhorizontal
stratification is rare (Figs. 6 and 8).
Thickness of Sm (g) beds range from
0.2 to 5.0 m with a mean of 1.6 m.
Grading is absent in most beds, but
grain size can vary rapidly over a few
centimeters both vertically and horizontally. Sm (g) beds grade vertically
from coarse- or medium- to fine-sand
size ( Figs. 6 and 8). In slab and thin
section, stratification is identifiable by
subtle variations from fine to coarse
sand, pebble stringers, or heavy minerals concentrations.
Rarely, well-developed, horizontal to
slightly inclined stratification (Sh) is
preserved within some of the Sm (g)
[Fig. 10(B and C )]. Within the thickest
bed of Sm (g), a 0.1 m-thick zone of
low-angle, pebble-rich St occurs 1.0 m
from the base (Fig. 6). Pebble concentrations typically rest on scoured surfaces.
Sh is developed in pebbly medium- to
fine-grained sandstone [Figs. 6, 8 and
10(B)]). Grain size variation and
heavy mineral concentrations define
the stratification. Beds with lowangles, <10, planar stratification
typify Sh. Sets range in thickness from
0.2 to 5.0 m. Sh occurs within and caps
some Sm (g) (Figs. 6 and 8)

The absence of pervasive structures is

more typical of laminar than turbulent
flows (Lowe, 1982). Turbulence is
reduced because of increase in sediment concentration leading to hyperconcentrated flows (Middleton and
Southard, 1978). Other, proported
sediment support mechanisms in the
flows are dispersive forces, buoyancy
and grain interactions (Beverage and
Culbertson, 1964; Smith and Lowe,
1991).

(Sms (g))
massive
sandstone

(Sh) horizontally
stratified
sandstone

most to least abundant, quartz, potassium feldspar,

and granitic rock fragments comprise the sanddominated facies. Significant, up to 5%, heavy
mineral assemblages are present in some
sandstones.

Sh developed under turbulent flow

conditions in water conditions. Sh is
the product of higher flow conditions
either by the migration of low-amplitude bedforms (Bridge and Best, 1988)
or from a bursting cycle (Cheel and
Middleton, 1986).

Six facies are grouped within the SE (Table 2;

Figs. 6, 8 and 10):
1. matrix to clast-supported conglomerate
[Gm(a)];
2. massive sandstone [Sm(g)];

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K.A. Dilliard et al. / Precambrian Research 97 (1999) 115134

Table 2 (continued )
Facies of the Catoctin Formation
Facies

CE

(St)
trough
crossstratified
sandstone

St is composed of medium- to finegrained sandstone (Fig. 3). St preservation is limited but ranges up to 45 cm
in thickness. Grain size variations were
not observed within foresets.

(Fsm)
massive
mudstone

(Fl ) finely
laminated
sandstone,
siltstone
and
mudstone

SE

Interpretation

Medium-scale sets of St are developed

in medium-grained sandstones (Figs. 6
and 8). Rarely, cosets grade from a
pebbly medium sand to a fine sand at
the top. Beds thickness ranges from 0.2
to 0.5 m with a mean of ca 0.4 m. In
some cases, pebbles or concentrations
of heavy minerals delineate basal
trough set boundaries. At one stratigraphic level, St is overlain by a basalt
flow preserving sinuous-crested, dunescale bedforms with a mean wavelength of 2.5 m and mean heights of
0.2 m. (Fig. 7). In plan view, bedforms
are out-of-phase with respect to successive crestlines. St cosets cap some Sm
(g) beds.
Fsm ranges in thickness from 2 to Fsm is 0.2 m in thickness (Figs. 6 and
50 cm. Fsm contain lenses of feature- 8). Centimeter-size, mudstone rip-up
less sandstone up to 2 cm thick clasts are contained in the basal 10 cm
[Fig. 5(B)]. Vertically, these sandstone of this overlying bed.
lenses within Fsm decrease in thickness. The maximum lateral extent of
sand lenses was 30 cm.
Fl beds are up to maximum of 0.6 m
thick and are commonly erosively truncated by Sm (g) (Figs. 6 and 8). Beds
within Fl are typically <2 cm thick. Fl
display fining- and thinning-upward
sequences of normally graded sandstones to mudstones. Some thin sandstones, within the finning-upward
sequences, contain isolated, centimeter-size clasts of basalt and/or granite.
The basal bed within one Fl interval
grades over 20 cm from pebbly sandstone, 3 cm basaltic and granitic clasts
within a sand matrix, to a mudstone
[Fig. 10(D)].

3. trough cross-stratified sandstone (St);

4. horizontally stratified sandstone (Sh);
5. finely laminated sandstone, siltstone, and mudstone ( Fl ); and
6. massive mudstone (Fsm).
The most common facies is Sm(g) and is most
generally found as single-beds within the SE.
Vertical transitions within beds in SE are as follows
(Figs. 6, 8 and 10):

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

St were generated by migration of

three-dimensional bedforms (Rubin,
1987) under turbulent flow conditions
in clear water.

Fsm formed in either a floodplain or

lacustrine setting. Fsm developed by
vertical accretion away from an active
channel. The vertical decrease in thickness of sand lenses records migration
of the thalweg away from the main
locus of sedimentation.
Fl records deposition at or away from
the main channel thalweg within small
lacustrine or floodplain settings.

Sm(g)St;
Gm(a)Sm(g)St;
Gm(a)Sm(g);
ShSm(g)St;
Sm(g) Fsm; and
Sm(g)Fl.
Three types of contacts from basalts to sediments of the SE are present, erosive, altered and
penetrative. Basalt clasts found within the sediment

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123

Fig. 5. Measured sections within CEs located along I-64. (A) Diagram showing large vertical and horizontal cracks infilled with
sediment. Sedimentary unit shows reduction in clast size vertically. (B) Diagram showing horizontal crack structures with connecting
vertical tubes. Mudstone with lenses of sandstone and siltstone separate basalt flows. (C ) Diagram showing scoured base and reduction
of clast-size in sedimentary bed between basalt flows. Bar scale is for all diagrams.

overlying basalt flows indicate the contact between

the SE and basalt is erosive ( Fig. 9). The contact
between sediments of the SE and an overlying
basalt is characterized by:
1. basalt preserving sedimentary bedforms ( Figs. 7
and 9);
2. alteration of sediments, including discoloration
and soft-sediment deformation; and
3. penetration of sediment into the overlying
basalt ( Fig. 6).
Immediately above the transition from the sedimentary member into the upper Catoctin
Formation, a CE up to 1 m deep cuts into the

underlying basalt (Figs. 8 and 9) overlying basalt

preserves small-scale sinuous-crested bedforms.
4.3. Inferred depositional setting
The vertical sequence of sedimentary structures
found in CE and SE, composed mostly of Sm(g),
are best interpreted to be the deposits of hyperconcentrated flows that evolved into less concentrated, normal stream flows ( Table 2). Massive
sandstones have been reported within only a limited number of fluvial systems (see Martin and
Turner, 1998) and typically within braided-stream

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K.A. Dilliard et al. / Precambrian Research 97 (1999) 115134

Fig. 6. Stratigraphic column of SE. Section is located along Route 250 (Fig. 1) in lower portion of the sedimentary member of the
Catoctin Formation. The two right columns are enlargements of sections within the left column showing more detail of sedimentary
facies and structures and vertical transitions in structures. B, Basalt; P, shale/mudstone; F, fine-grained sandstone; M, mediumgrained sandstone; C, coarse-grained sandstone; Cong., conglomerate.

systems with very low braid indexes (Jones and

Rust, 1983; Conaghan 1980; Turner and Monro,
1987; Wizevich, 1992).
Nemec and Postma (1993) indicate that the

coarsest and least mobile sediment is deposited

immediately after peak erosion and the peak-flood
phase. Therefore, the normal and non-graded bases
of Gm(a) resting on the scour surface, reflect

K.A. Dilliard et al. / Precambrian Research 97 (1999) 115134

125

Fig. 7. Block diagram showing preserved bedforms capping the bed at ~44 m on the Route 250 stratigraphic column ( Fig. 6). The
bedform lee face is form concordant to the underlying cross stratification indicating that these are preserved primary bedforms and
not structurally generated features.

tractional deposition as channel-floor lags

following the peak scour phase ( Table 2).
Channels may have eroded randomly into the
upper basalt surface or may have followed primary
flow topography, such as pressure ridges. In channel-floor lags, matrix is trapped concurrently with
bedload deposition or from latter infiltration
(Frostick et al., 1984).
Within hyperconcentrated-flow deposits, beds
are typically massive or contain crude horizontal
stratification (Nemec and Muszynski, 1982; Wells,
1984, Smith, 1986; Smith and Lowe, 1991; Martin
and Turner, 1998). Smith (1986) and Smith and
Lowe (1991) report that sandy and granular hyperconcentrated deposits are distinctive with the most
recognizable characteristic being the paucity of
well-developed, cross stratification and ripple
laminations.

Smith (1986) reports a few millimeters to 5.0 cm

thick horizontal stratification delineated by well to
poorly sorted grain-size alterations which are similar to those found within beds of facies Gm(a),
and Sm(g) in CE and SE. Scott (1988) indicates
that stratification is a function of the channel
geometry and that massive deposits are typical of
main channel thalweg deposits. Weak stratification
is more developed in lateral and backwater areas
of the channel. The crude horizontal stratification
present in Sm(g) is considered the result of rapid,
uninterrupted sediment deposition from hyperconcentrated flood waves on an aggrading bed (cf.
Pierson and Scott, 1985; Scott, 1988). Oriented
clasts in Gm(a), a- and b-axes transverse to flow
direction, were not identified conclusively as
required in Smith (1987, 1988).
Vertical transitions of Gm(a) to Sm(g) that

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K.A. Dilliard et al. / Precambrian Research 97 (1999) 115134

Fig. 8. Stratigraphic column of SE. Section is located along

Route 250 ( Fig. 3) in upper portion of the sedimentary member
of the Catoctin Formation. B, Basalt; P, shale/mudstone; F,
fine-grained sandstone; M, medium-grained sandstone; C,
coarse-grained sandstone; Cong., conglomerate.

pass upward into tractionally dominated St or Sh

are consistent with observations of hyperconcentrated flows by Scott (1988). Within
hyperconcentrated-flow deposits, horizontal stratification is more pronounced in the capping finergrained sediment (Smith and Lowe, 1991).
Ripples, dunes and plane bed can form in dilute,
low energy, waning flood flows, however, preservation of these type deposits is very low due to
removal by scour from the next flow (Smith, 1986).
St in the middle of the Sm(g) bed may indicate
amalgamation of two units.
Martin and Turner (1998) describes several
possible mechanisms to explain the generation of
massive sandstone in a braided-stream setting
that include:
1. addition of sediment to the streamflow;
2. groundwater flow (influent flow) through the
stream bed increases sediment concentration by
influencing grain entrainment;
3. in situ liquifaction and fluidization; and
4. mass flows.
Hyperconcentrated flows develop by dilution of
debris flows or sediment bulking (Rodolfo and
Arguden, 1991; Martin and Turner, 1998). Debris
flow dilution is accomplished by either stream
mixing, the un-damming of a volcanic lake, or
introduction of snow melt (Pierson and Scott,
1985; Pierson, 1995). Bulking takes place by sediment addition to a normal stream flow from bed
scour and channel bank slumping thus effectively
increasing sediment concentration ( Rodolfo and
Arguden, 1991; Martin and Turner, 1998). Martin
(1970), Watters and Roa (1971) and Harrison and
Clayton (1970) show that seepage velocity of
groundwater is low and would only be a minor
factor. Increase in groundwater flow through the
stream bed can not be eliminated as a contributor
to the generation of hyperconcentrated flows.
Fluid escape structures, indicative of in situ liquifaction and fluidization, were identified in CE and
SE as the upward penetration of sediment into
overlying basalt. Fluidization of sediment resulting
in the generation of dikes and associated softsediment deformation is a common occurrence as
lava flows interact with a high groundwater table
( Kokelaar, 1982). However, fluid escape is an
unlikely mechanism to generate such large quantities of Sm(g). Mass flow, specifically generated by

K.A. Dilliard et al. / Precambrian Research 97 (1999) 115134

127

Fig. 9. Block diagram showing CE preserved between basalt flows. Channel-fill located at transition from the sedimentary member
to the upper member of the Catoctin Formation.

bar and bank collapse (Martin and Turner, 1998),

would produce deposits with limited volumetric
extent, unlike the abundance of Gm(a) or Sm(g)
found within the Catoctin Formation deposits.
The bulking process was very likely to occur in
pre-Silurian fluvial systems. The absence of binding
plants increases flashy discharge within preSilurian fluvial systems resulting in lateral expansion of channels during flooding ( Trewin, 1993).
This increased runoff raises the probability of
generating hyperconcentrated flows. Fuller (1985)
argues that, fluvial systems would have been shallower with weak unstable banks, braided with wide
channels and dominated by bedload transport. In
modern volcanic settings, Cas and Wright (1988)
report that sheet-flood (or hyperconcentrated)
deposits occur in slopes >20 and in flat runouts
of <10. Dilliard et al. (1999) reconstructed 20%
(or 11) grades on some preserved paleotopography adjacent to the Catoctin basin, supporting
gradient enhancement as an additional causal
mechanism of generating hyperconcentrated flows.

The absence of significant preservation of floodplain deposits, steep gradient, availability of

sand-sized material and fluidization of sediment at
basalt contacts supports the likelihood hyperconcentrated flows being produced by bulking and
assisted by fluid escape mechanisms during deposition of the Catoctin Formation.
Fissures into basalts most likely developed
during cooling and subsequent flow movement
that caused fracturing of the flow surface. The
small- and large-scale fractures and open-top vesicles were infilled from sediment washed across the
surface. Significant pedogensis was not observed
on flow tops. The increased surface area of the
fissures would have increased the likelihood of soil
development.

5. Controls on element geometry

Two phases of Neoproterozoic rifting, ~720
and ~580 Ma, have been identified within the

128

K.A. Dilliard et al. / Precambrian Research 97 (1999) 115134

Fig. 10. Photographs of SE. (A) St at base of slab overlain by Gm(a). (B) Sm(g) with vague horizontal stratification. (C ) Sm(g)
with vague stratification. (D) Fl with pebbles.

southern and central Appalachians (Badger and

Sinha, 1988; Simpson and Eriksson, 1989;
Aleinikoff et al., 1995; Tollo and Aleinikoff, 1996).
Rift basins associated with these discrete rift events
are clustered into two geographic areas. The more
southern and older rift basins are filled with terrestrial sedimentary and basaltic and rhyolitic volcanic successions [e.g. the Ocoee Supergroup (Rast
and Kohles, 1986), Grandfather Mountain
Formation (Neton, 1992), and Mount Rogers
Formation (Rankin, 1993; Miller, 1994)]. The
more northern cluster of rift basins is infilled with
varying proportions of sedimentary and volcanic
rocks [e.g. Lynchburg Groupglaciogenic to
marine strata ( Wehr, 1986), Mechum River
Formationglaciogenic to marine strata (Bailey
and Peters, 1998), Peters Creek Formationmarine
strata ( Valentino and Gates, 1995) and the

Catoctin Formationbasaltic and terrestrial-fluvial

strata]. The infill of the northern basins appears
to reflect a relatively simple basin fill history
( Wehr, 1986; Valentino and Gates, 1995; Bailey
and Peters, 1998).
In contrast to the other rift basins, the Catoctin
Formation volcanic rocks and sedimentary
sequences indicate that, at minimum, three distinct
basin-fill phases occurred. These include, from
oldest to youngest (Fig. 11):
1. lower Catoctin Formationbasalt encasing CE
units;
2. middle sedimentary memberSE with interbedded minor basalts; followed by
3. upper Catoctin Formationbasalt with little or
no sediments interbedded ( Fig. 11).
Inferences can be made from these three basinfill packages with regards to:

K.A. Dilliard et al. / Precambrian Research 97 (1999) 115134

129

Fig. 11. Schematic diagram of Catoctin basin fill, showing interpreted relative subsidence and effusive rates and basin fill stages.

1. the effect of variations in effusive rate;

2. clastic supply; and
3. subsidence (extension and/or thermal contraction of lava flows).
Basalts associated with CE ( lower and upper
Catoctin Formation) developed under relatively
high effusion rates ( Fig. 11), in contrast to the
sedimentary member (SE ) which is a thick
sequence of sediments with few thin flows. Rapid
and changing effusion rates are supported by the
number of basaltic flows and the absence of extensive paleosols development.
Paleosols have not been recognized at the tops
of volcanic flows or within any part of the Catoctin
Formation. From this absence of paleosols, eruption rates may be inferred to be enough to inhibit
soil development. Brecciated and cracked flow tops
would have enhanced the probability of chemical
weathering taking place. According to Park

(1994), the Catoctin Formation was at deposited

at a high southerly latitude. These cold climates,
additionally, inhibited extensive soil development
promoting grusification of the basement during
the early Catoctin time (Dilliard et al., 1999).
Badger (1986, 1992) demonstrated that flows in
the lower Catoctin Formation within the study
area were more numerous than north of the region.
Basaltic flows in the sedimentary member are of
similar scale as the lower member while flows
appear to be thicker in the upper member. This
change to thicker flows in the upper member also
corresponds with the appearance of an preserved
isolated CE element above the SE of the sedimentary member (Figs. 8, 9 and 11). The CE and
SE reflect similar depositional processes, that is
hyperconcentrated flow with subordinate normal
stream-flow conditions, but with different preservational conditions generating the geometry of each
element ( Fig. 11).

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K.A. Dilliard et al. / Precambrian Research 97 (1999) 115134

The channel element is best interpreted as

deposits of fluvial systems that have incised into
underlying basaltic flows [Fig. 12(a)]. The isolated
nature of the CE favors short-lived drainage systems. Within volcanic settings, Smith (1988)
demonstrated that drainages can be displaced
many kilometers or water flow across the lava field
may be drastically reduced over a relatively short
geological time span. Incised channels result as the
fluvial systems down cut into lava flows countering
the aggradational effects of the volcanic flow

buildup (Cas and Wright, 1988). Within thick

volcanic flow, Cas and Wright (1988) report that
fluvial deposits are typically preserved by valleyfill capping lavas with floodplains having a low
preservation potential. Basalt clasts in CE are
derived from exposed flows within the drainage
basin. The absence of a significant basement (plutonic)-clast population and the presence of quartz
and potassium feldspar in the sand-size fraction of
CE indicates a considerable distance to the highlands or fast subsidence rates. Mm-size quartz and

(a)

(b)

Fig. 12. Block diagrams of paleoenvironmental interpretation. Shaded areas are basalts. (a) CE, (b) SE.

K.A. Dilliard et al. / Precambrian Research 97 (1999) 115134

potassium feldspars phenocrysts are not present

within basalt flows, hence plutonic clasts were
abraded and disaggregated into fine sand before
reaching the depositional area. Local restricted
hyaloclastic deposits can develop as a result of
lava damming of the fluvial system.
In contrast, the SE best reflects development of
longer-lived drainages and establishment of significant fluvial systems [Fig. 12(b)]. Conglomerate
clasts in the SE contain a significant basement
clast component with a minor volcanic clast component supporting a shorter distance to the highlands due to possible rifting events or slow
subsidence rates.
An initial increase in subsidence rate, reflecting
the start of rifting, raised base level and permitted
aggradation of fluvial systems of the Swift Run
Formation before inundation by Catoctin
Formation flood basalts. Intercalated clastic rocks
of the lower Catoctin Formation, CE, may also
indicate high subsidence (extension or thermal
contraction of the lava flows) rates. Eriksson and
Simpson (1993) interpreted similarly interbedded
fluvial deposits within the Paleoproterozoic
Eastern Creek Volcanics to reflect more episodic
uplift with hiatuses in the volcanism permitting
erosion of volcanic rocks and establishment of
fluvial systems. The laterally extensive SE reflects
a slow uniform subsidence and possible aggrading
of fluvial systems to base level [Figs. 11 and 12(b)].
Extrabasinal granitic gravels, appear at this stratigraphic level indicating that significant progradation may have occurred away from the highlands.
The rift flanks were generated during the rapid
uplift/subsidence phase.
The upper Catoctin Formation lacks significant
preserved fluvial systems and is best interpreted as
a combination of an increase in the effusive and
subsidence rate. The absence of significant clastic
input probably reflects a cutoff of sediment in the
hinterland by disruption of the drainage basins
and increased subsidence.
Changes in effusive rate, clastic supply or extension (subsidence) as a single isolated factor can
not be eliminated as a single mechanism. More
likely these factors acted in concurrently to generate the rift fill.

131

6. Conclusions
Two elements are recognized within the
Catoctin Formation, CE and SE. Massive sandstone with diffuse stratification dominate the CE
and SE and are interpreted to record deposition
from hyperconcentrated flows. Additional facies
and the vertical sequence of facies present in the
CE and SE are best interpreted to be the product
of waning hyperconcentrated-flows ( laminar conditions) that evolved into a normal stream flow
(turbulent conditions). Lack of sediment-binding
vegetation coupled with a relatively high stream
gradient and possibly high water table enhanced
the probability of developing hyperconcentrated
flows by bulking (addition of sediment to a flow).
These observations support Schumms (1968) suggestion of increased frequency of hyperconcentrated flows before the advent of binding
plants.
CE reflects deposition in isolated fluvial channels incised into basaltic lavas. These elements are
present within the lower member of the Catoctin
Formation and their presence most likely indicates
a high rate of extrusion of volcanic rocks and high
subsidence. SE with subordinate volcanic rocks
reflects a reduction in effusive rates, decreased
subsidence and the spreading of gravels from the
rift margin. The last phase of basin infill is characterized by basalts without a significant component
of clastic sediments, indicating a final phase of
increased effusive rates and a cutoff of sediment
supply. The Catoctin Formation basin displays a
history of a more complex infill history than
correlative rift deposits associated with the second
major rift phase of the developing Laurentian
margin in the Southern Appalachians.

Acknowledgements
The authors thank Wulf Mueller and Don Lowe
for their careful and complete reviews. This paper
was part of a Senior Honors Thesis of Kelly
Dilliard while at KU. Fieldwork was supported
by professional development grants from the
Pennsylvania State System of Higher Education.
The authors are grateful to the staff of Shenandoah

132

K.A. Dilliard et al. / Precambrian Research 97 (1999) 115134

National Park, Blue Ridge Parkway, Jefferson

National Forest and Virginia Division of
Transportation for providing access and collecting permits.

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