An Overview on Slag Re-usability Current Scenario & Future Prospects

Contents
Chapter 1: Introduction .pg 3
- Importance of the topic
- Objective of the study
Chapter 2: Solid waste scenario .... pg. 6
- International Scenario
- National Scenario
Chapter 3: Solid Waste Generation . pg. 15
- Quantification
- Characteristics
Chapter -4: Data Analysis & interpretation. pg. 28
- Tata Steel
- SAIL
Chapter 5: Newer Direction of Research & Development..pg 34
- Innovative applications of Slags
- Need for additional funding
.
Chapter 6: Summary of the Studypg 44

Chapter 7: Recommendations..pg 46

Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1 Importance of this topic

The iron and steel industries around the world are responsible for the
generation of large amount of waste materials mainly because they
process huge quantity of raw materials. Neither the governments nor
the society have forced the industries to develop ways and means of
managing the waste in a creative way. However, with very little land
available for disposal of wastes and also because whatever was a
waste material two decades ago cannot be considered a waste today
due to ever increasing shortage of natural resources including ores,
minerals and fuels, the pattern of thinking of scientists and
technologists have changed. Newer materials and products are now
being developed from wastes generated from different process
industries including metallurgical industries. The concept of
utilization of solid wastes in iron and steel industries embraces the
three basic principles of recovery, recycling and converting to high
value added products. The utilization of wastes has attained in more
recent years fourth and most important dimension in its relation to
environment and problem of disposal. A fifth dimension lies in the
domain of research and development and relates to the addition of
values to wastes so as to make them into economical and useful
products. As has been mentioned in various literatures recycling is an
integral feature of modern steel plant operations. Of the materials
recycled, dust from various operations is recycled from the economic
3

and environmental point of view. Recovery of values from dust and

slag has been receiving considerable attention internationally in recent
years. Some of the well attempted examples by various countries are
recovery of phosphorous, niobium and manganese from slags,
recovery of zinc from blast furnace and BOF dust etc. Besides
recycling and recovery, continuous efforts are being made by many
foreign institutions and industries to convert solid wastes into value
added marketable products namely various types of ceramic based
products, composites and low cost building materials etc.

Fig 1.1 Landfills using blast furnace slag

2.2 Objective of the study

4

In this study, the aim is to present the development of a few products

manufactured from solid waste generated from iron & steel industries
including captive power plants. Some of these products are wear
resistant ceramic lining materials, refractory aggregate for high
alumina cement cast-able, ceramic floor & wall tiles, etc. The
theoretical aspects behind development of these products have also
been touched upon. Extensive discussion of Blast Furnace and
Electric Arc Furnace slag will be made and the environmental hazards
that arise from wasteful disposal of these wastes.

Fig1.2 pollution of a local water body due to dumping of slag

Chapter 2

Solid Waste scenario

2.1 Global Scenario

As early as 350 B.C., the Greek philosopher-physician Aristotle
prescribed iron slags for healing wounds. Around 1589, Germans
were making cannon balls cast from iron slag and records are
available which indicate that cast iron slag stones were used for
masonry work in Europe of the 18th century. The history of slag
use in road building dates back to the time of Roman empire, some
2000 years ago, when broken slag from the crude iron-making forges
of that area were used in base construction. Roads made from slag
were first built in England, blocks cast of slag were in general use for
street paving in Europe and the US. Today slag is a nuisance it
dumped and is a valuable material if properly processed. The target of
current steel industry is to recycle and utilize all their by products.
Slag is the important waste and by products of steel industry, which
have been treated, recycled and used worldwide. Zero slag process
lowers the amount of slag generated through hot metal pretreatment,
thereby expanding the range of slag utilization . Almost a century ago,
the term waste product aptly described slag. Slag was considered to
be essential in the production of iron, but once it served its purpose in
refining the metal, it was strictly a nuisance with little or no use. The
use of slags became a common practice in Europe at the turn of the
19th century, where the incentive to make all possible use of industrial
6

byproducts was strong and storage space for byproducts was lacking.
Shortly after, many markets for slags opened in Europe, the United
States, and elsewhere in the world. The Portland Cement Association
is promoting slag use in Portland cement production. The potential for
a carbon tax levy on CO2 emissions may provide the cement
producers with incentives to find ways of reducing unit CO 2
emissions in Portland cement production, where the combustion of
fuel and decomposition of carbonates in the raw feed contribute to
CO2 emissions. Texas Industries Inc. has developed a process for
cement clinker production involving the use of steel slag.
In this process, which is called CemStar, steel slag is fed into the
rotary kiln as a part of the raw meal. Replacing a part of the limestone
in the raw deal directly with slag results in the lowering of CO2
emissions as well as increasing cement production directly
proportional to the quantity of slag used. Refinements of the
process started in 2000 have continued throughout 2001 (Robert
D. Rogers, President, Texas Industries Inc., oral commune, 2001).
Based on 2011 data on hazardous solid wastes regulated under the
RCRA, the EPA found that iron and steel mills and ferroalloy
manufacturing activities ranked fifth for the 50 largest quantities of
hazardous waste generated in the U.S. (around 1.4 million tons.).
More than 56% and 24% of the produced steel slag have been utilized
as sinter material in USA and German respectively. In China, Baoshan
Iron and Steel Group (Bao Steel) began to reused steel slag for
sintering in 1996, now having a stable reusing amount of 15,000 tons.
7

Lianyuan Iron and Steel Company (Lianyuan Steel) have been

utilizing steel slag as sinter material while in recent years the amount
for sintering has deceased because of either the increase of
phosphorus content in iron ore and hot metal or the decrease of CaO
and Fe content in steel slag. In Germany, about 400,000 tons of steel
slag per year is used as aggregate for the stabilization of rive bankers
and river beds against erosion. Nippon Slag Association in Japan has
since 1993 been involved in application technology research for the
use of steelmaking slag as a material for ground improvement in port
and harbor construction and in 2008 published the Guide to the use in
port and Harbor Construction. JFE Steel Corporation in Japan
manufactured artificial reefs for sea wood/coral breeding (Marine
block) using carbonated steel slag. The Artificial reefs show a high
stability in seawater due to the fact that it consists of CaCO 3, like
shells and coral, and they act as great breeding habitats for seaweeds
and coral. In China, Xu manufactured concrete armor blocks for sea
coast projects, partially replacing sand with steel slag and cement with
fine slag powder, and the concrete blocks has been applied practically
in East China sea coast reclamation works and Luchao port project.
Li, et al prepared high strength of artificial reefs concrete with 79%
granulated high furnace slag ,15% steel slag , 5% flue gas
desulphurization gypsum and 1% mixture as cementitious material
and steel slag grains as its fine and coarse aggregates. Approximately
60% of slag is used for road engineering in Japan and European
countries, and even 98% of that is utilized as aggregates of cement
8

and bituminous pavement in UK. More than 25 years ago in Germany

test roads were built using steel slag as an aggregate for unbound and
bituminous bound mixtures. Ahmedzadea investigated the influences
of the utilization of steel slag as a coarse aggregate on the properties
of hot mix asphalt. The results showed that steel slag used as a coarse
aggregate improved the mechanical properties of asphalt mixtures.
Moreover, volume resistivity values demonstrated that the electrical
conductivity of steel slag asphalt mixtures were better than that of
limestone asphalt mixtures. Asi observed that asphalt concrete mixes
containing 30% steel slag had the highest skid number followed by
Superpave, SMA(Stone Mastic Asphalt), and Marshall mixes,
respectively. Ameri, et al. evaluated the effectiveness of steel slag as a
substitute for virgin aggregates on mechanical properties of cold mix
recycling asphalt pavement. The results showed that the use of steel
slag could enhance Marshall stability, resilient modulus, tensile
strength, resistance to moisture damage and resistance to permanent
deformation of CIR (Cold In Place Recycling) mixes. Steel slag
presents porous structure and large surface area; in addition, it is easy
to separate from water due to its high density. Therefore, the
application of steel slag in industrial waste water treatment has
received intensive attention in recent years. Shi, et al. studied the
treatment of mercury-containing sea water with steel slag and the high
adsorption capacity of steel slag for mercury was observed. Chamteut
used steel slag as a low-cost adsorbent for arsenic in aqueous system,
showing 95-100% removal efficiency near initial pH=2. The removal
9

mechanism included the co-precipitation and adsorption of CaCO 3.

Kim, et al. investigated the removal mechanism of copper using steel
slag and the results confirmed that the major mechanisms were
adsorption and precipitation. In addition, steel slag as a separated
adsorbent can be used to remove aqueous ammonium nitrogen,
phosphorous and phenol .The combined use of steel slag and H 2O2
can decompose organic pollutions due to the ferrous ion produced
from FeO in steel slag reacting with hydrogen peroxide to form
Fenton's reagent that has strong oxidation .Steel slag can also be used
as raw material for coagulant preparation . Steel slag contains
fertilizer components CaO, SiO2, and MgO. In addition to these three
components, it also contains components such as FeO, MnO, and
P2O5, so it has been used for a broad range of agricultural purposes.
Its alkaline property remedies soil acidity .In developed countries
such as Germany, USA, France and Japan, converter slag is used to
produce siliceous fertilizer, phosphorus fertilizer and micronutrient
fertilizer. In Europe, due to expertise and agreements with
environmental authorities in various countries ,
some of the slag types are recognized as non-wastes, products or byproducts (e.g., in Belgium, Finland, Germany, Austria and the United
Kingdom) but still have a waste status in some other countries. Steel
slags in particular are often considered as waste, especially in
the liquid state and before treatment. The following figures give the
utilization of iron and steel slags in Europe in the year 2010.

10

Fig 2.1 Utilization of BF slag in European countries in the year

2010

Fig 2.2 Utilization of Steel Slag in Europe in 2010

2.2 Indian scenario
As per the Report of the Working Group on Cement Industry for the
12th Plan, around 10 million tones BF slag is currently generated
in the country from iron & steel industry. The BF slag in India is used
mainly in the cement manufacture and in other unorganized work,
such as, landfills and railway ballast. A small quantity is also used by
the glass industry for making slag wool fibers. Cement plants in the
11

country producing slag cement require BF slag in granulated forms.

Commonwealth Scientific & Industrial Research Organization
(CSIRO) carried out investigations for value-added method for slag
and proved a number of technically viable and commercially
interesting applications of slag. The applications include (i) base
course and top course to asphalt roads, (ii) anti-skid surfacing for
roads on accident-prone intersections, (iii) low-strength concrete for
footpaths (iv) controlled low strength fill for backfill required for
trench stabilization and (v) concrete sub-base for rigid pavements.
Most leading steel plants sell part of blast furnace slag to private
cement manufacturers for granulation, the remaining being air cooled
and dumped. The amount of GBFS added to cement is higher only if
the glassy content of the slag is 90 to 96 per cent, which in turn is
possible if temperature of the slag is above 1200C. Cast house
granulation in some of the blast furnaces at these steel plants have
taken care of slag temperature. The Indian Road Congress (IRC) and
the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) accept air cooled blast furnace
slag as a substitute of store aggregate /chips for making purposes.
Necessary efforts are required to be made for its utilization in road
making in the steel townships and inside the plants. Utilization of the
crystalline air cooled blast furnace slag also requires persuasion and
follow up with various road making authorities - Central, State, Local
bodies - so that it is included in the schedule for economic
transportation. Studies on slags for their use as substitute for stone
aggregates in road making have been conducted. Based on the report
12

an experimental road patch is going to be constructed soon at

Rourkela with the active participation of RSP, CRRI and state road
authorities. The outcome of this trial is expected to help in
popularizing the slags for road making purposes.

Fig 2.3 Slag processing plant

Some steel plants are preparing for necessary supply of crushed and
sized slag to the customer. The finer size of the BF Slag can be used
as a substitute for sand in concrete/mortar making. RDCIS is
conducting a study with jointly with Central Road Research Institute,
New Delhi and is trying to develop a suitable combination for making
high density -heavy duty roads with Steel Plants wastes.

13

Fig. 2.4 Solid Waste utilization pattern in Indian steel

plants
Avenues to utilize blast furnace slag in the form of boulders for
arresting erosion of the embankment of Hooghly and Digha shore
lines are also being explored by nearby steel plants. Rajkot (Gujarat)
is well known for its small scale industries for long time and one of
the fastest developing cities of India is hub of steel and allied
industries.. Rajkot itself produces blast furnace slag of amount
2500T/month from its 2000 steel processing units. This enormous
quantity of blast furnace slag is generally dumped in unscientific
manner create environmental issues and little is used for landfill
purpose without any technical input.

14

Chapter 3

Solid Waste Generation

3.1 Quantification
In an integrated steel plant, 2 4 tons of wastes (including solid,
liquid and gas) are generated for every ton of steel produced.
Accordingly, today the emphasis is on the avoidance of waste
generation, recycling and reuse of waste, and minimizing the adverse
impact of disposal on the environment. Among all the solid/liquid
wastes, slag generated at iron making and steel making units are
created in the largest quantities. Some
3.2 Characterization
In this study, our topics of discussion are mainly BF slag and EAF
slag, so we discuss their physical and chemical characteristics. The
figure given below gives us an idea about the steps of generation and
processing of blast furnace and steel slag.

15

Fig 3.1 Steps of slag production

3.2.1 BF slag
Blast furnace slag is a nonmetallic by-product produced in the
process of iron making (pig iron) in a blast furnace and 300kg of Blast
furnace slag is generated when 1 ton of pig iron produced. In India,
annual productions of pig iron is 70-80 million tons and
corresponding blast furnace slag are about 21-24 million tons. Blast
furnace slag is mildly alkaline and exhibits a pH in solution in the
range of 8 to 10 and does not present a corrosion risk to steel in
pilings or to steel embedded in concrete made with blast furnace slag
cement or aggregates. The blast furnace slag could be used for the
cement raw material, the roadbed material, the mineral admixture for
concrete and aggregate for concrete, etc. Now in India, resources of
natural sand are very lacking, it is necessary that the new fine
16

aggregate was sought. The property of blast furnace slag is similar to

natural sand, the price is cheap and the output is large too, could be
regarded as the substitute of the natural sand. But there is no
experience about application of blast furnace slag fine aggregate in
concrete and the reports about the research are also few. The main
uses of blast furnace slag are given as follows:-

Fig 3.2 main uses of BF Slag

Ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) is a by-product from
the blast-furnaces used to make iron. These operate at a temperature
of about 1,500 degrees centigrade and are fed with a carefully
controlled mixture of iron-ore, coke and limestone. The iron ore is
reduced to iron and the remaining materials form a slag that floats on
top of the iron. This slag is periodically tapped off as a molten liquid
and if it is to be used for the manufacture of GGBS it has to be rapidly
quenched in large volumes of water. The quenching optimizes the
17

cementitious properties and produces granules similar to coarse sand.

This 'granulated' slag is then dried and ground to a fine powder. It is a
glassy granular material. GGBS cement is added to concrete in the
concrete manufacturer's batching plant, along with Portland cement,
aggregates and water. The normal ratios of aggregates and water to
cementitious material in the mix remain unchanged. GGBS is used as
a direct replacement for Portland cement, on a one-to-one basis by
weight. Replacement levels for GGBS vary from 30% to up to 85%.
Chemical composition of GGBS may vary from plant to plant owing
to difference in raw material composition, process routes etc. Table
3.1 given below highlights this fact as it draws a comparison between
chemical compositions of GGBS from two different Steel Plants.
Table 3.1 Comparative composition of GGBS generated from
Bokaro Steel Plant and Tata Iron & Steel Plant

18

Typically 40 to 50% is used in most instances. GGBS concrete cement

sets more slowly than concrete made with ordinary Portland cement,
depending on the amount of GGBS in the cementitious material, but
also continues to gain strength over a longer period in production
conditions. This results in lower heat of hydration and lower
temperature rises, and makes avoiding cold joints easier, but may also
affect construction schedules where quick setting is required. GGBS is
used to make durable concrete structures in combination with
ordinary Portland cement and/or other pozzolanic materials. GGBS
has been widely used in Europe, and increasingly in the United States
and in Asia (particularly in Japan and Singapore) for its superiority in
concrete durability, extending the lifespan of buildings from fifty
years to a hundred years.

Fig 3.3 Chemical composition of BF slag (% weight)

19

3.2.2 Steel Slag

Modern integrated steel plants produce steel through basic oxygen
process. Some steel plants use electric arc furnace smelting to their
size. In the case of former using oxygen process, lime (CaO) and
dolomite (CaO.MgO) are charged into the converter or furnace as
flux. Lowering the launce, injection of higher pressurized oxygen is
accomplished. This oxygen combines with the impurities of the
charge which are finally separated. The impurities are silicon,
manganese, phosphorous, some liquid iron oxides and gases like CO2
and CO. Combined with lime and dolomite, they form steel slag. At
the end of the operation liquid steel is poured into a ladle. The
remaining slag in the vessel is transferred to a separate slag pot. For
industrial use, different grades of steel are required. With varying
grades of steel produced, the resulting slag also assume various
characteristics and hence strength properties. Grades of steel are
classified from high to medium and low depending on their carbon
content. Higher grades of steel have higher carbon contents. Low
carbon steel is made by use of greater volume of oxygen so that good
amount carbon goes into combination with oxygen in producing CO2
which escapes into atmosphere. This also necessitates use of higher
amount of lime and dolomite as flux. These varying quantities of slag
known as furnace slag or tap slag, raker slag, synthetic or ladle slag
and pit or clean out slag. The Steel Slag is crushed to get the desired
size of aggregates. The slag had grayish white color. Steel slag must
be allowed to undergo the weathering process before using as an
20

aggregate in construction because of its expansive nature. This is done

in order to reduce the quantity of free lime to acceptable limits. The
steel slag is allowed to stand in stockpiles for a period of at least 4
months and exposed to weather. During this weathering process, the
steel slag is required to be in contact with water so that the hydration
process between lime and water takes place. Hydration of free lime
(CaO) or free magnesia (MgO) is responsible for expansive nature of
steel slag.

Fig 3.3 Microstructure of steel slag

The chemical and physical data for the above steel slag is presented as
follows. The tests on Steel Slag are as per Indian Standard Codes.

21

Table 3.2 Physical properties of steel slag

Aggregates
Steel Slag

Absorption
2.5

Specific

L.A.

Gravity
2.91

Absorption
27

Table3.3 Chemical properties of steel slag (sample)

Component

Sample slag composition Composition

(%)

provided

by

NSA
FeO
CaO
SiO2
MgO
Al2O3

1- 2.5
45-50
20-22
10-15
4-8

(%)
24
42
15
8
1-5

3.3 Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) Slag

Demand and production of steel is increasing day by
day and all the developing countries like China, India
are increasing their production capacity significantly.
Total world steel production has crossed 1200 million
metric tons and the leader China is producing more
than one
third of it. Steel production by electric arc furnace route
has gained momentum after eighties and consists of
around 50% of the total steel production by advanced
22

countries. This route of steel production has several

advantages over the conventional blast furnace and
converter route. These are mainly: Low capital cost and
lower energy requirement per ton of steel, allows the
utilization of waste steel scraps, precise control on
chemistry and temperature of steel, flexibility in the
size of the furnace (can be very small for special alloys)
and very high temperature may be achieved by arcing.
But due to this change in the steel making technology,
there appears a new by-product: electric arc furnace
(EAF) slag (also commonly called as black slag).Electric
Arc Furnace Slag (EAFS) that contains low percentage of amorphous
silica and high content of ferric oxides and consequently has low
pozzolanic activities in comparison with Blast Furnace Slag (BFS), is
not appropriate to be used in blended cement production. But it has
been widely employed as aggregate, mainly in base, sub-base and
bituminous pavement for road construction ,breakwater blocks,
foundations, shoring walls, noise barriers, and
radiation insulators, in which EAF slag provides many advantages in
comparison with natural aggregates.

23

Fig 3.4 Generation of EAF slag

The Electric Furnace Slag is an excellent material to be used in the
ceramics industry for the production of construction items. The slag
enriches these products with firefighting phases, giving the final
product: Increased mechanical strength
Small shrinkage of dimensions during drying and roasting
Zero water permeability
Good behavior in testing of strength in frost
Decreased energy cost, due to the decreased percentage of moisture
demanded for their production.
24

The Electric Furnace Slag is an excellent raw material replacing the

silica sands in the ceramic industry for the production of construction
tiles and bricks, with an increase of about 40% of their mechanical
strength without an increase of the roasting temperature. This means
that is now possible for tiles and bricks with thinner walls to be
produced, therefore a more economical use of the raw material and
decrease of the energy consumption is achieved, plus a lighter and
easier to handle product. The products have zero level permeability.
Furthermore, if the tiles are roasted at a temperature 30 oC higher than
usual, they obtain a glassy texture which makes them fine for external
(visible) construction sections. The firefighting Fetling masses are
broadly used in metallurgical smelting furnaces(electric furnaces,
transportation buckets etc.), an effort to reduce the wear of the
permanent firefighting tiles. The demand in the firefighting properties
of the Fetling masses is low, for their easier cementation with the
furnace walls at its operation temperatures. Therefore the high
firefighting masses produced from domestic low iron magnesite
deposits are not proper for this use. The addition of the high Fe 2O3
slag of can reduce the firefighting properties of the mixture. A
comparison of physical properties between naturally occurring
aggregates and EAF slag are as given in the table below. The testing
method has been specified.

25

Table 3.4 Physical properties of EAF slag (aggregate)

Table Physical properties of EAF slag (powdered)

The EAF steelmaking process is essentially a steel scrap recycling

process. Therefore, the chemical composition of EAF slag depends
significantly on the properties of the recycled steel. Compared to BOF
slags, the main chemical constituents of EAF slags can vary widely.
Typically, the FeO, CaO, SiO2, Al2O3, and MgO contents of EAF
slags are in the 1040%, 2260%, 634%, 314%, and 313% ranges,
26

respectively. Other minor components include other oxidized

impurities, such as MgO, MnO, and SO3. EAF slags also contain free
CaO and MgO along with other complex minerals and solid solutions
of CaO, FeO, and MgO. The FeO content of EAF slags generated
from stainless steel production processes can be as low as 2% .
Table 3.5 Chemical Composition of EAF slags

The above slag can be used as a soil enhancer due to high percentage
of iron oxide and calcium oxide.

27

Chapter 4

Data Analysis & Interpretation

4.1 Introduction
Utilization solid wastes which include blast furnace slag, LD sludge,
fly ash etc. This section deals with a few case studies: the plant data
for slag generated by some of the leading steel producing plants in
India.
4.2 Case Studies
4.2.1 Tata Steel
With the steel making production capacity now at 9.7 MTPA
approximately 6 MTPA of solid waste

is

generated. The waste

primarily comprises two major components BF Slag and Sludge produced during iron making - and LD Slag and Sludge - generated
during steel making. Various operating units also generate other
wastes such as Flue Dust, Mill Scale and Sludge, Muck and
Refractory Wastes. This huge volume of waste not only requires
proper handling or storage but more importantly minimization and
efficient utilization.
Currently nearly all solid waste materials generated at the Steel Works
are utilized or stored for future processing and usage. Sustained
utilization of LD Slag, which constitutes more than 30% of the solid
waste, is a major vulnerability.

28

Table 4.1 Solid waste generation of Tata Steel

Year
Waste
generated

2011-12
4.45

2012-13

2013-14

5.25

5.99

(mill. tones)
A project focuses on processing LD Slag at the Waste Recovery Plant
(crushing and magnetic separation), making it phosphorous free and
then reusing it in the steel melting shops as well as in sinter making.
LF slag is rich in CaO (~50%) and thus can be used to replace direct
addition of Lime. The Company commissioned a facility to condition
LD Slag and improve its utilization, which has already increased from
less than 30% in 2011-12 to nearly 100% in 2013-14. Most of this
processed waste is likely to be used as construction aggregate.
Improvement projects led to higher waste utilization of LD Slag in
sinter making - from 42 Ktpa to 165 Ktpa, replacement of limestone
and sand in the cast-house with LD slag, a 20-fold increase of LD
Slag usage in the Cement sector (58 Ktpa in 2013-14) and higher
utilization of waste at its waste management site. Trials were
undertaken to replace sand with slag in underground mine stowing.
Trials are also being conducted using a mix of LD Slag, Fly Ash and
Granulated Blast Furnace Slag, with Alkali (NaOH and Silicate) as
binder, to develop paver blocks. Discussions are also underway to
market this product. A study of solid waste best practices across the
world revealed the possibility of Air granulation of LD Slag. Once
granulated the slag can be used for road construction or in the cement
29

industry. This method has added advantage of better metal recovery

from slag hence it is being evaluated for implementation. Tata Steel is
engaging with the Jharkhand State Government, Department of
Agricultural to promote the iron rich LD Slag as a soil conditioner.
Over 93% of the blast furnace slag is granulated before being sold to
the cement industry as a clinker substitute, eliminating the need to use
Limestone to produce clinker. This reduces CO 2 emission in cement
production. Tata Steel supplies most of this granulated and dried Blast
Furnace Slag to cement makers around its Steel Works at Jamshedpur.
4.2.2 SAIL
Solid wastes in steel plants are essentially by products generated
during various processing steps involved in the production of iron and
steel. The quantities of such wastes are enormous and their nature
quite varied and diverse. Some wastes like BF and SM Slags as well
as fly ash, constitute a major fraction of the total generation, whereas
mill scale and flue dust contribute comparatively smaller fraction. The
solid waste generation in SAIL plants in kg/t of crude steel for 199495 is given in Table below

30

Table 4.2 Slag products of SAIL plants

Solid

by-

BSP

DSP

RSP

BSL

IISCO

product
Air-cooled

1081

265

222

1479

332

BF Slag
Granulated

833

273

217

205

128

BF slag
SMS slag-

438

133

74

33

THE/OHF
SMS Slag-

254

74

193.3

754

LD/BOF
Generation of "Solid Wastes" from a steel plant fully depends on the
quality of raw materials available for its process which is around
12(X) kg. for each tons of steel produced in SAIL steel plant. The
steel plants abroad operating of on superior raw materials produce in
the order of 550 kg of wastes for each tons of steel produced.
The quality of slag fly ash is of most importance in formulating
management strategy for its effective utilization and disposal. The
quality varies with physical and chemical characteristics of raw
materials, process technology, operating practice and type of end
products. The slag quality governs the extent of slag reuse in metal
recovery and utilization by mixing with other materials. Part of BF
Slag can be recycled to blast furnace and sinter plant. The magnesium
content in the converter slag may be useful as a slag conditioner. The
fly ash generated in SAIL plants are high in SiO 2 content of the order

31

of 45-50% and alumina content of 14-28% in different units. The

usual practice of managing these solid wastes is to dump them in open
space and excavated land which creates environmental pollution in
the form of dusts and leachates. Beside, these also need huge
investment in dumping . As a age old practice, SAIL was also
following the same method. The solid by products generated in SAIL
steel plants can become profitable when disposed as saleable
products. Out of total solid waste generated in our steel plants 16%
are sold , 21% recycled and rest 63% are dumped. The utilization of
granulated BF Slag (GBFS) is 99.4% and that of rest of wastes such
as air cooled BF slag, fly ash have been insignificant. This has
resulted in the continuous increase of dumps and related
environmental problems. At the present level of production it is
estimated that over 10 million tons of solid wastes are generated every
year by SAIL steel plants. Out of this about 8 million tons are
estimated to be dumped annually, the dumps of accumulated slags
alone may account for over 100 million tons in our major steel plants.
Technologies for utilization of these and other wastes are available
from national institutes and laboratories including RDCIS (SAIL).
These technologies are in the areas of : (i) Utilizations of fly ash in
brick making, pellet making and in agricultural field, (ii)
Utilizations of ferruginous wastes through micro pelletisation sinter
making route,(iii) Utilizations of salvaged refractories in production
of remming mass, mortar etc. and (iv) Recovery of acid from waste
acid sludge. In DSP, parties have been identified to manufacture
32

bricks from Fly ash using CFRI technology. Land, water/raw

materials and power will be supplied to entrepreneurs by DSP. The
parties will have to identify the market for it. Each of them will be
manufacturing 8000 bricks/day initially

Chapter 5

Newer

Direction
33

of

Research

&

Development : INNOVATIVE uses

5.1 Innovative applications of EAF slags
While blast furnace slag can be easily recycled following cooling and
treatment before granulation, to be utilized by the cement
industry(mainly),steel slags are particularly difficult to recycle,
especially EAF slags .This chapter deals with the more innovative
approach of utilizing slags, namely EAF slags. A few such cases are
considered as follows
5.1.1 EAF Steel Slag Filters for Phosphorus Removal from Milk
The treatment technologies that are utilized for municipal and
industrial wastewater are complex and very expensive. Chemical
dosing, for example, a traditional P removal technology, is an energy
intensive method that requires constant monitoring and manipulation .
Agricultural producers lack the capital, manpower and technical
training to build and maintain such systems. Steel slags, a co-product
of steel production, have demonstrated the greatest capacity to remove
P from a variety of wastewaters. Thus for specific study, Parlor
Effluent Electric arc furnace (EAF) steel slag filters were investigated
for their efficiency at reducing the concentration of phosphorus (P)
from dairy farm wastewater in Vermont. The primary objective for
this study was to examine the use of in series design on filters
performance in P removal from dairy farm wastewater at subzero
temperatures. During much of the first feeding cycle the EAF steel
34

slag filters were operated under subzero temperatures. Many steps

were made to reduce the incidence of freezing in the filter system, and
the few times that freezing did occur it was mostly in the connecting
piping between filters, which were more exposed. This demonstrates
that with simple design modifications to provide insulation and
protection from cold, an EAF steel slag filter system can function
effectively in cold climates.

Fig 5.1 Porous nature of slag that makes it an excellent water

filter
5.1.2 Steel Slag Filtration For Extensive Treatment Of Mining
Wastewater
The mining industry faces major environmental concerns, if it

35

discharges effluents that have the potential to damage ecosystems and

human health. The various composition of mining wastewaters
has led to the development of several treatment systems. Systems for
leachate from abandoned mines have to be efficient for a long period
of time and cost effective, as they are often implemented as a
condition of post-closure plans. Use of EAF slag to remove fluoride,
phosphorous and heavy metals is notable under specific restriction of
pH and this is an area which may have huge scope for research.
5.1.3 Use of Steel Slag in Agriculture and for Reclamation of
Acidic Lands
As discussed in the previous chapter, steel slags contains significant
concentrations of Ca and Mg. These elements occur in the form of
silicates, ferrites, aluminates, oxides and some free CaO and MgO.
Steel slag is alkaline, with pH in the range of 8-10, but values of 12 or
higher are possible if the free CaO content is high enough (CaO
reacts with water to form Ca(OH)2 which has a maximum pH of
12.5). While Calcium silicate is alkaline and will act as a long-term
liming agent in soil, the immediate liming effect comes from the free
CaO and MgO. The liming materials in steel slag comprise watersoluble and less water-soluble Ca and Mg compounds. Free Ca in slag
reacts rapidly with water to form Ca(OH)2. The Ca(OH)2will react
rapidly with soil acidity. The less soluble silicate compounds will
react more slowly with soil acidity and will provide more long-term
36

buffering of soil pH. It is expected that Ca(OH)2, formed when the

CaO in the slag reacts with soil moisture, will cause an immediate
increase in soil pH, but not to the desired pH. The desired pH will be
achieved over time as the less soluble liming constituents in the slag
react with the soil. It is recommended that a lime reaction test be
conducted for a specific slag. The lime reaction test involves mixing
one or more representative acid soils with the rate of steel slag
determined from the buffer lime test and observing changes in soil pH
over time. The frequency of application would be based on the time
that the slag was able to maintain the desired pH.
Use of steel slag for reclamation of acidic mine land is an excellent
use for this material. Application rates to neutralize total potential
acidity of mine land are high and reapplication of lime may not be
technically or economically feasible.
5.1.4 Production of Sintered Ceramic Tiles Produced from Steel
Slag
Characteristics of the raw materials indicate that EAF slag contains
very high amount of iron oxide, lime, silica and magnesia. Presence
of very high amount of iron oxide may restrict the use of this material
in a ceramic composition, as it may reduce the firing temperature and
vitrification range. Silica, lime and magnesia may be accommodated
in the ceramic compositions. The developed tiles are having relatively
higher density value due to presence of heavier iron oxide. Again use
of EAF slag showed relatively short vitrification range for all the
37

compositions, even on the use to the extent of 3040 wt% in the

composition. Presence of higher amount of feldspar and also higher
amount of low alumina containing clay showed further reduced
vitrification range for the compositions. A little reduced flexural
strength was obtained when complete vitrification was obtained,
which may be associated with grain growth and re-crystallization. In
the microstructural study quartz was found to be unreacted at 1125C
for all the compositions and iron oxide rich portion (remnant of slag)
and alumina, lime, silica containing compound was found as the other
microstructural constituents.
5.1.5 Slag usage in thermal and insulator manufacturing
Slag wool is manufactured by adding auxiliary raw materials to air
cooled blast furnace slag, adjusting constituents, melting the mixture
in a cupola or an electric arc furnace and finally fiber zing it with
special devices like spinner. The fibers are elongated by jet of air,
steam or flame. The product is cured in ovens and formed in-to
familiar insulation bats and blankets or chopped in- to lose-fill
insulation used home, commercial and industrial buildings. The slag
wool has a wide range of applications as heat insulating material, fireproof wall material for houses, heat reserving and sound absorption
materials for industrial applications. The fibers are noncombustible
and have melting point over 1100 oC; they are used in protection
against fire. The fibrous structure and high density of slag wool
insulation offer excellent sound absorption properties, making these
38

products an outstanding part of overall wall system designed to

reduce sound transmission. It resists the growth of mild, fungi and
bacteria because it is inorganic. Competitive advantages of BF slag
insulators are as follows:
Because of using less silica compared with similar kinds of
hasnt danger of pulmonary disease and doesnt cause
sensitiveness for skins.
Standard amount of SiO2 in insulators shows that its not
harmful for environment and can return to ecosystem.
Low heat conduction coefficient of insulators has caused their
high insulating power.

Fig 5.2 Slag wool sample

5.1.6 Ceramic pipe manufacturing by using of molten BF slag
In the first stage, molten
BF slag cast in sand mould, later it cast in centrifugal mould BF slag
is

usually

melilite

(solid

solution

series

of

gehlenite,

2CaO.Al2O3.SiO2, and akermanite, 2CaO.MgO.2SiO2) with a small

amount of calcium sulphide (oldhamite)<1%. Sometimes merwinite
39

(3CaO.MgO.2SiO2) is also present and more rarely di-calcium silicate

2CaO.SiO2. Results shows cast partshas akermanite, merwinite, glass
(amorphous) and small amount of forsterite phase. By controlling of
crystallization it is possible to manufacture ceramic piece with
required mechanical strength and hardness. Future research will be
done by some modification of molten BF slag.
5.1.7 Utilization Steel Slag to Produce Non-Fired Environment
Friendly Construction Bricks.
The conventional method of bricks making has caused serious
environmental contamination represented by the enormous emissions
of greenhouse gases (GHG) resulted in unusual climate changes as
smog, acid rain and global warming. Furthermore, energy as fuel and
electricity showed a drastic consumption during the traditional
manufacturing of bricks led to highly economical expenditures. As a
result, vast forests are in current deforestation in order to utilize their
woods and trees as source of energy in the firing stage of bricks
production. Hence, recycling the wastes in the bricks production
appears to be viable solution not only to environmental pollution but
also economical option to design of green building. The excessive
extraction of clay and the removal of top soil have resulted in an
enormous depletion of the virgin clay. Therefore, there have been
remarkable efforts from researches in producing new type of clay
bricks developed from various waste materials. Hence, recycling the
wastes in clay brick will save the clay from the evitable depletion and
40

reduce

the

environmental

contamination

of

waste,

whereby

contributing to sustainability.

Fig 5.3 Bricks manufactured from slag

Due to the low hydraulic activity of LD slags, only a small part of
these slags can actually be used in road construction. A study carried
out to find the usability of LD slags from a steel plant in India
produced notable results. The raw materials required for the bricks are
fly ash, LD slag, quarry dust, lime, gypsum and calcium chloride. The
process of manufacturing fly ashLD slag brick is based on the
reaction of CaO present in LD slag as well as lime with silica of fly
ash and quarry dust or sand.

41

Fig 5.4 Brick manufacturing system

The characterization results of LD slag shows that the pH and
electrical conductivity are very high indicating high percentage of
lime presence and presence of form of various salts, respectively. The
specific gravity and bulk density of sample was found to be high in
comparison to fly ash and due to these characteristics the LD slag
bricks are heavier than that of the fly-ash brick.The cost of fly ash
LD

slag brick

depends

upon

the

electricity

cost,

water

cost,maintenance cost, labour cost and the cost of raw material used in
brick making. The costof raw material depends upon the market value
and the transportation cost of thematerial. While other additional
expenditure for brick making were electricity cost, watercost,
maintenance cost and labour cost which is Rs.0.61/brick. Considering
all the above costs, the manufacturing cost of fly ashLD slag brick
was estimated to be ofRs.2.72/brick. The above cost is little bit higher
than that of the cost of conventional red clay bricks (approximately
Rs.2.50). But some indirect benefit (environmental) can be achieved
with the manufacturing of fly ashLD slag brick. The compressive
strength of the fly ashLD slag brick Sample (above100 kg/cm2)
was sufficiently higher than that of the normal red clay bricks (5070
kg/cm2) and can be a feasible replacement for the commercial
purposes in civil jobs. This will not only solve the industrys waste
disposal problem but also protects environment and save energy
(capacity of coal saving 37 t/lakhs of bricks).

42

Chapter 6

Summary of The study

Thus, after conducting this study and the associated research ,the
following important points can be summarized :-

43

 Slag generation cannot be avoided in the iron and steel industry,

it can only be reused and recycled.
European Countries have essentially 100% slag reusability and
they were the first to recognize the reusability of slag
Research is being carried out in different parts of the world in
order to use slag for innovative applications like water refining
and agricultural applications.
India is still lagging in the slag usability ,with the majority of it
being air cooled and dumped, especially steel slag
Research in India is being conducted to use the Steel Slag in
road construction and manufacture of ceramic tiles, but till now
the only major consumer of this product the cement industry.
Blast furnace slag has excellent pozzolanic activity, rendering it
useful in creating artificial aggregates for cement and concrete,
but steel making slags are rich in iron oxide and have very little
or no pozzolanic activity, hence the present utilization in
developing countries is to air cool and dump the slags in land
fills

EAF slags (also called black slags) can be used in innovative

applications like water filtration, agricultural applications as
well as manufacture of vitreous tiles (though to a limited
extent).

44

 Popular products from slags like slag wool ,ceramic pipe fittings
etc. can help popularize the reuse of this cheap but valuable
resource
Composition of steel making slags vary widely, depending on
the charge used in the process(DRI, pig iron or scrap).This leads
to problem in reusability because all slags cannot be processed
or used in a standard fashion

Chapter 7

recommendations

After conducting this study, the following recommendation are made

for proper slag utilization:45

 Proper education in developing countries regarding the true

value and profitable opportunities in investing in a proper slag
processing and recycling routine.
Government initiatives to stop dumping of slags and other
wastes as landfills and force the concerned companies to follow
a proper recycling system.
Sharing knowledge form developed countries who have already
reached a 100% utilization rate so as to improve present
scenario.
Development of infrastructure and an R&D facilities so as to
encourage innovative technologies for slag utilizations, because
slag use changes with composition hence existent technologies
may not be useful in recycling a slag resulting from a particular
processing route
Encouraging entrepreneurs to pursue business opportunities in
this field, so as to make the recycling of slag a popular concept.

Government assistance is helpful in this aspect

Popularizing use of slag based products in the market through
proper advertisement so as to encourage further development

46