A.

Morphology
Morphology is the study of structure words and how words are formed or constructed. And
morphology is a branch of linguistics that studies the ways in which words are constructed out of
smaller meaningful units.
Morphology is the branch of linguistics (and one of the major components of grammar)
that studies word structures, especially in terms of morphemes.
Morphology as a sub-discipline of linguistics was named for the first in 1859 by the
German linguist August Schleicher who used the term for the study of the form of words.
Example of morphology:
Lion (stem)

Lion
(singular)

Chocolate (stem)

Box(stem)

Lions

Chocolate

chocolates

Box

(plural)

(singular)

(plural)

Boxes

(singular) (plural)

B. Morpheme
Morphemes is the smallest meaningful unit in the structure of language. A morpheme is not
identical with a syllable. The morpheme strange happens to be a syllable, and so are many
English morphemes. But Connecticut is a single morpheme though it contains four syllables.
Beside that, a morpheme may consist of only a single phoneme. The /z/ in goes is the example.
Morpheme must be a smallest part and it must have meaning or is meaningful.
Morphemes composed of (1) Segmental phonemes, and (3) supra-segmental phonemes.
Morphemes consisting of segmental phonemes are the most numerous in occurrence, e.g. ship
consists of 3 segmental phonemes /sip/. One type of morpheme consisting solely of suprasegmental phonemes is very common. In English morphemes which consist wholly of suprasegmental phonemes are relatively rare. Morphemes consisting of segmental and suprasegmental phonemes also exist in English, e.g. the words boy, girl, goulash, consist not only of

certain segmental phonemes, but also have a phoneme of stress. Between these extremes there
are morphemes consisting of the following patterns of segmental phonemes: V: a-long, vc: improper, cv: de-ceiver, cvc: fish, cvcv: lava, cvcvc: hammer, etc. This inventory could be
extended greatly, sisce there are still a number of morphemes, for instance, involving various
types of consonant clusters.

C. Types of Morphemes
The distribution of morphemes differentiates many classes of morphemes and combination of
morphemes:
a) Bound and Free Morphemes
Bound morphemes are morphemes which can not stand alone, but which are typically
attached to another from, e.g. re-, -ist, -ed, -s, -ly in words.
Example of bound morphemes: Reader, Pianist, Confused, Cats, Slowly.
Certain bound morphemes are known as affixes, included prefix and suffixes. The set of
affixes which fall into the bound category can also be divided into two types, namely
derivational and inflectional morphemes.
Free morphemes are morphemes which can stand alone as single words.
Example of free morphemes : florist, dog, sad, happy, when, but, and.
Free morphemes fall into two categories:
1) Free morphemes as Lexical morphemes
Lexical morphemes are that set of ordinary nouns, adjective and verbs which carry
the content of messages a speaker conveys, e.g. mother, happy, drink, girl, bored,
eat.
2) Free morphemes as Functional morphemes
Example of functional morphemes: but, above, because, in, on, and the.
b) Roots and Non-roots
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Roots constitute the nuclei (the central parts) of all words. There are may be more than 1 root
in a single word.
Example of roots: Catfish (cat and fish), Blackbird (black and bird), Breakwater (break and
water), Facebook (face and book).
Some roots many have unique occurrence. For example, the unique element cran- in
cranberry dos not constitute the nuclease of any other words, but it occurs in the position
occupied by roots such as in blackberry, blueberry, strawberry, Roseberry, Cranberry.
Non-roots is identical to bound, example of non-roots: The non-roots ism in communism,
pragmatism, organism, faradism, and fascism for instance.
Non-roots has become a full root in a sentence, such as: Japanese state adopts communism.
c) Roots and Stems
Roots constitute the nuclei (the central parts) of all words. There are may be more than 1 root
in a single word.
Example of roots: Catfish (cat and fish), Blackbird (black and bird), Breakwater (break and
water), Facebook (face and book).
Some roots many have unique occurrence. For example, the unique element cran- in
cranberry does not constitute the nuclease of any other words, but it occurs in the position
occupied by roots such as in blackberry, blueberry, strawberry, Cranberry.
Stems is composed of The nucleus consisting of 1 or more roots, or the nucleus plus any
other non-root morphemes. Sometimes, stems consist of one or more roots in a words.
Example of stems:

The word feeds : is plural words. But the stem is feed.

The word books: is plural words. The stem is book.
The word bracelets is plural words. But the stem is bracelet.
The word bags is plural words. But the stem is bag.
The word some people : is plural words. But the stem is people.

d) Nuclei and Non-nuclei

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The nucleus of a morphological construction consists of a root or a combination of roots.

Beside that, non-nuclei is made up of non--roots. Example of nuclei and non-nuclei:
The word Boyishness

boy is nuclei.
ishness is non-nuclei.

The word kindness

kind is nuclei.
ness is non-nuclei.

In blueberries

the nuclei is blueberry that consist of two roots.

e) Nuclear and Peripheral Structures

A nuclear structure consists of the nucleus or constitutes the heas. A peripheral structures is
morphemes that usually consists of a non-root and always outside of the nuclear
constituent. Example of nuclear and peripheral structures :
The word Fertilizer

fertilize is the nuclear.

-er is peripheral.

The word Management

manage is nuclear.
-ment is peripheral.

The word Formalizer

formalize is nuclear.
-er is peripheral.

The word Amusement

amuse is nuclear.
-ment is peripheral.
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The word Arrangement

arrange is nuclear.
-ment is peripheral.

f) Inflectional and Derivational Morphemes

Inflectional morphemes are do not change the meaning and part of speech, example of word:

happy
Small
Early
Easy

happier
smaller
earlier
easier

Inflectional morphemes typically indicate syntactic or semantic relations between different

words in a sentence, e.g. the past tense morphemes ed is the word cooked that show
agreement with the subject of the verb. Inflectional morphemes typically occur with all
members of some large class of morphemes, e.g. plural morphemes s occurs with most
nouns, such as: books, cats, dogs, etc. Inflectional morphemes typically occur at the margin
of words, e.g. plural morphemes s always come last in a word, such as: some books, apples,
etc.
Derivational morphemes is Change meaning and part of speech, e.g. -ment: form noun,
amusement: from verb amuse. Derivational morphemes typically indicate semantic relations
with the word. Derivation morphemes typically occur with only some members, e.g. suffix
hood occur with a few nouns, such as: brother, sister but not with most others e.g. boy, girl.
Derivation morphemes typically occur before inflectional suffixes.

D. Affixes
There are consists of:

a. Prefixes is Added to the beginning of a word. Example of prefixes: Dis-: disagree, Un-:
unhappy, Anti-: antifreeze, Re-: rewrite, Pre-: previous.
b. Infixes is not normally to be found in english, but fairly common in some other
languages. Example of infixes: Un-damned-believable, Abso-god-damlutely, Hallebloody-lujah.
c. Suffixes is added to the end of a word. Example of suffixes: -ly: lovely, -ness: dryness,
-ity: generality, -hood: childhood, -ism: organism.

E. Syntax
Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the internal structure of sentences and the
interrelationships among the internal parts. The scientific study of internal structure of language
(sentences and phrase) and internal relationship among internal parts. In other word, one phrase
or sentence always make from the words that arrange with using systematic. Example of syntax:
the sentences The boy speaks English, sentences beginning with article the that formed one
phrase with the word boy. Then, the word speaks that formed one phrase with word English. And
then, phrase the boy joined with phrase speaks English. The sentences She studies English,
sentences beginning with subject she. The, the word studies that formed one phrase with word
English.
S

NP

VP

NP

VP

Det

NP

Det

The

girl

buys

cake

The

boy

plays

NP

tennis

NP

Nanny

VP

saw

NP

NP

Det

the

picture

VP

Vin

take

NP

Det
the

N
ball

F. Structural Approach
Structural approach consist of two approach: traditional approach and structural approach.
Traditional approach is identify a word consider with meaning of a word that related. In
traditional approach consist of noun, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, etc. For example, category of
noun is all of word that refer to nouns, object, places. Category of verb is all of word that refer
to the activities. The way to grouped by traditional word based on the meanings. In traditional
approach, there is lexical meaning. Lexical meanings can find in english dictionary, example of
lexical meanings: student (noun), eat (verb), good and happy (adjectives), today (adverb of
time).
Beside that, structural approach is identify the word with marking syntactic. In structural
approach consist of prepositions, articles and modals. The way to grouped by structural word
based on marking syntactic. In structural approach, there is structural meaning. Structural
meaning can understand from the using context of the word that related, example of structural
meanings: the (article), on and in (preposition), will and must (modals).

Then, marking syntactic that using in structural approach are:

a. Word order
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Word order identify classes of words by looking at the position of the word in a structure
phrase or sentence. Sentences structure usually begins with subject, then followed with
predicate. For example of word order : Andy speaks English.
S

NP

VP

Andy

speaks

NP
N
English

b. Inflectional affixes
Inflectional affixes is word class that known of particle shape that related. Example of
inflectional affixes:

The word dogs that known as noun. Because the inflectional is s.

The word easier that known as adjective. Because the inflectional is er.
The word baked that known as verbs. Because the inflectional is ed.
The word biggest that known as adverb. Because the inflectional is est.
The word studied that known as verbs. Because the inflectional is ed.

c. Derivational affixes
Derivational affixes can be used as a marker of the relevant class, example of derivational
affixes:

The word beautifully that known as adverb. Because derivational is ly.

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The word playful that known as adjective. Because derivational is ful.

The word quickly that known as adverb. Because derivational is ly.
The word easily that known as adverb. Because derivational is ly.
The word beautiful that known as adjective. Because derivational is ful.

d. Prosody
Prosody that known from primary stress that using. Example of prosody: In syllable 1,
record as a noun. But in syllable 2, the word record as a verb.
e. Function words
Function word is located in the word that related. For example: function word the can be
marking continued word class is noun, e.g the book, the girl, the boy, the cat, the man. Then,
phrase very good, very well, very beautiful, very sad, very happy. Good, well, beautiful, sad,
happy that known as adjective. Because there is function word very.

G. Marking Syntax for Nouns

Nouns be marked with five categories:
A. Function Words
The most important noun marker is function words category. It is called Noun
Determiners. Formation of noun determiners in front of nouns. Noun determiners is the
most appear is articles: the, a, an. For example:

The Cats
The man
an apple
an hour
a pedestrian

Noun determiners also has function as pronouns: my, your, our, their, his/her. For
example:

My mother
your sister
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our school
their ball
his/her bag

Noun determiners also has other functions as using for plural nouns, singular nouns,
uncountable nouns. (this/these, that/those, one, both, some, every, other, many (a), more,
several, all, no, a few, enough). For example:

Singular nouns: the boy, a cat, this pen, an umbrella, the girl.
Plural nouns: some books, some people, these bags.

B. Inflections
Inflections are marked noun consist of two categories: Plural inflections(-es) and genitive
inflections/possessive (-'s). For example:

Plural inflections (-es): dogs, boxes, books, oranges, apples.

Genitive inflections (-'s): student's, students', teacher's, mother's, teachers'.

C. Derivations
Derivations are marked nouns added of stems or another word whose origin is not noun.
The list of derivations marker nouns:

Added of verb:

(-age): demurrage
(-ance): conveyance
(-er): sailor
(-ee): payee
(-ment): agreement
Added of adjectives: (-ce): abundance
(-cy): relevancy
(-ity): facility
(-ness): happiness
(-ster): oldster
Added of nouns:
(-cy): democracy
(-er): liner
(-ian): librarian
(-ist): physicist
(-ship): friendship
Added of bound stem: (-er): tailor
(-ism): communism
(-ist): monist
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(-ity): depravity, debility

D. Word order
word order constitute position in the sentence is a noun in front of the verb as a predicate.
For example:

time flies : the word "time" is noun, because in front of verb.

Sub groups of nouns

In addition to being used as a marker noun syntax, there is a recognizable group of noun
forms is pronoun and function noun.
i.
ii.

Pronouns
In English, there are 8 pronouns: I, you, they, we, she, he, it, who.
Function nouns
In English, function nouns has 15 characteristics:
o The shape is similar to a noun determiners.
o The shape is never change, it have not inflection and derivation.
o Can occupy the position normally occupied by nouns.

Group 1 function nouns is the same shape as the noun determiners: all, any, both, enough,
his, more, etc.
Group 2 function nouns is morphemic variation of noun determiners:
Noun determiners
No
My
Your
Our
Her
Their

Function nouns
None
Mine
Yours
Ours
Hers
Theirs

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H. Marking Syntax for Verbs

Verb be marked with 5 categories:
1) Inflections
There are 4 verbs inflections in english, are:
a) Third-singular inflections (-s)
Pronunce morphemes (-s) is variation, e.g. (-s,-z, -ez) depend on the final sound of the verb
that related. For example:
he hopes...(-s)
she rides...(-z)
she goes...(-s)
b) Past tense/preterit inflections (-ed1)
Pronounce morphemes (-ed1) is variation, e.g. (-t, -d, -ed) depend on the final sound of the
verb that related. For example:

she hoped...(-t)
she prayed...(-d)
he studied...(-ed)
he admitted...(-ed)

c) Past participle inflection (-ed2)

Variations of the same words with the past tense inflection, e.g. (-t,-d, -ed). For example:

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 he put he has put

she prayed she has prayed
he left he has left
d) Present Participle inflections (-ing)
Speech of morphemes present participle is not varied, If there is variation was only found in
a non standard dialect. For example:
I am studying English.
She is running.
They are swimming in the swimming pool.
2) Functions word
Groups of function words that mark the verbs are auxiliaries that make up the verb-phrase
with verbs. Auxiliaries were divided into four groups:
a. Auxiliaries + base
Can /could

do/does/did

May/might

must

Shall/should

dare

Will/would

need
(had) better/best

Example: You could go now.

She must be happy.
I do love him.
I will catch you.
I need it.
b. Auxiliaries + present-participle (-ing)

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am/is/are/was/were
get/gets/go
Example: She is sleeping.
I am eating.
They were crying.

Auxiliaries + past participle (-ed2)

am/is/are/was/were
get/gets/go
have/has/had
Example: she has finished her report.
She got hit by bicycle.
They were playing a football.
c. Auxiliaries + to infinitive
Have/has/had
Ought
used
am/is/were/was
get/gets/got
am/is/was/were:

-about
-going

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Example: Like we used to.

I have to go now.

3) Derivations
Derivations as marker syntax for verbs divided into 6 categories:

(-ate1): operate, calumniate, orchestrate, implicate, and salivate.

(-ize): idolize, recognize, organize, socialize, utilize.
(-fy): beautify, simplify, signify, indemnify.
(-ish): finish, languish, furnish.
(-en): widen, sharpen, lighten, glisten, blacken.
(-en): enliven, embitter, enfold, empower.

4) Word order
Word order can not use without marker syntax. There are 2 word order:
In the beginning of command
Example: come here
(please) answer at once
(lets) go now
Between 2 nouns
Example: dogs chase sticks.
The stars light our path.
Birds love nests.

5) Prosody
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Prosody that known from primary stress that using. Example of prosody:
Verbs ()

nouns/adjectives ()

Imprint

imprint

Suspect

suspect

Import

import

Perfect

perfect

The verb substitute do

Do with the others form can be a verb-substitute.
Example: he works harder than I do. (do : substitute work)
Function of Do :
a) Do as auxiliary
Example: do come to see us.
b) Do as function verb
Example: he liked it. But I didnt
c) Do as verb-substitute
Example: I hope you enjoyed the game.
d) Do as full verb.
Example: how do you do?

I. Marking Syntax for Adjectives

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Marking syntax for adjective is combination between word order and function word. Adjectives
be marked with 4 categories:
a. Word order and Function word
Marker syntax that is very enable for adjective is a good word in the 2 blank words.
Ex: the man is very strong.
(strong: adjective)
b. Derivations and inflections
In the form of derivations adjective can grouped be two, are:
1. Base adjectives : the original adjective.
Base adjective as inflectional suffixes (-er, -est)
Example:
Pretty-prettier-prettiest
Small-smaller-smallest
Big-bigger-biggest
Base adjectives (-ness,-ly)
Example:
Good-goodness-goodly
Bad-badness-badly
Black-blackness-blackly
Base adjective, except (-un, -in)
Example:
uncommon
Inhuman
Base adjective, form (-en1, -en)
Example:
bright-brighten
Cheap-cheapen
Light-enlighten
Life-enliven
2. Derived adjectives : derived form.
The end (-y)
Example: holy, healthy, quickly.
The end (-a1)
Example: natural, local, traditional.
the end (-able)
Example: enable, acceptable, remarkable.
The end (-full and less).
Example: hopeful, hopeless.
The end (-ar, -ary, -ic, -ish, -ous)
Example: columnar, literary, comic, lavish, and marvelous.
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The end (-ent, -ive)

Example: significant, active, impulsive, convenient.
The end (-en2)
Example: woolen, waxen, wooden.
The end (-ed3)
Example: flowered, interested, bored, overrated, garlanded.
The end (-ing3)
Example: interesting, exciting boring, revealing.
The end (-ly2)
Example: friendly, homely, ugly.
3. Function words
Adjective qualifiers: function word marked adjective.
Comparative adjective qualifiers: adjective qualifiers are the function as adverb
qualifiers.

J. Differences Grammar & Structure

Grammar

Structure

The set of structural rules of language

Structure is not related to the sound.

or dealing with all aspect of language.

Grammar is more specific.

Structure is permanent form and follow the

formula.

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