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Extn. 3488
Email: Mumtaj.Begam@nottingham.edu.my
Prerequisites
An understanding of the physics of semiconductor materials
A good understanding of p-n junctions
Understanding of the nature of signals in information transfer
Basic understanding of calculus and differential equations
Co-requisites: None
Teaching
- Lecture 2hrs
Thursday: 11:00 -13:00 @ F1A09
Method of Assessment
Assessments:
1% Written Exam Paper (2 hours - 3 compulsory
questions)
Module Contents
Develop a detailed understanding of the internal operating
mechanisms of semiconductor electronic and opto-electronic
devices
Focus on devices based on pn junctions (e.g. diodes, bipolar
junction transistors) and devices based on MOS capacitors (e.g.
memory cells, CCD detectors, MOSFETs)
Consider how the targeted application for a device impacts upon its
design. (For example, signal-mixing diodes, power diodes, lightemitting diodes and solar cells are all based upon the pn diode, but
provide very different functionality)
Discuss the characteristics required of these devices in relation to
their incorporation into appropriate electronic systems
Learning Outcomes
By the end of the module, students should be able to:
Photodetectors
Solar cells
LEDs
- Indicators, Displays
Laser diodes
MOS capacitor
CCDs
- Imaging, Detectors
FETs
Bipolar Transistors
Thyristors
- Power electronics
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Approach
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Basic information
Rather than beginning with theory, let's first become reacquainted with some
of the basic information you studied earlier in the previous module.
MATTER is anything that occupies space and has weight. Rocks, water,
and air are examples of matter.
Matter may be found in any one of three states: solid, liquid and
gaseous.
Basic information
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Basic information
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Basic information
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Basic information
When the valence shell is complete, the atom is stable and shows
little tendency to combine with other atoms to form solids.
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Basic information
The shell can also be split into four subshells labeled s, p, d, and f,
which can contain 2, 6, 10, and 14 electrons, respectively. (see
Figure)
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Basic information
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What is a SOLID?
However, the actual density is a function of the crystal (solid) type and
crystal structure since the packing density number of atoms per unit
cell depends on crystal structure.
Amorphous structure
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Metals are good conductors of electricity - have "free electrons" that can move
easily between atoms, and electricity involves the flow of electrons.
In silicon crystals all of the outer electrons are involved in perfect covalent bonds,
so they can't move around. A pure silicon crystal is nearly an insulator -- very little
electricity will flow through it.
The interaction between the electrostatic field of the atoms splits each energy level
into two (Pauli Exclusion Principle).
Many atoms are brought together, the split energy levels form essentially
continuous bands of energies.
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atom
atom in a solid
10-8
Metals
10-4
100
104
Semiconductors
108
1012
1016
1020
( -cm)
Insulators
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Insulator, Eg = 7 eV
No conduction is possible even under the
influence of an electric field.
Ex: Diamond, Glass, SiO2, Al2O3, etc.
Energy gap
v.b
Ec
Eg= Ec-Ev
Ev
Top of valence band
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Intrinsic semiconductors
Silicon has 14 electrons. The four electrons that orbit the nucleus in the
outermost, or "valence," energy level are given to, accepted from, or
shared with other atoms
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Intrinsic semiconductors
There are no energy levels in the band gap in a pure (intrinsic) semiconductor.
Physically, Eg corresponds to the energy needed to remove a valence electron
from its orbit to turn it into a conduction electron (leaving a hole behind, a hole
is the vacancy created by moving an electron from VB to CB).
At T = 0 K, the valence band (VB) is completely full and the conduction band
(CB) is completely empty.
No conduction in conduction band (i.e., no electron)
No conduction in valence band.
Hence no net current
At T > 0 K, increases, electrons jump from VB to CB to form electron-hole
pairs.
Then the number of holes in the valence band or the number of electrons
in the conduction band is given by
where
represent the mobility of electrons and holes
respectively.
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Extrinsic semiconductor
Injecting a foreign atom into an intrinsic semiconductor.
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N-type semiconductors
If a group IV (see Figure below) semiconductor (eg. Si), is
doped with a group V element such as P ( which has five
electrons), the spare electron occupies an energy level just
below the CB.
Si+
4
Si+
4
Si+
4
Si+
4
As
+5
Si+
4
Si+
4
Si+
4
Si+
4
Conduction
electron
N-type semiconductors
We normally assume that at room temperature all of these spare
electrons pick up enough energy (Only a small thermal energy (kT/q at
290K = 0.025eV) to be excited to the CB, producing Nd conduction
electrons/m3, i.e., to a good approximation,
. (In an n-type
semiconductor,
). This process leaves behind positively charged
donor atoms. That is,
Since impurity atoms donates one free electron - called donor atom or
donor.
The electron concentration will be more than the intrinsic carrier
concentration (ni) and becomes higher than the hole concentration.
The semiconductor is called n-type semiconductor.
Here, electrons are the majority, termed majority carriers whereas the
holes are the minority - termed minority carriers.
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P-type semiconductors
If Si is doped with a group III dopant such as B, an acceptor level is
created just above the VB.
This level can accept electrons from the VB, leaving behind holes.
That is,
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P-type semiconductors
At 0K the hole remains bound to the impurity atom but breaks away
from it at higher temperature and wanders freely in the crystal. An
impurity atom that contributes a hole is called an acceptor because it
accepts a bound electron from the covalent bond.
These atoms ionize at room temperature, contributing one hole per
impurity atom.
The crystal has an excess of holes - called p-type semiconductor.
If the crystal is doped with both donor and acceptor, neither electrons
nor holes will be produced - process known as compensation.
If donors exceed acceptor - n-type vice versa for p-type.
If electron and hole concentrations are the same - fully compensated.
Properties different from intrinsic.
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E-k diagram
Electron-Hole product:
At equilibrium, n x p = ni2
where ni depends on temperature.
Probability Function:
The probability of a level at energy E being occupied by
an electron is given by the Fermi function:
E-k diagram
Each electron state in the valence and conduction bands has an energy
and a momentum associated with it. Sometimes, it is useful to represent
these bands as an energy-vs-momentum plot (E vs k) plot of the
energy states which make up the bands.
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Direct transition:
photons
*Application as
lasers & LED
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CB
a
VB
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Text Books:
Reference Books: