PST201F/102/3/2015

Tutorial letter 102/3/2015

Mathematics and Mathematics Teaching

PST201F

Semesters 1 & 2

Department of Mathematics Education

IMPORTANT INFORMATION
You will need this tutorial letter to do assignment 02.

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Learn without limits

UNISA
IMPORTANT NOTICE
Dear student
You will have to work through this tutorial letter to do assignment 02.

Author: Ronél Paulsen ©

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Contents
3.1 Numbers, numerals and digits .................................................................................................. 3
3.1.2 Development of Hindu-Arabic digits ............................................................................................. 4
3.2 The Hindu-Arabic numeration system ....................................................................................... 4
3.3 Understanding place value ....................................................................................................... 5
3.3.1 Place value, face value and total value ........................................................................................ 5
3.4 Models to illustrate place value ................................................................................................. 7
3.4.1 Base 10 blocks (Dienes blocks) ................................................................................................... 7
3.4.2 Unifix cubes ................................................................................................................................. 9
3.4.3 Sticks or matches ......................................................................................................................... 9
3.4.4 Beans ......................................................................................................................................... 10
3.4.5 The hundred chart...................................................................................................................... 11
3.4.6 Number cards ............................................................................................................................ 11
3.5 Operations on whole numbers ................................................................................................ 12
3.5.1 Addition and subtraction ............................................................................................................ 12
3.5.2 Dienes blocks............................................................................................................................. 14
3.5.3 Number cards ............................................................................................................................ 15
3.5.4 Vertical and horizontal algorithms .............................................................................................. 15
3.5.5 Multiplication and division .......................................................................................................... 18
3.5.6 Dienes blocks............................................................................................................................. 19
3.6 Large numbers........................................................................................................................ 23
3.7 Illustrating numbers on the number line .................................................................................. 25
3.8 Rounding off ........................................................................................................................... 26
3.9 Prime numbers ....................................................................................................................... 27
3.10 Rules of divisibility .................................................................................................................. 27
3.11 Multiples ................................................................................................................................. 29
3.12 Factors.................................................................................................................................... 29
3.12.1 The factor tree............................................................................................................................ 29
4.1 Basic fraction concepts ........................................................................................................... 31
4.2 Fraction models ...................................................................................................................... 32
4.2.1 Area models ............................................................................................................................... 33
4.2.2 Set models ................................................................................................................................. 33
4.2.3 Length models ........................................................................................................................... 33
4.3 Fraction notation ..................................................................................................................... 34
4.3.1 Understanding fraction notation ................................................................................................. 34
4.4 Non–unit fractions ................................................................................................................... 35
4.5 Number line presentations ...................................................................................................... 36
4.6 Equivalent fractions ................................................................................................................ 37
4.6.1 Continuous wholes (area model) ............................................................................................... 37
4.6.2 Discontinuous wholes (set model) ............................................................................................. 38
4.6.3 Number line................................................................................................................................ 38
4.7 Comparing fractions................................................................................................................ 39
4.7.1 Comparing non-unit fractions ..................................................................................................... 39
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4.7.2 Which is bigger? ........................................................................................................................ 40
4.8 Addition of fractions ................................................................................................................ 41
4.8.1 The three stages of teaching the addition of fractions ............................................................... 41
4.9 Subtraction of fractions ........................................................................................................... 42
4.9.1 The three stages of teaching the subtraction of fractions........................................................... 42
4.10 The meaning of “of ” ............................................................................................................... 44
4.11 Multiplication of fractions......................................................................................................... 45
4.11.1 The three stages of teaching the multiplication of fractions ....................................................... 45
4.11.2 The area model. ......................................................................................................................... 47
4.11.3 An algorithm for multiplication of fractions: ................................................................................ 49
5.1 An introduction to shapes ....................................................................................................... 50
5.2 The Van Hiele levels of Geometric thought............................................................................. 51
5.1 Comments about the thought levels........................................................................................... 52
5.2 Consequences of the Van Hiele theory for learning................................................................... 53
5.3 Flat shapes ............................................................................................................................. 53
5.4 Polygons ................................................................................................................................. 54
5.4.1 Naming polygons ....................................................................................................................... 55
5.5 Triangles ................................................................................................................................. 56
5.5.1 Types of triangles ....................................................................................................................... 56
5.6 Quadrilaterals ......................................................................................................................... 57
5.6.1 Concepts dealing with quadrilaterals ......................................................................................... 57
5.6.2 Classification of quadrilaterals ................................................................................................... 58
5.7 Space shapes ......................................................................................................................... 59
5.7.1 Special space shapes ................................................................................................................ 60
Polyhedrons .................................................................................................................................. 60
Prisms ........................................................................................................................................... 61
Pyramids ....................................................................................................................................... 62
5.7.2 Regular polyhedra...................................................................................................................... 63
5.8 Practice how to draw 3 – D objects......................................................................................... 63
5.9 Nets of polyhedra.................................................................................................................... 64
5.10 Drawings from different views ................................................................................................. 65
Appendix Unit 3: Activity for Dienes blocks ....................................................................................... 67
Appendix Unit 4: Fraction resources.................................................................................................. 73
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UNIT 3: NUMBERS AND OPERATIONS

This unit covers chapters 11 – 13 in the text book (pages 204 – 273)

In this unit, we will discuss:

 The Hindu-Arabic numeration system
 Understanding the concept of a number”
 Models to represent numbers
 Understanding operations on numbers
 Factors and multiples
 Prime numbers
 Rules of divisibility

3.1 Numbers, numerals and digits

 A number is a count or measurement - that is really an idea in our minds
 A numeral is a symbol or name that stands for a number
 A digit is a single symbol use to make up numerals
 So the number is an idea, the numeral is how
we write it The name "digit" comes from the fact that
the 10 digits (ancient Latin digiti meaning
number fingers) of the hands correspond to the 10
symbols of the common base 10 number system,
i.e. the decimal (ancient Latin adjective dec.
meaning ten) digits.
We have 10 digits (or symbols) in our numeration
system: 0; 1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6; 7; 8 ; 9
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3.1.2 Development of Hindu-Arabic digits

The digits we are using today did not always look like the ones you are used to. It took centuries to develop
the digits to what we are using today. And who knows, in a couple of hundred years they might look different
again.

Indian, 1st century AD

Indian, 9th century

West Arabic, about 11th century East Arabic, about 11th century Indian, about 11th century

15th century

These are very similar to

the symbols we are using
16th century today

3.2 The Hindu-Arabic numeration system

The elegant numeration system which we use today is thought to have been invented by the Hindus from
approximately 1 000 BC onwards, to have spread via trade with the Arabs over centuries to their world, and
hence by trade and conquest via the Moors in Spain, to Europe.

Using only ten symbols, including a zero-symbol, and the concept of place value, we can
represent any number we please.

The main features are summarised below: (for example the number 4 213)

 Employs place value Thousands Hundreds Tens Ones

 Is a denary system 10  10  10 10  10 10 1
 The base is ten and the place 10  10  10 10  10 1
values powers of 10 10  10  10 1
 Has digits to count how many 10  10  10
times a particular grouping
occurs 4 2 1 3
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As the grouping number is ten, there will never be more than nine groups in each place.
Our numeration system:
 uses a zero, to “count” the number of an empty set
 is multiplicative: 4  (10  10  10) + 2  (10  10) + 1  10 3  1
 and additive: (4  103) + (2  102) + (1  101) + 3  100

Activity 3.1
1 Explain the difference between the concepts: digit, numeral and number by giving
examples.
2 What is a numeration system?
3 What is the role of zero in our numeration system?

3.3 Understanding place value

Make two numbers using the digits 1 and 3
 What numbers can you make?
o 13 and 31
 How are they different?
o Thirteen is 1 ten and 3 ones
o Thirty- one is 3 tens and 1 one

How many numbers can you make from the digits 3, 5 and 8?
Let us take a look:
Hundreds Tens Units (ones)
3 5 8 = 358
3 8 5 = 385 In a basic digital system, a numeral is a
sequence of digits, which may be of
5 3 8 = 538 arbitrary length. Each position in the
5 8 3 = 583 sequence has a place value, and each
digit has a value.
8 5 3 = 853
8 3 5 = 835

3.3.1 Place value, face value and total value

Place value
The place values are the value of the PLACE where the digit is in the numeral. In a three digit number, there
are three places, the hundreds, the tens and the units.
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Hundreds Tens Units (ones)

The value of the numeral is computed by multiplying each digit in the sequence by its place value, and
summing the results.

These are the place values

Hundreds Tens Units (ones)
3 5 8

The place value of the 3 is

HUNDREDS

The numeral 358 has the value of 3 hundreds plus 5 tens plus 8 ones.
OR: 3  100 + 5  10 + 8  1 = 358
"Listen" how we read it: three hundred and fifty eight or just three hundred fifty eight.
Fifty is the English for 5 tens
Face value
The face value of a digit in a numeral is simply the number that you see.

3 456
The face value of the numeral in the hundred place is 4.
Total value
The total value (some text books refer to "the value" only) of a digit in a numeral is the
face value  the place value

So the total value of the 4 in 3 456 is 4  100 = 400

In the tens place of the numeral 234, we have a digit with a face value of 3, and a
place value of 10, giving us a total value of 30.

Activity 3.2
1 Our numeration system employs place value. What is your understanding of place
value?
2 Write down the place value of the underlined digits:
54 982
459 234
3 Write down the total value of the underlined digits:
54 982
459 234
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3.4 Models to illustrate place value

vd W Firstly, go back to the section on relational understanding in your text book (page 24).

Pictures

This diagram shows five

Manipulative Written
models symbols different representations
of mathematical ideas.
Translation between and
within these can help to
Real-world Oral develop new concepts.
situations language

vd W
Read the section "Base-ten models for place value" in your textbook (page 207)

Young children need models to develop an understanding of place value. We will discuss a few here.

3.4.1 Base 10 blocks (Dienes blocks)

Zoltan Dienes (1916 - 2014) developed these base 10 blocks to

teach place value.
Dienes' place is unique in the field of mathematics education
because of his theories on how mathematical structures can be
taught from the early grades onwards using multiple
embodiments through manipulatives, games, stories and dance.
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When we draw them,

we try to be as
accurate as we can.
You can make copies
of these, laminate
them and have them
ready for the
blackboard.

We call this a TINY or

We call this a BIG or a CUBE We call this a FLAT We call this a LONG a ONE

Examples
Illustrate the following numbers using Dienes blocks (also called base 10 blocks)
Number Place value chart Representation

H T U
3 2 6
326
two longs six tinies
three flats
three hundred twenty six

300 20 6

Number Place value chart Representation

TH H T U four hundred
two thousand thousand
2 4 7 6
2476

six
seventy
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3.4.2 Unifix cubes

Unifix cubes are plastic connecting cubes which learners can stack
up to bars of 10. They are useful for working with numbers under
100, otherwise the piles become quite big. The benefit is that they
can be placed together or taken apart. Number bonds can be
illustrated using Unifix cubes.

These cubes are

stacked up to
show number
bonds of 10

Example
Illustrate the following numbers using Unifix blocks
Number Place value chart Representation

H T U
1 3 5
135

See also the website: http://www.themeasuredmom.com/math-activities-unifix-cubes/

3.4.3 Sticks or matches

Bundles of sticks, grouped in tens, and then tied with a rubber band
 10

Activity 3.3
What numbers are represented in the grouping of sticks above?

3.4.4 Beans
Beans in bottle tops and empty match boxes

A bottle top holds 10

small beans
A matchbox holds 100
small beans

The number represented here:

2  100 + 6  10 + 3 = 263

Example
Illustrate the following numbers using beans
Number Place value chart Representation

H T U
1 4 8
148

100 beans
4  10 8 beans
beans

1  100 + 4  10 + 8  1 = 100 + 40 + 8 = 148

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3.4.5 The hundred chart

The hundred chart has many advantages in teaching number concepts.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40

41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50

51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60

61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70

71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80

81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90

91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100

Activity 3.4
1 Find a row or column where all the unit digits have a face value of 3
2 Find a row or column where 9 of the tens digits have a face value of 3
3 Find the numbers where the face values of the tens digits are the same as the units
digits. What do you notice? Draw a line through them.
4 Find the numbers where the sum of the tens digit and the unit digit is 9. What do you
notice?
5 What do the numbers in the last column have in common?

3.4.6 Number cards

Below are number illustrations of number cards, and how a number can be built up

We may think of 385 as written on three cards: 300 80 5 fitted

one behind the other to look like this: 3 8 5

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3.5 Operations on whole numbers

There are four basic operations in mathematics, namely addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. Once
you understand how numbers are made up (hundreds, tens units, etc.) you will have a better understanding of
operations on numbers.

3.5.1 Addition and subtraction

vd W Work through pages 230 – 246 in your text book.

Read the section "student invented strategies" on page 232 – 233, then do the following activity.

Activity 3.5
You want to buy a book priced R105, but you find you only have R89 in your purse.
Think of ways in which you can find how much money you still need. You do not have pen and paper or
a calculator with you. You do not want to rely on the salesperson!
There are various ways in which you can reason to find the answer.
One way could be:
 Say you had R100, how much would you have been short? R5
 Say you had R90, how much would you have been short? R15
 But now you have R89, so you have R15 + R1 short R16
Now write down another way in which you could do the calculation
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Activity 3.6
vd W
Read through pages 232 – 233 in your text book, and then do the activity

1 What is an algorithm?
2 Investigate and report on the differences between standard algorithm and students' (leaners')
own invented strategies.
3 Write down the benefits of student-invented strategies in your own words

Using models to explain concepts of addition and subtraction

Example:
Use Dienes blocks to explain how to add: 8 + 6. This is a very simple example, but it will show you how to
exchange the blocks.

 Pack out 8 tinies and 6 tinies.

T U
8
6

 Take 2 tinies from the second group and place it with the 8 tines.

 You now have 10 tinies in the first group and 4 tinies in the second group. Exchange the 10 tinies for
one long.

T U
8
6
1 4
 14

3.5.2 Dienes blocks

Use Dienes blocks to show 367 + 134

Pack out 3 flats, 6 longs and 7

tinies. Then pack out 1 flat, 3
longs and 4 tinies

H T U
3 6 7
1 3 4

Group 10 tinies together

H T U
3 61 7
1 3 4
1

The ten tinies from

This is the one long
one long (one ten) that you exchanged
for 10 tinies

H T U
3 61 7
1 3 4
1

This is the
Put 10 longs together one flat
to make 1 flat (10
tens is 1 hundred) H T U
31 61 7
1 3 4
5 0 1
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3.5.3 Number cards

This illustrates the HORIZONTAL
Use number cards to illustrate the addition:
algorithm for addition
370 + 425 + 86
300 + 70 + 400 + 20 + 5 + 80 + 6
= 300 + 400 + 70 + 20 + 80 + 5 + 6 Group the hundreds,
tens and units together

= 700 + 170 + 11 Add hundreds to hundreds, tens to tens and units to units

= 700 + 100 + 70 + 10 + 1
= 881

3.5.4 Vertical and horizontal algorithms

The two examples above demonstrated vertical and horizontal algorithms for addition

 In a horizontal algorithm, you will break up the numbers into 100's, 10's etc., and place them in a row.
 In a vertical algorithm, you will place the numbers underneath each other.

Horizontal algorithm for addition

For the horizontal algorithm, you need separate the hundreds, tens and units, from the number, and then add:

 Hundreds to hundreds
 Tens to tens
 Units to units

Vertical algorithm for addition

Traditionally, you might know this algorithm for addition as "carrying". To "carry" is another way to talk about
exchange:

 10 units to one ten

 10 tens to one hundred
 10 hundreds to one thousand, and so on.

Here is another example which will illustrate the "carrying" from one place value to the next.
 16
Understanding "carrying": using Dienes blocks to add

347 + 176
1 long
Set out: 1
3 flats, 4 longs and 7 tinies and 1 flat, 7 longs and 6 tinies 347
176 3 tinies

 Add the tinies 1 flat

 Exchange 10 tinies for 1 long
1 1
 You get 1 long and 2 tinies
 Carry the long to the other longs
347
176
2 3
 Add the longs 2 longs

 There are 12 longs

 Exchange 10 longs for one flat
 Carry the flat over to the other flats
1 1
347
176
523
 You are left with 5 flats, 2 longs and 3 tinies

Vertical algorithm for subtraction

Traditionally, you might know this algorithm for subtraction as "borrowing". To "borrow" is another way to talk
about exchange:

 one ten to 10 units

 one hundred to 10 tens
 one thousand to 10 hundreds, and so on.
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Understanding "borrowing": using Dienes blocks to subtract

342  176
Set out:
3 1
3 flats, 4 longs and 2 tinies and 1 flat, 7 longs and 6 tinies 342
176
__6

 Subtract the tinies (2 – 6  cannot do)

 Exchange 1 long with 10 tinies
 Take away the 6 tinies
 You are left with 6 tinies
Exchange 1
long for 10 2 13 1
tinies 342
 Subtract the longs (3 – 7  cannot do) 6 tinies
176
 Exchange 1 flat with 10 longs _6 6
left

2 13 1
342
13 longs minus 7 longs = 6 longs
175
166
 Take away the 7 longs 6 longs
 You are left with 6 longs left

 Subtract the flats (2 – 1 = 1)

1 flat left

 You are left with 1 flat, 6 longs and 6 tinies

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Activity 3.7
Use Dienes blocks to illustrate the following operations:
1 24 + 57 2 196 + 105
3 44  17 4 416  109
Use number cards to illustrate the following operations:
5 458 + 263 6 458 – 263

3.5.5 Multiplication and division

vd W
Work through pages 252 – 272 in your text book.

Multiplication
Read the section "student invented strategies" on page 253 – 257, then do the following activity.

Activity 3.8
The excerpt below was taken from page 255 in your text book. Explain in your own words how each of
the three children solved the problem:
There were 35 dog sleds. Each sled was pulled by 12 dogs. How many dogs were there in all?
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3.5.6 Dienes blocks

Use Dienes blocks to show 23  7

Set out 2 longs and 3 tinies

3 tinies  7
= 21 tinies

2 longs  7
= 14 longs

The answer is:

100 + 60 + 1 =
161

Exchange
10 longs for Exchange 20
a flat: 100 tinies for 2
longs: 20
Multiplication by 10
= 60
Often teachers would say to their learners: When you multiply by 10, "you must
+ 1 simply put a zero at the
end". The problem is that this "rule" only works for multiplication of whole number by 10. When dealing with
decimals, that rule does not work. Now teachers often say: "move the comma for every zero in the
multiplier".  10
What really happens when we multiply whole numbers by 10?
T U
We know that 10 fives will be 5 + 5 + 5 + 5 + 5 + 5 + 5 + 5+ 5 + 5 = 50
5  10
Let us look at the place value chart.
5 0
The unit digit moves to
the tens place.
Activity 3.9
1 Show 329  100 by drawing a place value chart. Explain why there are now 2 zeroes at the end.
2 Mrs Tesfaya has 6 boxes of markers. Each box has 19 markers in it. If she sold each marker for
R2.70, how much money would Mrs Tesfaya earn?
 20
Division
Division is an operation that splits a quantity into smaller, equal sized quantities. It is important that you
understand the two different concepts of division, namely sharing and grouping.
Consider the two examples.
1 Patsy wants to share 30 sweets between 5 children. How many will each child get?
2 We have to transport 70 children to a function. Each mini-bus can take 10 children. How many mini-
buses do we need?

Let us look at the action involved in each of the above:

SHARING
Sharing is usually the first concept of division that learners encounter. It is used to share items out equally
amongst a number of people, such as sweets.
 In sharing, the number of groups is known. The quantity of items in each group is unknown. The
answer is found by sharing the items equally between the groups. Here one would ask the question:
How many items will each person gets?

We know how many children there

are. We ask: How many sweets will
each child get?

GROUPING
 In grouping, the quantity in each group is known. The number of groups is unknown.

We know how many learners can go

into one bus. We ask: how many
buses will be needed?
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Solutions:
1 Sharing can be a one- by- one action. Patsy can share her sweets by handing them out one at a time.
Each child will get 5 sweets.
2 When grouping is involved, we have to make groups of 7 and see how many groups we need to make 70.
Ten buses will be needed.
Long division algorithm
Let us illustrate division of 234  3 using Dienes blocks to show how the algorithm can be understood.
First set out 2 flats, 3 longs and 4 tinies.
234 = 200 + 30 + 4

First set out 2 flats, 3 longs

and 4 tinies.

We start with the hundreds.

We cannot divide the 2
hundreds by 3, so we
exchange them for 10's. We
now have 23 tens.

Put the longs (tens) in

groups of 3

We can make 7 groups of 3

tens each and there will be 2
tens remaining.
 22

Now split up the 2 tens in

twenty tinies. There are 24
tinies left.

Put the tinies in groups of

three. There are 8 groups of 3
each.

Solution: 234  3 = 78
Read the section on Standard algorithms for addition in your textbook on page 261.
:
Another strategy: Trial and improvement:
continuous subtraction to get the quotient.

Activity 3.10
1 Use the above method for division to find:
228  12
642  6
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2 Mrs. Tesfaya learned that R1 340 worth of tickets were sold at the carnival. If tickets cost 4 for
R10, how many tickets were sold?
3 A company donates 935 pencils to a school. The pencils are divided evenly among 9
classrooms. The rest of the pencils are given to the library. How many pencils were donated to
the school and to the library?
4 You have R15 in 5c and 10c pieces. If you have the same number of each kind of coin, how
many 5c pieces do you have?
5 In the summertime, you can earn R4 a day by cutting the grass. How many days will it take you
to earn R184?
6 The goat in the village weighs 145 kg. It is five times heavier than the baby goat. How much
does the baby goat weigh?
7 Three hundred children are divided into two groups. There are 50 more children in the first group
than in the second group. How many children are there in the second group?
8 Three thousand exercise books are arranged into 3 piles. The first pile has 10 more books than
the second pile. The number of books in the second pile is twice the number of books in the third
pile. How many books are there in the third pile?

3.6 Large numbers

In recording and reading large numbers, we adopt certain powers of ten as provisional units. The face values
of the various digits in the resulting numeral are the results of counting these provisional units. The total of the
place values times the face values of the digits is the number of units we want to count (the total value).
We can use number cards to help leaners understand the place values of larger numbers
 24
You should be able to read large numbers. To help reading large numbers, we choose certain collective nouns
to name provisional units.
1018 1015 1012 109 106 103 100
Quintillions Quadrillions Trillions Billions Millions Thousands Ones

H T U H T U H T U H T U H T U H T U H T U

103 is 1 with 3 zero's 1 000 One thousand

105 is 1 with 5 zero's 100 000 One hundred thousand
108 is1 with 8 zero's 100 000 000 One hundred million
Can you complete the rest?
1013 is 1 with ___ zero's ______________ _________________
1019 is 1 with ___ zero's ______________ _________________

Activity 3.11
Write the following numbers in the table below:

1 234 567 890 Read the number.

2 1 011 110 111 Read the number
3 70 010 001 002 Read the number
4 Four million, five hundred and one thousand and one
5 Twenty five quadrillion, three hundred and ten billion six hundred and twelve

Quintillion Quadrillion Trillions Billions Millions Thousands Ones

H T U H T U H T U H T U H T U H T U H T U

Complete
6 What is one more than a million? _______________________
7 What is one million more than 999 million? _____________________
8 What is one more than 999 million? _______________________
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9 A thousand thousands is _______________________
10 A thousand millions is _______________________
11 A million millions is _______________________
12 A thousand billions is _______________________

13 Read the following numbers: (write in words)

386 030 800 000 __________________________________________

1 020 300 040 500 006 __________________________________________

Activity 3.12
Write the following numbers in symbols:
1 Four hundred and fifty-two thousand and twenty _______________________
2 One hundred and seven million five hundred and nine ____________________
3 Fifty billion two million and one hundred thousand ______________________
4 Two million four hundred and eight thousand __________________________
5 Three trillion four hundred and eight million and eight thousand

3.7 Illustrating numbers on the number line

To show a number on the number line is an important way to teach learners to scale the number line in an
appropriate way.

For example:
 To show a number between 0 and 10, we will scale the number line from 0 to 10 (using 1cm for a unit)

Showing 4 on the number line

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

 To show a number between 0 and 100, we will scale the number line from 0 to 100 (using 1cm for ten)

Showing 47 on the number line

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
 26

 To show a number between 0 and 1000, we will scale the number line from 0 to 1000 (using 1cm for
hundred)
Showing 747 on the number line

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000

3.8 Rounding off

Rounding off of numbers is mostly used in measurement, but it is also used in estimation when we do mental
calculations. If we have to round off a number, we are required to work to a certain degree of accuracy.
Suppose 23 533 tickets were sold for a cricket match, what will the most appropriate way to say how many
people attended the match (provided they all attended of course).
There were about 23 530 people at the match (rounded off to the nearest ____)
There were about 23 500 people at the match (rounded off to the nearest ____)
There were about 24 000 people at the match (rounded off to the nearest ____)

Activity 3.13
Suppose 34 467 tickets were sold for a cricket match, round this figure off to the nearest:
10 __________ Look at the unit digit (if it is 5 or more, the tens digit becomes
one more) 34 467
100 __________ Look at the tens digit (if it is 5 or more, the hundreds digit
becomes one more)  34 467
1 000 __________ Look at the hundreds digit (if it is 5 or more, the thousands
digit becomes one more)  34 467
10 000 __________ Look at the thousand digit (if it is 5 or more, the ten
thousands digit becomes one more)  34 467
Explain your answers.
Can you come up with a rule for rounding off?
 27 PST201F/102

3.9 Prime numbers

Before looking any further, can you write down a definition of a prime number?
________________________________________________________________
A prime number is a number which has only two different factors, of which 1 is one
of them. 1 is not a prime number.

Write down all the prime numbers between 1 and 10

Answer
_________________________ 2;3;5;7

The Sieve of Eratosthenes is a well-known way to find prime

numbers. In this example, we will find all the prime numbers
between 1 and 100.

Sieve of Eratosthenes

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 METHOD
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30  Cross out 1 (1 is not prime) X
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40  Cross out all the multiples of 2,
3, 5, 7, except these numbers
41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
themselves.
51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60  The numbers that are not
crossed out will be prime.
61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70  Circle all the prime numbers
71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80

81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90

91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100

3.10 Rules of divisibility

If learners can count in twos, threes, fives and tens, hundreds and thousands, with understanding, they should
easily be able to recognise the multiples of these numbers.
1 What are we actually doing when we count in fives? ____________________________
 What can you notice about all these numbers?
2 What are we actually doing when we count in twos? ____________________________
 What can you notice about all these numbers?
 28

 A number is divisible by 2 if the last digit is even:

Examples: 234 ; 456 028

 A number is divisible by 3, when you add all the digits and the sum is a multiple of 3.
Example: 3 567  3 + 5 + 6 + 7 = 21 and 2 + 1 = 3 .
 3 567 is divisible by 3

 A number is divisible by 4, when the last two digits are divisible by 4.

Examples: 11 124  24 is divisible by 4

 A number is divisible by 5, when the last digit is a zero or a five.

Examples: 123 455 ; 340

 A number is divisible by 6, when both 2 and 3 can divide into it.

Example: 45 612  last digit even  divisible by 2
4 + 5 + 6 + 1 + 2 = 18 and 1 + 8 = 9 (a multiple of 3)
 45 612 is divisible by 6

 A number is divisible by 9, when you add all the digits and the sum is a multiple of 9.
Example: 45 612  4 + 5 + 6 + 1 + 2 = 18 and 18 is a multiple of 9

 A number is divisible by 11, when you add every second digit, then add the others, and then subtract
the two sums. If the answer is 0 or a multiple of 11, then the number is divisible by 11.
Example:
12342  Add 1 + 3 + 2 = 6
66=0
12342  Then add 2 + 4 = 6

 A number is divisible by 10, when the last digit is a zero.

Example: 230 ; 988 500
 29 PST201F/102

Activity 3.14
Test the following numbers for divisibility by the given number. You may not do the actual division, and
no calculators are allowed.
1 345 890 for divisibility by 2 ; 3; 4 ; 5 ; 6 and 10
2 246 789 by 9 and 11
3 108 108 by 9 ; 11 and 12.

3.11 Multiples
You all know what a multiple of a number is.
M3 = 0 ; 3 ; 6 ; 9 ; 12 ; …..
M4 = 0 ; 4 ; 8 ; 12 ; 16 ; … 0 is a multiple of any number

The Lowest Common Multiple (LCM) is the lowest number in which two or more numbers can divide.
What is the Lowest Common multiple of 3 and 4? (ignoring zero)
M3 = 0 ; 3 ; 6 ; 9 ; 12 ; …..
M4 = 0 ; 4 ; 8 ; 12 ; 16 ; …
Can you see that 12 is the LCM of 3 and 4?

Activity 3.15
What is the LCM of 2 ; 3 ; and 5?
M2 = ________________________ The LCM of 2 ; 3 ; and 5 is
M3 = ________________________ __________
M5 = ________________________

3.12 Factors
A factor of a number is a number that can be divided into the number without leaving a remainder.
F12 = 1 ; 2 ; 3 ; 4 ; 6 ; 12  the prime factors are 2 and 3
F30 = 1 ; 2 ; 3 ; 5 ; 6 ; 10 ; 15 ; 30  the prime factors are 2 , 3 and 5

3.12.1 The factor tree

An easy and fun way to show learners how to find the prime factors of a number, is by making use of the factor
tree
 30
Factor trees for 60
60 60
60
2 30 4 15
3 20

6 5 2 2 3 5
4 5
2 3
2 2

The prime factors of 60 are 2 ; 2 ; 3 and 5

60 can be written as 2  2  3  5

Activity 3.16
1 Complete the factor trees

32 135

2 3

8 5

32 can be written as _____________ 135 can be written as _____________

2 A remainder of 1 is left when you divide 61 by 2, 3, 4 and 5. What is the lowest number which
leaves a remainder of 1 when divided by each of the numbers from 2 to 10?

Websites that can be useful:

 Subtraction using base 10 blocks
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NXCsEkMLWtY
 Addition using base 10 blocks
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I0dAjSj6q64
 Division of 3 digit number by 1 digit number
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qJxt-kSzfbo
 Long division
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AXQNeP6NN44
 31 PST201F/102

UNIT 4: FRACTIONS

This unit covers chapters 15 – 17 in the text book (pages 310 – 378)

In this unit, we will discuss:

 Fraction concept formation
 Models to represent fraction concepts
 Fraction notation
 Number line presentations
 Equivalent fractions
 Operations on fractions

Activity 4.1
vd W
Read the section "Why Fractions are so Difficult" in your textbook (pp 311 – 312)
Now reflect on what you have read. Explain in your own words what the difficulties with fractions might be.

4.1 Basic fraction concepts

Start with simple examples, involving halves. Learners first have to be able to distinguish between "objects"
and "non-objects" representing halves.
Let learners trace these shapes and fold along the dotted line. Questions to ask learners:
 Into how many parts is each
shape divided?
 What do you notice when you put
one part on top of the other?
 Which shapes are divided into
two equal parts?
 What name do we give to each
equal part?
 32

1
NB NB NB Do not use the fractional notation at this stage   .
2
Let learners just use the verbal expression: half.

Learners must say: “My whole is a (circle, rectangle, etc.). It is divided into two equal parts. Each part
is a half of the whole.”

Do the same exercise for thirds, fourths, etc.

Which of these
are thirds of
the whole?

1
Do not use the fractional notation at this stage ( ).
3

Learners must say: “My whole is a (circle, rectangle, etc.). It is divided into three equal parts. Each
part is a third of the whole.”

Here we are establishing the concept of a WHOLE being cut or divided into three EQUAL parts.
Each part is a third of the whole

Activity 4.2
Draw three diagrams which can be used to show wholes that are divided into four parts, but
which do not all represent fourths.

4.2 Fraction models

vd W
Read the section "Models for fractions" on pages 312 – 315 in your text book.
 33 PST201F/102

4.2.1 Area models

The wholes for area models are continuous. That means they are not single pieces. We usually use diagrams,
clay, pattern blocks that can fit together or paper folding for area models. The whole is "cut up" or partitioned
into several equal sized pieces. You will find examples of these models on page 313 of your text book.

One-sixth

One-eighth One-fifth

Language pattern:
My whole is a circle. To find one eighth of the whole, I divide it into eight parts of
equal size, and shade one part. The shaded part is one eight of the whole

4.2.2 Set models

The wholes for set models are discontinuous. That means that the whole consists of several separate equal
sized pieces. Each piece makes up a part of the whole. Examples of set models would be bottle tops, hard
sweets or counters. See more examples on page 317.

Language pattern:
My whole consists of 12 bottle tops. I divided them into three parts of equal size.
Each part is one third of the whole. Each part has four bottle tops. So one third of
12 is four.”

4.2.3 Length models

Length models differ from the above models, as it relates to the number line. Do not use the number line as a
model too soon. We will use length models such as paper strips and Cuisenaire rods.
 34
The diagram below is called a fraction wall, to show how the whole can be divided into equal parts.

The whole

Two halves

Three thirds

Four fourths

Six sixths

Twelve twelfths

4.3 Fraction notation

Once learners have a solid understanding of the concept of a fraction, we can move towards the fraction
notation. Please study the section "Fraction notation" on page 322 of your text book.

4.3.1 Understanding fraction notation

1
What does the fraction mean?
3
 The bottom part of the fraction tells us into how many
parts the whole is divided. The bottom part is called the The numerator counts
The denominator tells what is
denominator.
being counted
 The top part of the fraction tells us how many of the
parts we shade. The top part is called the numerator.

It is important that learners will still see the relation between a concrete example and the notation. Thus it is a
good idea to still involve drawings, or concrete apparatus, like bottle tops or clay, or paper.
The whole divided into
two equal parts. The shaded part is written as
12
. We read it: one half

The 1 shows how The 2 shows into

many parts of the how many parts the
whole is shaded whole is divided

Unit fractions are fractions with the numerator 1. It shows ONE part of the whole, such as .
 35 PST201F/102

4.4 Non–unit fractions

Once learners have a thorough grasp of unit fractions, we can move on to non-unit fractions, for example,
2 3 4
, , etc
3 5 8

We go through the same processes as before.

Example:
Shade of the triangle
2
Language: My whole is an equilateral triangle. To shade
3
of the triangle, I divide the triangle into 3 equal
parts, and shade 2 of these parts.

Examples
Shade of the pentagon

The whole is divided into five equal parts. Each part is one fifth of the whole. Two
parts are shaded. So two-fifths of the whole is shaded.
2
In fraction notation, we write,
5
2
In the fraction, what does the 5 mean? _________________ [the number of parts into which the whole is divided]
5
What does the 2 mean? _______________________________ [the number of parts shaded]

Activity 4.3
Shade the required parts of the given wholes.

4
1 Shade of the whole
5
4
In the fraction, what does the 5 mean? _________________
5
What does the 4 mean? _______________________________
Learners will need to count the bottle
2
tops (beans or other objects) to find out
Shade
5
of the whole how many there are. So he/she will
8 need to know their tables to divide into
8 equal parts. Make 8 groups.

5
In the fraction , what does the 8 mean? _________________
8
What does the 5 mean? _______________________________
5
Write down in words what you will do to shade of the whole
8
 36

4.5 Number line presentations

Let us look at the number line from 0 to 1. (This is one unit). The way in which we demarcate (iterate) the
number line, will tell us into what fraction parts the unit is divided.

We will now practice to place fractions on the number line.

Examples:
Remember if we talk about , we actually mean of 1. So where is on the number line?

0 1
Where is and

1 2
0 3 3 1

Where is , on the number line?

1 2 3
0 4 4 4 1

Activity 4.4
1 Into how many parts is this unit divided? Label each of the parts.

0 1

2 Count in thirds (place your pencil on the numbers as you are counting)

0 1 2 3
One-third, two-thirds, ______________________________________

3 Show the following on the number line:

1 3 7 10 15
3 3 3 3 3

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

4 Show the following on the number line below:

1 3 7 8 10
4 4 4 4 4

0 1 2
 37 PST201F/102

5 Then show the following on a number line: 1 3 7 8 10

5 5 5 5 5

Activity 4. 5
Help the boys:
Sipho has a piece of string that is exactly 2m long. He wants to divide it equally among three friends. What
part of the string will each one get?

0 1 2

Each friend gets of the string Important

1 2
Each friend gets of 2 metres 2 1
3 3
Each friend gets ___________ of a metre

4.6 Equivalent fractions

Please study the section "Equivalent fractions" on page 325 – 330 in your text book.

4.6.1 Continuous wholes (area model)

The activity below will guide you to understand the meaning of equivalence.

Activity 4.6
1

The whole Shade of the whole Shade of the whole

What do you notice?

Shade of the whole Shade of the whole

What do you notice?

 38

4.6.2 Discontinuous wholes (set model)

Famer Bobo has 24 goats. He wants to sell of Famer Xomo has 24 goats. He wants to sell of
his goats. So he puts them in 3 camps and his goats. So he puts them in 6 camps and
chooses the goats in two camps chooses the goats in four camps
Complete the drawing. Complete the drawing

He sold ___________ goats He sold ___________ goats

Who sold the most goats?

What can you say about and of the same whole?

4.6.3 Number line

The number line is used for the action
This number line shows that the unit is divided into 6 parts. of counting. Here we count in halves
and in sixths.
1 2
2 A 2

0 1
1 2 3 4 5 6
6 6 6 6 6 6

What does A on the number line represent? A represents as well as . So we can say that =

Activity 4.7
1 Use a number line to illustrate the equivalence of 1 and 2
3 6

0 1
2 Use the same number line to illustrate the equivalence of 2 and 4
3 6

3 Use a number line to illustrate the equivalence of 3 and 6

4 8
 39 PST201F/102

1 and 2 2 and 4
Look carefully at the fractions and the fractions
3 6 3 6
multiply by 2 multiply by 2

1 and 2 2 and 4
=1
3 6 3 6
multiply by 2 multiply by 2
We multiply each fraction by ONE!

Activity 4.8
Fill in the missing numbers to make the fractions equivalent:

3
and
 1
and
 1
and
4 2
and

5 10 2 10 3  3 12

4.7 Comparing fractions

By comparing fractions, we will decide which part of the same whole is bigger or smaller than another part.
Remember that when you compare fractions, the whole must be kept the same size.

4.7.1 Comparing non-unit fractions

The following activity will guide you towards an understanding of ordering of fractions. We will work with two
types of fractions: ones with the numerators the same, and ones where the denominators are the same.

Activity 4.9
1 Use the wholes given below, shade the given fraction parts. Then arrange the fractions from big to small.

The whole must be of the same size

Same numerators:

2 2 2 2
3 4 5 6

Same denominators: Complete the

2 3 4 drawings and
5 5 5 shade
 40

4.7.2 Which is bigger?

Examples
1 Compare the following two fractions, using blocked paper. Which is bigger?
3 or 5 ?
4 8
 Firstly you have to remember that you can only compare fractions if they are parts of the
same whole.
 Choose a whole that can be divided in 4 as well as 8 equal parts. So we will choose the
whole to be 8 blocks.

The whole: 8 blocks

Three-quarters of the whole is shaded

Five –eighths of the whole is shaded

3 5

4 8
3 6 6 5
Making use of equivalence:   
4 8 8 8

2 3
2 Compare the following two fractions, using blocked paper. and
3 5
Choose a whole that can be divided into 3 as well as 5 equal parts. So the whole has to consist of 15 blocks.

The whole: 15 blocks

Two thirds of the whole is shaded

Three-fifths of the whole is shaded

2 3
 
3 5

2 10 3 9 10 9
Making use of equivalence:  and   
3 15 5 15 15 15

Activity 4.10
Draw up a worksheet to compare fractions. A set model has to be used.
 41 PST201F/102

4.8 Addition of fractions

SIMPLE ADDITION
Can you add the following?
1 1 ?
  You can only add "like fractions". They
3 3 ?
have to be the same parts of the whole.
The DENOMINATORS have to be the
1 1 1 ?
   SAME
4 4 4 ?

4.8.1 The three stages of teaching the addition of fractions

Stage 1
Denominators the same: (like fractions)
2 4
Illustrate 
7 7
 Show the whole: 7 blocks

 Shade 2  4 of the whole

7 7

2 4 6
 
7 7 7

Stage 2
One denominator a factor of the other (unlike fractions)
Illustrate 1  1 Choose a whole that both 3 and 6 can divide into
3 6
Into how many parts must the whole be divided?
 Show the whole: 6 blocks

 Shade 1 1

of the whole
3 6

1 1

3 6
2 1 Make denominators the same,
The algorithm for addition  
6 6 using equivalence
3 1 Add numerators. Denominator
 or
6 2 stays the same.
 42

Stage 3
One denominator NOT a factor of the other (unlike fractions)
Illustrate: 1  1 Choose a whole that both 3 and 4 can divide into
3 4
Into how many parts must the whole be divided?
 Show the whole: 12 blocks

 Shade of the whole

1 1

3 4
4 3 Make denominators the same,
The algorithm for addition  
12 12 using equivalence
7 Add numerators. Denominator

12 stays the same.

Activity 4.11
Do the following examples on quad paper:
1 1  4 2 1 3
5 5 5 10
3 1  1 4 1  2 5 1  5
3 2 3 5 4 6

4.9 Subtraction of fractions

4.9.1 The three stages of teaching the subtraction of fractions

Stage 1
Denominators the same: (like fractions)
Illustrate 7  3
10 10
 Show the whole: 10 blocks

Shade of the whole

Shade of the whole

 Subtract from =
7 3 4
The algorithm for subtraction   Subtract numerators. Denominator
10 10 10 stays the same.
 43 PST201F/102

Stage 2
One denominator a factor of the other (unlike fractions)
Illustrate 7  2 (One fraction must be altered)
10 5
Into how many parts must the whole be divided?
 Show the whole: 10 blocks

Shade of the whole

 Shade of the whole

 Subtract – =
7 2

10 5
7 4 Make denominators the same,
The algorithm for subtraction   using equivalence
10 10
3 Subtract numerators. Denominator
 stays the same.
10

Stage 3
One denominator NOT a factor of the other (unlike fractions)
Illustrate: 3  1 (Both fractions must be altered)
5 2
Into how many parts must the whole be divided?
 Show the whole: 10 blocks

 Shade = of the whole

Shade of the whole

 Subtract – =
3 1

5 2
6 5 Make denominators the same,
The algorithm for subtraction   using equivalence
10 10
1 Subtract numerators. Denominator
 stays the same.
10
 44

4.10 The meaning of “of ”

A mathematical explanation
We usually tell learners
What is of 8? ______________________ that “of” means “times”. Do
you know why? How will
What is 8  ? ______________________ you explain it to your
learners?
The commutative property for multiplication: 3  4 = 4  3
of 8 is the same as 8  which is the same as  8
Therefore of 8 =  8

A little pizza problem

Princess invited her two friends to come and eat a pizza at her
house. When they got there, they found that her brother had
already eaten one quarter of the pizza.
Shade the part of the pizza that is left
What part of the pizza is left to share among the three of them?
Each one will get one-third of _________
In fraction notation we write 1 of 3
3 4

Illustrate the following, using drawings (Remember that the whole must be kept the same if you want to
compare the answers!)
1 1 of 1 of the rectangle
3 2
 Shade  Shade
 of the total rectangle
is shaded


2 1 of 1 of the rectangle
2 3

 Shade  Shade 𝑜𝑓

 of the total rectangle

 is shaded
 45 PST201F/102

4.11 Multiplication of fractions

Can you multiply the following?
1
2  SHADE!
3
1
3 
4 SHADE!
Complete:

2   2
3 3 3 3

3  1  1  1  3
4

Solutions
+ 2

Pre-knowledge
 multiplication of whole numbers
 multiplication as repeated addition
 commutative property for multiplication
 the meaning of "of"
 the notion of area

4.11.1 The three stages of teaching the multiplication of fractions

Stage 1
Multiplier a natural number and the multiplicand a fraction
Illustrate 4  2
3
Repeated addition
4  2 = ---- + ---- + ---- + ---- Multiplier  multiplicand = product
3
= -----

Solution:
4  2 = 2 2 2 2 8
   
3 3 3 3 3 3
 46

Stage 2
Multiplier a fraction and the multiplicand a natural number
Illustrate
2  4
3
2
What does 2  4 mean? It is the same as of 4
3 3
Here they must understand the concept of "of"
Show 2 of 4
3
Shade 2 of 4 wholes
3
What part is shaded?

Solution:

Stage 3
4 units
Fraction  fraction
Pre-knowledge:
 the area of a rectangle 3 units

One square unit

3  4 = 12 (units)2

1 1
Illustrate: 1 of 1 Illustrate of
2 2 2 4

 Shade a half of
the circle.
2 1  Divide the half 1 1
 into 3 parts 
3 2  Double shade 2 3
2 of the 3 parts
 You have now
shaded one
third of the
circle
 47 PST201F/102

Activity 4.12
Use diagrams to show the following
1 A R5 coin is 2 cm wide. If you put seven R5 coins end to end, how long would they be from beginning

to end?
2 You have of a pumpkin pie left over from Sunday lunch. You want to give of it to your sister. How

much of the whole pumpkin pie will this be?

3 Erick Hazan gave of his money to his wife and spent of the remainder. If he had R300 left, how

much money did he have at first?

4 David spent of his money on a storybook. The storybook cost R20. How much money did he have at

first?
5 Penny had a bag of marbles. She gave one-third of them to Rebecca, and then one-fourth of the
remaining marbles to John. Penny then had 24 marbles left in the bag. How many marbles were in the
bag to start with?

4.11.2 The area model.

This is a 1
We know that the area of a rectangle is “length times breadth” by 1 square

1 1
So if you have to multiply:  , we can illustrate this
2 3 1 This block is
as follows: one-sixth

Divide the one side into halves, and the other side into thirds.
The shaded part is one sixth of the one-by-one square.
1 1
This is the area of a rectangle measuring by
2 3
1 1 1
Solution:  
2 3 6 1

1 2 1
If you have to multiply:  , we can illustrate this as
2 3
follows:
Divide the one side into halves, and the other side into
thirds. The shaded part is two sixths of the one-by-one
square.
1 2
This is the area of a rectangle measuring by
2 3 1
 48
1 2 2
Solution:  
2 3 6
Blocked paper makes it easier to use the area model
Use the blocked paper to illustrate the following:
3 4 5 6
1  2  1
8 3 3 5

1
1
Solutions
3 4
1 
8 3
 Demarcate the horizontal axis in eights
1  Demarcate the vertical axis in thirds
Each little block will now be 1/24
 Mark off 3/8 on the horizontal axis
 Mark off 4/3 on the vertical axis
 Shade the rectangle that is formed
1

3 4 12 1
  
8 3 24 2
5 6
2   Demarcate the horizontal axis in thirds
3 5 1
 Demarcate the vertical axis in fifths
Each little block will now be 1/15
 Mark off 5/3 on the horizontal axis
 Mark off 6/5 on the vertical axis
 Shade the rectangle that is formed

1
 49 PST201F/102
5 6 30
  2
3 5 15

4.11.3 An algorithm for multiplication of fractions:

Teachers should work with concrete apparatus (manipulatives) and drawings extensively before leaners get
involved with the algorithm.
From the two examples above, we can see the following:
3 4 12 1 5 6 30
   and   2
8 3 24 2 3 5 15
Can you see what happened?

Multiply numerators Multiply numerators

3 4 12 5 6 30
   
8 3 24 3 5 15
Multiply denominators Multiply denominators

Activity 4.13
Use the multiplication algorithm to find the product of
1 

2 15 

3 1 8

4 1
 50

UNIT 5: SHAPE AND SPACE

This unit covers chapter 20 in the text book (pages 426 - 456)

In this unit, we will discuss:

 the van Hiele levels of Geometrical thought
 Flats shapes
 Polygons: properties of triangles and quadrilaterals
 Space shapes
 Polyhedrons: properties of prisms and pyramids
 Nets of polyhedra
 Views

5.1 An introduction to shapes

Geometry is possibly one of the most neglected topics in schools. Yet, it is one of the most interesting topics,
which could be made easily understandable to learners, provided they have the proper material to work with.
In this unit, we will make use of different types of materials. We also give this unit a theoretical underpinning,
because teachers should understand how learners learn geometry, and why it is important to follow a definite
line of development and sequence when teaching the concepts of shapes to young learners.

Let us look at the different geometric shapes we see in our daily lives.
All shapes can be classified into two major parts:
 Space shapes What is a plane?
o Space shapes are objects that protrude in space (they “stand up” or “stick out”; they “take up
space”) Most of the shapes that we see in our daily lives are space shapes. You yourself is a
space shape.
 Flat shapes (we also call them plane shapes)
o Flat shapes are shapes that lie flat. You can put it flat on a desk, and it will not stick up in
space.
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Activity 5.1
Which of the following objects are space shapes, and which are flat shapes?
A telephone
A page in your book
A soccer ball
A stop sign

5.2 The Van Hiele levels of Geometric thought

vd W
Study the section on page 427 onwards in your text book.
For us to understand the way learners think about shapes, we will look at research that had been done years
ago by van Hiele. In 1957, Dutch educators Dina van Hiele-Geldof and Pierre van Hiele proposed that the
development of a student's understanding of geometrical concepts, developed through five distinct levels.
These levels are important for us to understand, because it will influence the way in which we teach “shape” to
learners.
In short, the levels are labelled:
Level 0 Visualization
Level 1 Descriptive
Level 2 Abstract/Relational
Level 3 Formal deduction and proof
Level 4 Rigor
In primary school, we hope learners to achieve level 1, but they will seldom move to level 2. Note that a
learner cannot be taught level 1 information before he or she has not yet achieved level 0. Learners will simply
not be able to make the connections if they have not proceeded with proper teaching on level 0.
Let us look at the first three levels, zero, one and two. Although we might be teaching Intermediate Phase, it
will be very useful to test your learners to decide on which level they find themselves.

LEVEL 0 VISUALIZATION
Level zero deals with “what shapes look like”.
Learners recognises and name figures on their visual characteristics. They will say: “this is a square because it
looks like a square”.

Example:
Point out the square(s):
 52
If you place a square in a different position, they might see the square as a diamond, and no longer as a
square.

They might identify a rectangle as a "door shape".

Learners identify and reason about shapes and other geometric configurations based on shapes as visual
wholes rather than on geometry properties. Some properties of the shapes are included in this level, such as
right angles, parallel sides, but only in an informal manner.

LEVEL 1 DESCRIPTIVE
Learners recognise and characterise shapes by their properties
For example, they can identify a rectangle as a shape with opposite sides parallel and four right angles.
When learners investigate a certain shape they come to know the specific properties of that figure. For
example, they will realise that the sides of a square are equal and that the diagonals are equal. Students
discover the properties of a figure but see them in isolation and as having no connection with each other.

Learners at this level still do not see relationships between classes of shapes (e.g., all rectangles are
parallelograms), and they tend to name all properties they know to describe a class, instead of a sufficient set.

LEVEL 2 ABSTRACT/RELATIONAL

Learners are able to form abstract definitions and distinguish between necessary and sufficient sets of
conditions for a class of shapes, recognizing that some properties imply others. When learners reason about
and compare the properties of a figure they realise that there are relationships between them.
The relationships being perceived:
 exist between the properties of a specific figure, and
 exist between the properties of different figures.

5.1 Comments about the thought levels

 Each thought level has its own language, grammar and symbols.
 The subject matter that is implicit at one level becomes explicit at the next level.
 Memorising is at “no level”.
 Learners pass through the levels in order without skipping any of them.
 Not all learners progress through the levels at the same rate.
 Learners reasoning at one level will not be able to understand the explanations or answer the
questions given at a higher level.
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5.2 Consequences of the Van Hiele theory for learning

 Movement from the first level (visual) to the second level (descriptive) implies the movement from a
level without any relation network (visual) to one with a relation network (descriptive).
 At the visual level the child uses language. The function of this is mainly to give the object or situation
a name. This can be called the social knowledge that the child acquires. The child is not in a position
to elaborate on any functions of the object that is called by the specific name. For example, the child
will call a rhombus by its name at this level merely on the overall visual appearance of the shape. The
child will not be able to defend this decision of calling it a rhombus through any logical reasoning
where the properties of the rhombus are required.
 One of the main differences between the reasoning at the visual level and that at the descriptive level
lies in the difference in judgement that the child makes. Learning at the visual level relies mainly on
an intuitive understanding of the object or situation. That is why the child does not see the need to
reason about what is experienced. The child will not see the need to reason about the relationships
between a rhombus and a square. The child is so strongly bound by the intuitive knowledge that (s)he
will argue that a square is also a rhombus.
 The reasoning that takes place at the third level (abstract relational) relies quite heavily on the
structure of the descriptive level. The judgement that the child is making does not rely on the fact that
there are links between the relation networks but on the relationship between these links.
 The different thought levels have a hierarchical development. This implies that thinking on the
descriptive level is not possible unless the visual thought level had been well established.

You as a teacher in the intermediate and/or senior phase should particularly take note of the descriptors of
Level 0, Level 1 and Level 2. That will give you an idea of the types of learning activities that your learners
should be involved. Levels 4 and 5 descriptors are not applicable to learners in the above mentioned two
phases. Consult you text book on page 431.

5.3 Flat shapes

The first activity that young learners should engage in will involve Level 0 of the van Hiele levels of geometric
thought.
Each group of learners will receive a box with a variety of shapes, carefully chosen so that each group has the
correct variety of shapes to classify them according to the teacher’s request.
In this activity, learners will sort the shapes according to what they SEE. There are not really correct or wrong
answers, because learners might visualize the shapes differently. what is important is that they should be able
to explain to the group or the teacher, why they classify a particular shape in the way they do.
An assortment of flat shapes given to a group of learners. It is important that each learner in your class should
have at least one opportunity to bring a shape to the front of the class, where the teacher can stick the shape
on the blackboard using Prestik.
 54

Examples of the variety of shapes that could be used. (see van de Walle page 428)

Activity 5.2
This is an exercise for level 0 learners
Classify the shapes above according to the following criteria:
1 Shapes with curved edges
2 Three sides
3 Four sides
4 Opposite sides "go the same way" (parallelograms)
5 Shapes with "dents" (concave)

5.4 Polygons
A polygon is a closed plane (flat) shape made up of line segments. These line
segments must touch only once at their endpoints.
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Activity 5.3
Which of the following are polygons?
Learners should be able to identify, classify and sort. This should be done before the names of the
shapes are taught.




 

5.4.1 Naming polygons

3 sides: triangle
4 sides quadrilateral
5 sides: pentagon
6 sides hexagon The affix "gon" means "sides". So a
7 sides: heptagon decagon is a polygon with 10 sides.
8 sides octagon
9 sides nonagon
10 sides: decagon
12 sides dodecagon
20 sides icosagon
many polygon
A polygon is a two – dimensional shape with sides made up from line
segments. They are simple, closed curves. (page 436, vd Walle)
 56

Activity 5.4
Classify the shapes as polygons or non-polygons

A B C D

E F G H

5.5 Triangles
Learners should be able to recognise, classify and sort
Which of these are triangles?

5.5.1 Types of triangles

Read the section "Categories of two dimensional shapes" on page 435 – 436 in vd Walle.

Activity 5.5
Draw the following triangles
1 As right isosceles triangle
2 An acute scale triangle
3 An obtuse scale triangle
4 An obtuse isosceles triangle
5 An equilateral triangle
6 A right angled scalene triangle
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5.6 Quadrilaterals
Learners should be able to recognise, classify and sort
Which of these are quadrilaterals?






5.6.1 Concepts dealing with quadrilaterals

Activity 5.6
Explain each of the following concepts and draw an example

Explanation Drawing
Line segment

Parallel lines

Equal sides

Diagonals

Perpendicular diagonals

Right angles

Opposite sides
 58
Opposite angles

Bisecting diagonals

Bisecting angles

Adjacent sides

5.6.2 Classification of quadrilaterals

Quadrilateral You must understand this classification

Trapezium

Parallelogram

Kite

Rhombus Rectangle

The properties below will help

Square
you with the classification

The minimum set of properties that will identify a quadrilateral.

 Trapezium One pair of opposite sides parallel
 Parallelogram Two pairs of opposite sides parallel
 Rhombus All sides equal
 Rectangle All angles equal
 Kite Two pairs of adjacent sides equal
 Square All sides and angles equal
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5.7 Space shapes

A space shape protrudes in space. Also called 3D objects or solids

Examples of space shapes

Learners should be able to identify, classify and sort. This should be done before the names of the shapes are
taught.
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Activity 5.7
Classify (draw one example of each)
1 Shapes that will roll
2 Shapes that have triangles
3 All the faces are rectangles
4 Shapes that have a "point"
5 Shapes with parallel faces
6 Make up four more categories

5.7.1 Special space shapes

Polyhedrons
A figure that is not a plane figure, is a space figure. Space figures "take up space".
Some space figures are made up of plane surfaces.

They have:
 Faces – the flat surfaces (they are all polygonal regions)
 Edges – where the faces meet (they are all straight lines)
 Vertices – where the edges meet (they are all points)

A polyhedron is a three – dimensional object, whose faces are polygons

We name polyhedra according to the number of faces they have. We use the same prefixes as for polygons,
but the names end in the word "hedron". (penta –, hexa –, hepta –, octa –, nona –, deca –, dodeca –, icosa –,
poly –) E.g. a polyhedron with six faces is called a hexahedron.
The smallest number of faces a polyhedron can have is ______. This is called a tetrahedron.

A polyhedron on is a three – dimensional shape with specific characteristics.

Activity 5.8
Write down the definition of a polyhedron.
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Activity 5.9
Classify the following as polyhedra or non-polyhedra

A B D E
F
C
G

Polyhedra are made up of the following: Lateral face Lateral face

 Faces (they must be polygons)
 Edges (where the faces meet)
 Vertices (where the edges meet) Base Base

Prisms
A prism is a polyhedron with two parallel, identical bases. The Lateral faces are parallelograms. In a RIGHT
prism, the lateral faces are rectangles.

Activity 5.10
When is a polyhedron a prism?

It must have:_______________________
The “side” faces must be: _________________

Activity 5.11
What is the BASE of each object?

A B C D E
 62
A is called a __________ prism
B is called a __________ prism
C is called a __________ prism
D is called a __________ prism
E is called a __________ prism

Pyramids
A pyramid has BASE and all the other faces are triangles. The vertices of all the
triangles meet in one point, called the apex.

Activity 5.12

A B C D E
What shape is the BASE of each object?

A is called a __________ pyramid (also called a tetrahedron)

B is called a __________ pyramid
C is called a __________ pyramid
D is called a __________ pyramid
E is called a __________ pyramid

In summary:
A pentagonal A square
A triangular pyramid pyramid
pyramid

A square
A triangular prism
prism
A pentagonal
prism
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5.7.2 Regular polyhedra

There are only five regular polyhedra. This was discovered by Plato, and so they are called Platonic solids.
On the following page you will see the five regular polyhedra.

Tetrahedron Hexahedron Octahedron

___ faces _____ faces _____ faces

Dodecahedron Icosahedron

_____ faces _____ faces

5.8 Practice how to draw 3 – D objects

Always us a ruler when you draw shapes with edges or face which are polygons.
Some tips on sketching 3D solids:

Cylinder A rectangular prism

 move
sideways

 Draw copy Join

base base
 Draw copy Join corners
base base

A square pyramid Cone

 Draw plot a Join

 Draw plot a Join base point
base point
 64
A tetrahedron (triangular pyramid) Cube

 Draw copy Join

 Draw plot a Join base base
base point

5.9 Nets of polyhedra

A net is a fold-out (flat) shape that can be folded up into a space shape. We can also make nets for other
space shapes that are not polyhedra.

 

Net of triangular
Triangular pyramid pyramid
Triangular prism
Net of triangular prism

Here are the nets of the five platonic solids.

These are the flaps that you
need to paste the pieces after
Tetrahedron Octahedron Icosahedron folding
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Dodecahedron
Cube

5.10 Drawings from different views

Learners often find it difficult to draw three dimensional objects. They would draw a square for a cube, or a
triangle for a cone (see section 5.6 in this guide).They also need to develop the ability to draw or recognise
views from different directions.
Start with simple blocks. The best would be to use real cubes and allow
These two
learners to draw the cubes from different perspectives. Allow learners face look like
to look at a cube from top, bottom, left, right, etc. Show them that when parallelograms
you look at the cube from the corner, you actually see 3 faces, but they
do not all look like squares.

Example
Draw the front, side and top views of the stack of cubes.
Top view
Top view

T
S
F
T Side view
Side view S
F F
It helps to mark the
front, side and top
views, or colour them
Front view with different colours
Front view

Front view: Side view Top view

 66

Activity 5.13
1 Draw the front, side and top view of the following structures

2 Two of the three views of a solid is shown

What is the greatest number of cube units in the solid?
What is the least number of cube units in the solid?
Draw the front views of the solid parts mentioned above. Top view Side view

3 Draw a solid with the following front, side and top views

Front view Side view Top view

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Appendix Unit 3: Activity for Dienes blocks

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http://www.curriculumsupport.education.nsw.gov.au/secondary/mathematics/assets/pdf/literacyy7/s4placevalu
e2.pdf
 Dienes Blocks 72

10 Blocks (cut out)

FLAT
100 Block

LONG (6)
FLAT

10 Blocks (cut out)

100 Block

LONG (6)

Laminate and cut out

1 Blocks TINY (60) Cut out

Make enough copies for

all learners
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Appendix Unit 4: Fraction resources

LAMINATE AND CUT OUT

FOR USE IN CLASSROOM
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Teaching of fractions concepts.

How to use the shapes in the classroom
Hand out shapes to learners. Each learner must have at least one shape.
Each learner must show his/her shape and use the correct language pattern. Allow learners to swop shapes
and to repeat the language pattern with the new shape.
Learners have to know the correct vocabulary when dealing with fraction concepts. Learners must say the
following over and over, until they have mastered the correct vocabulary.
The following language patterns must be taught:

Examples
My whole is a triangle.
My whole is divided into two equal parts.
(Now the learner has to show how the two equal parts fit into the triangle).
Each part is one half of my whole.
So two halves make one whole

My whole is a square.
My whole is divided into four equal parts.
(Now the learner has to show how the four equal parts fit into the square).
Each part is one quarter (or one fourth) of my whole.
So four quarters make one whole

My whole is a hexagon.
My whole is divided into three equal parts.
(Now the learner has to show how the three equal parts fit into the hexagon).
Each part is one third of my whole.
So three thirds make one whole

My whole is a circle.
My whole is divided into eight equal parts.
(Now the learner has to show how the eight equal parts fit into the circle).
Each part is one eighth of my whole.
So eight eights make one whole

My whole is a rectangle.
My whole is divided into six equal parts.
(Now the learner has to show how the six equal parts fit into the rectangle).
Each part is one sixth of my whole.
So six sixths make one whole
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My whole is a pentagon.
My whole is divided into five equal parts.
(Now the learner has to show how the five equal parts fit into the pentagon).
Each part is one fifth of my whole.
So five fifths make one whole
The activity can be extended to ask learners to show:
 Two thirds
 Three fifths, etc

When teaching fraction concepts, the teacher should refrain from using the symbolic form of a fraction, such
as , , etc. Children should learn the correct pronunciation of the fraction in WORDS, and not by saying “one

over three” or “one over five”. The role of the numerator and denominator must only be taught after children
understand the concept of a fraction.
In grade 4, learners mainly deal with unit fractions (that is where the numerator is 1).

The meaning of the numerator and denominator should be clearly explained.

The “2” in the denominator tells you into how many parts the whole has been divided.

The “one” in the numerator tells you how many parts are shaded.

The activity can be extended to show equivalent fractions

Show two sixths Show one third

=1
Show two fifths Show four tenths