AN CP0801

Application Note

MUTUAL COUPLING MEASUREMENTS

AN CP0801 Application Note

Manual Version: ANCP0801.AE.1

OMICRON electronics 2008. All rights reserved.
This Application Note is a publication of OMICRON electronics GmbH.
All rights including translation reserved. Reproduction of any kind, e.g., photocopying, microfilming or
storage in electronic data processing systems, requires the explicit consent of OMICRON electronics.
Reprinting, wholly or in part, is not permitted.
This Application Note represents the technical status at the time of printing. The product information,
specifications, and all technical data contained within this Application Note are not contractually
binding. OMICRON electronics reserves the right to make changes at any time to the technology and/or
configuration without announcement. OMICRON electronics is not to be held liable for statements and
declarations given in this Application Note. The user is responsible for every application described in
this Application Note and its results. OMICRON electronics explicitly exonerates itself from all liability
for mistakes in this document.
OMICRON electronics translates this manual from its source language English into a number of other
languages. Any translation of this manual is done for local requirements, and in the event of a dispute
between the English and any non-English versions, the English version of this manual shall govern.

Contents

Contents
1

Using This Document . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4

1.1 Operator Qualifications and Safety Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4
1.2 Safety Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5
1.3 Conventions and Symbols Used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5
1.4 Related Documents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5

Safety Instructions for Connecting CP CU1 to Power Lines . . . . . . . . . . . .6

2.1 Before Starting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6
2.2 Recommended Current Range Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6
2.3 Estimating the Open-Line Voltage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
2.4 Connecting the Measurement Setup to Power Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8

k Factor and Mutual Coupling Factor Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10

3.1 Why k Factor Measurement? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10
3.2 Mutual Coupling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
3.3 Performing Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13
3.4 Interpretation of Measurement Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19
3.4.1 Excel CPC 100 File Loader . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20

AN CP0801 Application Note

1 Using This Document

Reading the AN CP0801 Application Note alone does not release you from the
duty of complying with all national and international safety regulations relevant
to working with the CPC 100 and the CP CU1. The regulation EN 50191 "The
Erection and Operation of Electrical Test Equipment" as well as all the
applicable regulations for accident prevention in the country and at the site of
operation has to be fulfilled.

1.1 Operator Qualifications and Safety Standards

Working on overhead lines is extremely dangerous. The mutual coupling
measurements described in this Application Note must be carried out only by
qualified, skilled and authorized personnel. Before starting to work, clearly
establish the responsibilities. Personnel receiving training, instructions,
directions, or education on the measurement setup must be under constant
supervision of an experienced operator while working with the equipment.
The measurements must comply with the relevant national and international
safety standards listed below:

EN 50191 (VDE 0104) "Erection and Operation of Electrical Equipment"

EN 50110-1 (VDE 0105 Part 100) "Operation of Electrical Installations"

IEEE 510 "IEEE Recommended Practices for Safety in High-Voltage and

High-Power Testing"

LAPG 1710.6 NASA "Electrical Safety"

Moreover, additional relevant laws and internal safety standards have to be

followed.

Using This Document

1.2 Safety Measures

Before starting a measurement, read the safety rules in the CPC 100 User and
Reference Manual and CP CU1 Reference Manual carefully and observe the
application specific safety instructions in this Application Note when performing
measurements to protect yourself from high-voltage hazards.

1.3 Conventions and Symbols Used

In this document, the following symbols indicate paragraphs with special safety
relevant meaning.

Symbol

Description
Equipment damage or loss of data possible.

Personal injury or severe damage to objects

possible.

1.4 Related Documents

The following documents complete the information covered in this Application
Note:

Title

Description

CPC 100 User Manual

Provides basic information on the CPC 100

test system and relevant safety instructions.

CPC 100 Reference Manual

Provides detailed hardware and software

information on the CPC 100 test system
including relevant safety instructions.

CP CU1 Reference Manual

Provides information on the CP CU1 coupling

unit and the CP GB1 grounding box including
typical application examples.

AN CP0801 Application Note

2 Safety Instructions for Connecting

CP CU1 to Power Lines
2.1 Before Starting
Caution: A lightning discharge to the line under test can cause injury or
possibly death of the operating staff. Do not connect the measurement
setup to overhead lines if there is a possibility of a thunderstorm over any
part of the lines to be measured.
Caution: Connecting the measurement setup to overhead lines with a life
parallel system brings about high-voltage hazards. It is strongly
recommended to take all parallel lines out of service before proceeding.
Before connecting CP CU1 to overhead lines or power cables (further on
referred to as power lines), you must estimate the open-line voltage as
described in 2.3 "Estimating the Open-Line Voltage". Follow the instructions
below exactly and sequentially to protect yourself from high-voltage hazards. In
addition to the following safety instructions, observe "Safety Rules" on page 7 of
the CP CU1 Reference Manual V1.4.

2.2 Recommended Current Range Settings

The highest current range allowed by the open-line voltage (see
2.4 "Connecting the Measurement Setup to Power Lines" on page 8) provides
the best measurement accuracy. However, depending on the length of the
power line under test, this setting may result in CPC 100 overload due to low
driving voltage. As a rule of thumb, the current range required for the power line
length is given in Table 2-1: "Recommended Current Range Settings" below.
Set the current range switch of CP CU1 to the value according to the table.
Table 2-1:
Recommended Current
Range Settings

Line Impedance

Line Length

Current
Range

Compliance
Voltage

01.6

02 km/01.5 miles

100 A

50 V

0.88

110 km/0.55 miles

50 A

100 V

4.040

550 km/330 miles

20 A

250 V

> 16

> 20 km/15 miles

10 A

500 V

Safety Instructions for Connecting CP CU1 to Power Lines

2.3 Estimating the Open-Line Voltage

To estimate the open-line voltage:
1. Switch off, short-circuit and ground the power line on both sides using an
installed grounding switch or, if no grounding switch is available on site, using
grounding cables (further on, the grounding switch or these extra grounding
cables are referred to as grounding switch).
2. Make sure that the connection to ground at the far end of the power line is
not removed during the complete test procedure.
3. In addition to the grounding switch, ground the line at the near end using a
grounding set consisting of three cables rated for the maximum short-circuit
current possible on the line (further on, this connection is called working
ground).
4. Open the grounding switch at the near end of the power line and measure the
current through the working ground using a clamp-on ammeter on all three
phases.
5. Close the grounding switch.
6. Calculate the estimated open-line voltage after removal of the grounding
cables as follows:
Vest [V] = meas [A] 0.4 [/km] 2 lline [km]

(Eq. 2-1)

or
Vest [V] = meas [A] 0.64 [/mile] 2 lline [miles]

(Eq. 2-2)

where Vest [V] is the estimated open-loop voltage in volts,

meas is the highest measured current in ampers,
0.4 [/km] = 0.64 [/mile] is the constant of a typical overhead line per wire
and lline [km] and lline [miles] is the length of the line in km and miles respectively.
Caution: If the estimated open-line voltage is

> 500 V, stop. The measurement is not possible due to high-voltage

hazard. Try to take parallel lines out of service.

250500 V, the measurement is possible only in the 10 A range.

100250 V, the measurement is possible in the 10 A or 20 A range.

50100 V, the measurement is possible in the 10 A, 20 A or 50 A range.

< 50 V, the measurement is possible in all current ranges.

7. If the current range allowed by the estimated open-line-voltage is lower as

the current range set according to Table 2-1: "Recommended Current Range
Settings" on page 6, set the current range switch of CP CU1 to the value
allowed by the open-line voltage.

AN CP0801 Application Note

Caution: While the grounding switch at the near end of the power line is
open, the area around CP GB1 in the range of 5 m/15 ft and around CP CU1
in the range of 2 m/5 ft is a dangerous zone due to high-voltage and
mechanical hazards. Do not enter the dangerous zone. Keep the
grounding switch open for a time as short as possible.
Caution: If you see or hear anything uncommon in the test equipment, for
example noise of electrical discharge or lightening of surge arrestors,
close the grounding switch before touching the measurement setup.

2.4 Connecting the Measurement Setup to Power

Lines
If the estimated open-line voltage (see "Estimating the Open-Line Voltage" on
page 7) allows measurement in the current range you want to use, connect the
measurement setup to the power line as follows:
1. Make sure that the grounding switch is closed.
2. Connect CP GB1 to ground using the delivered cable near the place where
the connection to the line is made. Make sure that the grounding stud is in
good condition, clean and free of oxidation.
Caution: Depending on the type of grounding points in the substation, the
appropriate connection set and socket clamp have to be used. Connecting
socket clamps of one type to a grounding point of another system is highly
dangerous on both the connection of the grounding set to CP GB1 and the
connection of CP GB1 to the grounding point in the substation. The 16 to
20 mm socket clamps are designed and tested for fault currents up to
26.5 kA, the 25 mm (1 inch) socket clamp for fault currents up to 30 kA,
both for a maximum duration of 100 ms. On locations where higher fault
currents are possible, CP CU1 and CP GB1 must not be used.
3. Disconnect the grounding cables from the ground (the grounding switch is
closed!) and connect them to the CP GB1s line studs.
4. Position CP CU1 at a minimum distance of 5 m/15 ft from CP GB1.
5. Position CPC 100 at a minimum distance of 5 m/15 ft from CP CU1 and
10 m/30 ft from CP GB1.
6. Ground CP CU1 using a cable of at least 6 mm2 cross-section close to
CPC 100 and the position of the operator.
7. Connect CP CU1 with CP GB1 as shown in Figure 2-1: "Wiring the
Measurement Setup" on page 9.

Safety Instructions for Connecting CP CU1 to Power Lines

Figure 2-1:
Wiring the
Measurement Setup

Connection using
grounding sets on site
L3/C L2/B L1/A

8. Ground CPC 100 using a cable of at least 6 mm2 cross-section close to the
position of the operator.
9. Connect CP CU1 with CPC 100 as shown in Figure 2-1: "Wiring the
Measurement Setup" above.
10.Mark the area around CP GB1 in the range of at least 5 m/15 ft and around
CP CU1 in the range of at least 2 m/5 ft as dangerous zone.
11.Open the grounding switch and read the voltmeter on the CP CU1s front
panel from outside of the dangerous zone.
Caution: If the voltmeters reading is

> 500 V, stop. The measurement is not possible due to high-voltage

hazard.

250500 V, the measurement is possible only in the 10 A range.

100250 V, the measurement is possible in the 10 A or 20 A range.

50100 V, the measurement is possible in the 10 A, 20 A or 50 A range.

< 50 V, the measurement is possible in all current ranges.

If the open-line voltage allows measurement, proceed as described in

"Performing Measurements" on page 13.
Make sure that the grounding switch is always closed when no
measurement is performed and especially when the wiring is modified or
the current range switch of CP CU1 is set.

AN CP0801 Application Note

3 k Factor and Mutual Coupling Factor

Measurement
3.1 Why k Factor Measurement?
On most modern secondary distance protection relays, the value of the positivesequence (line) and zero-sequence (line-to-ground) impedance or the ground
impedance matching factor (k factor) is required to make the relay settings. The
line impedance can be readily calculated but the chosen values for the ground
impedance often do not match the actual conditions. This is because that nearby
parallel systems have an influence on the measurement and thus discrepancies
between the calculated and actual values are generated. Therefore, the mutual
coupling factor between two systems has to be determined to consider these
influences for the evaluation of the measurement results. The accuracy of these
settings is crucial to the operation of the relay because they directly affect the
reach of the different protection zones, for example in case of a line-to-ground
fault. Measurements show that in a significant number of cases the k factor of
the measured lines is set more than 20% from its actual value. This can result in
zone under- or overreach and consequently, the selectivity is lost. This situation
is particularly relevant to underground power cables.
The k factors are line parameters independent of the fault location describing the
ratio of the line and ground impedances. The following k factor definitions are
commonly used:
The complex ratio of the ground impedance Z E and the line impedance Z L
Z
-----0 1
ZE Z1
k L = ------ = -------------------- ,
ZL
3

(Eq. 3-1)

Note: Z1 = Z L
the complex ratio of the zero-sequence impedance Z 0 and the positivesequence impedance Z 1 (see Figure 3-1: "Zero-Sequence Impedance
Definition" below)
Z0
k 0 = ----Z1

and a couple of real values

10

(Eq. 3-2)

k Factor and Mutual Coupling Factor Measurement

RE
-----RL

(Eq. 3-3)

XE
-----XL

(Eq. 3-4)

where R E and X E are the real and imaginary parts respectively of the ground
impedance and R L and X L are the real and imaginary parts respectively of the
line impedance.
Figure 3-1:
Zero-Sequence
Impedance Definition

The single-phase zero-sequence impedance corresponds to a serial connection

from the line impedance Z 1 and the triple ground impedance Z E . The k factor is
an important setting of distance protection relays. The precision of this setting
affects the accuracy of distance protection relays dramatically. The k factor can
be calculated, but the calculation results give only a rough estimate of the actual
value. As a wrong k factor setting can cause worse power quality, higher risk to
lose the system stability and loss of power supply, k factor measurements are
essential for fast, selective and reliable distance protection.
Because there are usually strong disturbances by other lines in service,
measurement at the mains frequency is not feasible. All measurements running
according to the templates are done below and above the mains frequency and
the results are interpolated. From these results the positive- and zero-sequence
impedances as well as the k factor in various formats are calculated.

11

AN CP0801 Application Note

3.2 Mutual Coupling

Basically, mutual coupling is nothing but a voltage induced in the parallel
system II, which is caused by a current in system I. Due to the voltage induced
in system II, a current also flows in the parallel system, which in turn induces a
voltage in system I. This relation is shown in the following figure.
Figure 3-2:
Mutual Coupling
Between Two Wires

For measuring the coupling impedance Z M , the template requires two

measurements. The advantage of this measurement is that no measurement is
required on system II. Rather, all measurements are conducted on system I. In
the first measurement, system II is separated from the ground on at least one
end. Consequently, no current can flow through system II. The result is the zerosequence impedance Z 01 for the case that no current can flow in system II. For
the second measurement, both ends of the line have to be grounded to ensure
a flow of current. However, the voltage in system II becomes zero. The result of
this measurement is the zero-sequence impedance Z 02 . The coupling
impedance Z M is now calculated from Z 01 and Z 02 :
1
Z = --- ( Z 01 Z 02 ) Z 01
3

(Eq. 3-5)

The coupling factor can be presented in two versions. The following equation
shows the complex coupling factor kM.
ZM
k M = ------Z1

(Eq. 3-6)

In the two equations below, the real and imaginary components are split.
RM
XM
------- and ------RL
XL

12

(Eq. 3-7)

k Factor and Mutual Coupling Factor Measurement

3.3 Performing Measurements

Connect the measurement setup to the overhead lines or power cables under
test following 2 "Safety Instructions for Connecting CP CU1 to Power Lines" on
page 6.
Note: For line length below 5 km/3 miles it is recommended to connect the
V SENSE input of CP CU1 as close as possible to the VT of the line to
reduce the additional impedance of the current feed in the path. For longer
lines, you can connect the V SENSE input with the Kelvin clamps directly
on CP GB1.

13

AN CP0801 Application Note

In the course of the k factor test procedure, the following measurements are
performed:

Line-to-line impedance measurements: L1-L2, L1-L3, L2-L3 (Figure

3-3: "Line-to-Line Impedance Measurements" below shows the L1-L2
measurement as example.)

Figure 3-3:
Line-to-Line Impedance
Measurements

Far end

Overhead line

Near end

V1 AC

I AC

CPC 100
EXT. BOOSTER

14

I AC V1 AC I OUT
CP CU1
BOOSTER V SENSE

CP GB1

k Factor and Mutual Coupling Factor Measurement

Line-to-ground impedance measurements: L1-E, L2-E, L3-E (Figure

3-5: "Zero-Sequence Impedance Measurement - System II is in operation"
below shows the L1-E measurement as example.)

Figure 3-4:Line-toGround Impedance

Measurements

Far end

Overhead line

Near end

V1 AC

I AC

CPC 100
EXT. BOOSTER

I AC V1 AC I OUT
CP CU1
BOOSTER V SENSE

CP GB1

Zero-sequence impedance measurements: L1||L2||L3-E (see Figure

3-5: "Zero-Sequence Impedance Measurement - System II is in operation",
Figure 3-6: "Zero-Sequence Impedance Measurement - System II is off and
disconnected from the ground on at least one end", and Figure 3-7: "ZeroSequence Impedance Measurement - System II is off and connected to the
ground on both ends" below).

15

AN CP0801 Application Note

Short the three phases with the delivered three-lead cable as shown in
"Shorting the Phases" on page 17 of the CP CU1 Reference Manual V1.4.
Figure 3-5:
Zero-Sequence
Impedance
Measurement System II is in operation

Far end

Overhead line

Near end

V1 AC

I AC

CPC 100
EXT. BOOSTER

16

I AC V1 AC I OUT
CP CU1
BOOSTER V SENSE

CP GB1

k Factor and Mutual Coupling Factor Measurement

Figure 3-6:
Zero-Sequence
Impedance
Measurement System II is off and
disconnected from the
ground on at least one
end

Far end

Overhead line

Near end

V1 AC

I AC

CPC 100
EXT. BOOSTER

I AC V1 AC I OUT
CP CU1
BOOSTER
V SENSE

CP GB1

17

AN CP0801 Application Note

Figure 3-7:
Zero-Sequence
Impedance
Measurement System II is off and
connected to the ground
on both ends
Far end

Overhead line

Near end

V1 AC

I AC

CPC 100
EXT. BOOSTER

I AC V1 AC I OUT
CP CU1
BOOSTER
V SENSE

CP GB1

The test procedure is controlled by templates available on the CPC Explorer

CD-ROM shipped with your CP CU1 or in the customer area of www.omicron.at.
It is recommended to use the same test current for all measurements. To find
out the highest test current possible, start the test procedure with the
measurement featuring the highest impedance, that is the L1-L3 measurement
on power cables and the L1-E measurement on overhead lines.
After wiring the measurement setup to the line under test proceed as follows:
1. Configure CPC 100 as described in 2.3 "Configuring CPC 100" on page 22
of the CP CU1 Reference Manual V1.4 for the CP CU1s current range set
by the current range switch.
Caution: The configured current range must not exceed the limit by the
open-line voltage.

18

k Factor and Mutual Coupling Factor Measurement

2. Choose the XML template for the mains frequency

(e.g. "Line Imp CU1 60Hz.xmt" for the 60 Hz mains frequency) and open the
template.
Caution: Open the grounding switch at the near end before making the test
and keep it open only during the measurement. Close the grounding
switch after the test and before reconnecting the measurement setup.
3. Run the test procedure.
The following measurements are performed:

Line-to-line measurements: L1-L2, L1-L3, L2-L3

For each measurement, connect the I OUT and V SENSE inputs of
CP CU1 to the corresponding CP GB1s line studs.

Line-to-ground measurements: L1-E, L2-E, L3-E

For each measurement, connect the I OUT and V SENSE inputs of
CP CU1 to the corresponding CP GB1s line studs.

Zero-sequence impedance measurements: L1||L2||L3-E

4. If an overload of CPC 100 occurs, reduce the test current or set a lower
current range and run the test procedure once again.
Lower test currents at the two highest frequencies are recommended.
5. Save the test procedure as a file on CPC 100.
6. Download the test file from CPC 100 to the PC using CPC Explorer.
Load the test file into the Microsoft Excel template.
The measurement results are displayed.

3.4 Interpretation of Measurement Results

To interpret the results of line impedance measurements correctly, you have to
know details about the overhead line or power cable under test. You will find
below some useful notes about how to interpret the measurement results.
Usually, the resistive part of the line impedance is relatively constant over the
L1-L2, L1-L3 and L2-L3 as well as L1-E, L2-E and L3-E measurements. If the
measurement results differ considerably, typically contact problems are the
reason. In some cases, the grounding switches at the far end of the line are not
as good as necessary for the measurement. Additional grounding cables could
help to avoid the contact problems. For the lines under test shorter than
5 km/3 miles, do not connect the V SENSE input of CP CU1 with the Kelvin
clamps, but rather use additional clamps directly on the wires of the power line.
The inductive part of the line impedance increases with the distance between
the lines. This is documented by the measurement results stored in an example
file delivered with the line impedance templates (see the marked results in

19

AN CP0801 Application Note

Figure 3-8: "Measurement Results" on page 21). The measured overhead line
with the shortest distance between the lines L1 and L3 is shown in Figure
3-9: "Measured Overhead Line" on page 22.
Note: For each line of measurement results there is a separate overload
indication top right on the CPC 100s screen (or in the report) explained
below.
No overload indication means no overload during that step of the measurement
sequence.
Dotted overload indication means that there was an overload during that step of
the measurement sequence but not all the time.
Solid overload indication means a permanent overload during that step of the
measurement sequence.

3.4.1

Excel CPC 100 File Loader

Excel CPC 100 File Loader allows loading XML files generated with CPC 100
into Microsoft Excel templates for post-processing. Excel CPC 100 File Loader
is installed with CPC Explorer. After the installation, a shortcut to start Excel
CPC 100 File Loader appears on your desktop. Templates are pairs of XML
documents and Microsoft Excel templates designed by OMICRON electronics
or end users for designated applications. The XML templates are predefined test
procedures, often with comments, that run on CPC 100 and guide the user
through the test. Once completed, the XML file is saved, downloaded to the PC
using CPC Explorer and then loaded with CPC 100 File Loader into the
corresponding Microsoft Excel template. There the results are post-processed
and a final test report is generated. The template pairs facilitate and speed
testing with CPC 100 and the evaluation of results.

20

k Factor and Mutual Coupling Factor Measurement

Figure 3-8:
Measurement Results

Click the button "Load XML-File" to open the browse menu to load the desired
data to the template. Click "Print Report" to print the calculated data. Under
"Measurements", the results of the impedances of the nine conducted

21

AN CP0801 Application Note

measurements are shown in Cartesian and Eulerian form. The relevant

calculated impedances are listed under "Impedance Results". Z 1 is the
arithmetic mean value of the first three measurements. Z 0 is the triple value of
the measured three-phase zero-sequence impedance and thus refers to one
phase (see Figure 3-1: "Zero-Sequence Impedance Definition"). The coupling
impedance Z M is calculated according to (Eq. 3-5) on page 12. The coupling
zero-sequence impedance Z M0 corresponds to the triple value of the coupling
impedance Z M .
The "Residual Compensation Factor" is the k factor calculated from the
determined data for setting the relays. Under "Residual Compensation Factor
Format", one of the three manufacturer-dependent formats can be selected.
Under "Mutual Coupling Factor", the mutual coupling factor is indicated. Like for
the k factor, three different display formats are available.
Figure 3-9:
Measured Overhead
Line

L2

L1

L3

The L2-E measurement features the lowest X component because the line is
very close to the ground wire. The X component of the L3-E measurement is
decreased by a parallel system taking course close to L3 on the other side of the

22

k Factor and Mutual Coupling Factor Measurement

tower. Short-circuiting of the parallel system during the measurement would

have increased the effect and would have lead to erroneous results because this
is not the normal operating condition.
Another interesting effect can be observed when measuring power cables. If the
screen or shield is very close to the conductors but the conductors are relatively
wide from each other, the inductive part of the line-to-line measurements is
higher than the inductive part of the line-to-ground measurements, resulting in a
negative X component of the calculated impedance Z E . This seemingly strange
result is explained as follows. Recalling (see 3.1 "Why k Factor Measurement?"
on page 10) that the zero-sequence impedance is given by
Z 0 = Z 1 + 3Z E

(Eq. 3-8)

and hence
( Z0 Z1 )
Z E = ---------------------3

(Eq. 3-9)

where Z 1 is the positive-sequence impedance and Z E is defined as a difference

between the line-to-ground loop measurement and a half of the line-to-line loop
measurement, the X component of Z E can become negative.

23