Electrical Theory and Application For Electric Kilns - L&L Electric Kilns - Built To Last

7/3/2015
ELECTRICALTHEORYANDAPPLICATIONFORELECTRICKILNS|L&LElectricKilnsBuilttoLast
ELECTRICAL THEORY AND APPLICATION FOR

ELECTRIC KILNS
ELECTRICAL BASICS
ELECTRICAL SAFETY
Electricityisawonderfulutility,butcanbedangerousifnotapproachedcarefully.Thereare
threebasichazardsthatcauseinjuryordeathshock,arcflash,andarcblast.Itis
importanttorememberthatevenasmallamountofcurrentpassingthroughthechestcan
causedeath.Mostdeathsoccurringforcircuitsoflessthan600voltshappenwhenpeople
areworkingonhot,energizedequipmentPLEASEDISCONNECTANDLOCKOUTALL
ELECTRICALPOWERBEFOREATTEMPTINGKILNREPAIRS!
ELECTRICAL HAZARDS
SHOCK
Anelectricalshockisacurrentthatpassesthroughthehumanbody.Anyelectricalcurrent
flowsthroughthepathofleastresistancetowardsgroundifanexternalvoltagecontactsa
humanbody,e.g.bytouchingalivewirewiththehand,thevoltagewilltrytofindaground,
andacurrentwilldevelopthatflowsthroughthebodysnervoussystemorvascularsystem,
andexitthroughtheclosestpartofthebodytoground(e.g.,theotherhandwhichmaybe
touchingametalpipe.)Nerveshockdisruptsthebodysnormalelectricalfunctions,andcan
stoptheheartorthelungs,orboth,causingsevereinjuryordeath.
ARCFLASH
Anarcflashisanextremelyhightemperatureconductivemixtureofplasmaandgases,
whichcausesveryseriousburnswhenitcomesintocontactwiththebody,andcanignite
flammableclothing.Arctemperaturesreachupto35,000F!
ARCBLAST
Arcblastisapressurewaveresultingfromarcing,whichcancarrymoltenmetalfragments
andplasmagassesatveryhighspeedsanddistances.Thiscannotonlycarryveryhot
shrapneltoinjureaperson,butcanactuallybestrongenoughtodestroystructuresor
knockworkersoffladders.
SAFETY PRINCIPLES
Besafe!Makesureanyequipmentthatisbeinginstalledorservicedisdisconnectedfrom
allsourcesofpower.Inindustry,itisimportanttohaveLockoutandtagoutproceduresin
placetomakesurethatpowerstaysdisconnectedwhilepeopleareservicingequipment.It
isjustasimportantinresidentialandcommercialsitesDONOTWORKONLIVE
EQUIPMENTUNLESSABSOLUTELYNECESSARY!
Usetherighttoolsforthejobdonotimprovise.Forinstance,useaproperfusepuller
dontuseascrewdrivertopryoutthatopenfuse.
Protectthepersonusepropergloves,shoes,andclothing.Inindustryitisrecommendedto
wearsafetygogglesorfaceshieldstopreventarcflashorarcblastinjuries.Wearrubber
soledshoes.
Makesuretheenvironmentaroundtheequipmentbeingservicedissafe.Forinstance,
whenworkingaroundelectricity,italwaysverydangerousforthefloortobewet.Makesure
thereisadequatespacetoworksafely.
Beawarethatcurrentflowacrossyourchestcanbefatal.Ifpossible,useonlyonehandto
manipulatetestleadswhenconductinganynecessarymeasurementsonliveequipment.
Useaclampforonelead,anduseonehandtoguidetheothertestlead.Keeptheother
handasfaraspossiblefromthelivecircuitcomponents.
INSTRUMENTS COMMONLY USED TO MEASURE ELECTRICITY

Anelectricianortechnicianchargedwiththeresponsibilityofmaintainingorinstallingdevicesthat
useelectricityneedstohaveanumberoftoolscloseathand.Inadditiontohandandpowertools,
theseshouldincludeinstrumentsthatcanbeusedtodiagnoseelectricaltrouble.CAUTION!Besure
tofollowallinstructionsandsafetyproceduresthatareincludedwiththeintrumentmanufacturers
package.
TESTLAMP
Thisconsistsofarubberinsulatedsocketwithanincandescentlightbulb(ratedforthe
highestvoltagetowhichitmightbesubjected),towhichisattached(2)twoprobesfor
attachingtothepowersourcebeingdiagnosed.Atleastoneoftheseprobesshouldbefitted
withaclampsothatitcanbeattachedtooneofthepowersourceleads,whiletheotheris
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manipulated(withonehandonly).Thisisusedforveryroughdiagnosticsonopenfuses,
interiorlighting,motor,andresistancecircuits.
CLAMPONAMMETER
Theseareveryconvenienttestinstruments,usedfordeterminingthenumberofamperes
flowinginacable.Onlyone(1)cablecanbemeasuredatatime,andthecablecaneither
bebareorinsulated.Thecabletobemeasuredis(carefully)segregatedfromothercurrent
carryingcables,andshiftedenoughsothatthejawsoftheclamponammetercanbe
opened,slippedaroundthecable,andthenclosed.Assoonasthejawsclose,aclearand
accuratereadingisregisteredonthescale.Thejawsareinsulated,andtheBakelitehandle
andshieldprotectthetechnicianfromshock.Themeterisoperatedbythemagneticfield
setupbythecurrent.
OHMMETER
Thisisusedtomeasuretheresistanceofacircuit.Usuallythisisfoundincombinationwitha
voltmeter,andmilliammeter,inadeviceknownasaMULTIMETER(seebelow).Some
Ohmmetersareveryprecise,forlaboratoryuse.
CAUTION!Neverconnectanohmmetertoacircuituntilthecircuithasbeendisconnected
fromthepowersource.Theohmmeterhasitsowninternalpowersupply,andconnectingit
acrossanotherpowersourcecancauseseriousdamage.
VOLTMETER
Voltmetersareusedtomeasurethevoltagethatexistsinacircuit.Typically,thetechnician
selectsanappropriatescale(0150volts,0250volts,0500volts,etc.),andthenclamps
oneoftheprobestooneofthehotlines.Theotherprobeisthencarefullyputincontact
withtheotherhotline,andthemeterregistersthevoltage.Voltmetershaveveryhigh
resistance,intherangeof15,000W,sothatverylittlecurrentflowsinthevoltmetercircuit
justenoughtotocausethevoltmetertoindicatevoltageacrossitsscale.
DIGITALMULTIMETER
Thisisprobablythemostusefulinstrumentinanelectricianstoolbox.Itisacombination
ohmmeter,voltmeter,andmilliammeter.Agoodmetermeasuresohms,ACvolts,DCvolts,
andACandDCamperes(atleastupto300milliamperes),aswellasprovidesacontinuity
tester(audible)thatmeasurescontinuitywithinacomponent(suchasafuse).Typicallythe
multimeterhasdifferentsocketsfortheprobestoconnectto.OneprobegoestoCommon,
andtheotherisconnectedeithertoVolts/Ohms,ortoAmps.(Clickheretoseehowtousea
multimeter)
CAUTION!NeverconnectthemultimeterHotprobetotheAmpssocketwhenmeasuring
Volts.Thereisaninternalpowersourcewhichsuppliesitsownvoltagewhenmaking
Amperagemeasurementsapplyinganexternalvoltagetothisinternalcircuitcancause
seriousdamage.Mostgoodmultimetershaveaninternalfusetopreventthemostserious
damagehowever,itisstillanuisancetoreplacefuses.
Afterconnectingtheprobestotheappropriatesockets,thetechnicianselectsthetypeof
measurementbeingmade.Thecorrectscalemayhavetobeselectedalso,ifthemultimeter
isnotautoscaling.Oneprobeshouldthenbeclampedtoonepartofthecircuitbeing
measuredforsafety,andthentheothercarefullyputintocontactwiththeotherside.The
meterdisplaysthevalue,andusuallytheunitofmeasurement.
SOME BASIC ELECTRICAL THEORY
Simplyput,electricityisnothingmorethantheflowofelectronsthroughaconductor.Some
understandingofthestructureofmatterisnecessaryinordertounderstandthe
fundamentalnatureofelectricity.
ATOMS,PROTONS,NEUTRONS,ANDELECTRONS
Matterisanythingthatoccupiesspaceandhasmass.Someexamplesarewater,glass,
wood,andsteel.Allmatterconsistsofmolecules,whichareextremelysmallparticles.
Theseparticles,eventhoughtiny,stillretainsomechemicalproperties.Moleculescanbe
furtherdivided,intoatoms,orelements.Dividingmoleculesintoatomscreatesachemical
changei.e.,watermoleculesundergoachemicaltransitiontobecome2partsofhydrogen
and1partoxygen(2hydrogenatomsand1oxygenatom.)
Atoms,orelements,areknownasthebuildingblocksofmatter.Singly,orincombination,
atomsarethematerialsthatconstituteallmatter.Someexamplesofelementsareiron,
hydrogen,andcarbon.Thereareapproximately115knownelements.Thestructureofeach
atomcanberoughlycomparedtoastaranditsplanetarysystem.Likethestar,thenucleus
ofanatomisatthecenter.Surroundingthenucleusaretinyelectrons,whichhavea
negativecharge,thequantitydependingontheelement.Thenucleusconsistsofprotons,
whichhaveapositivecharge,andneutrons,whichcarrynocharge.
Thesimplestatomisthehydrogenatom,whichhasasingleproton(+)inthenucleus,anda
singleelectron()orbitingthenucleus.Amorecomplexatomisthecopperatom,whichhas
29protons(+)and35neutrons(nocharge)inthenucleus,and29electrons()orbitingthe
nucleus.Intheirnaturalstateatomscontainanequalnumberofprotonsandelectrons,and
haveaneutralcharge.Theelectronsarearrangedinseverallayers,orrings,aroundthe
nucleus,andtheseringsarecalledshells.Thenumberoftheshelldeterminesthemaximum
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numberofelectronsthatcanexistinashellthefirstshellisclosesttothenucleus,andthe
numbersincreaseconsecutivelythefurtherawaytheyarefromthenucleus.Themaximum
numberofelectronsthatcanexistinashellisasfollows:2electronsinthefirstshell,8in
thesecond,18inthethird,32inthefourth,18eachinthefifthandsixth,and2inthe
seventh.
Theabilityofamaterialtoletgoofitselectronsiscalledconductivity.Forvariousreasons,
materialsthataregoodconductorshavefrom1to4electronsintheiroutermostshells.For
example,thetwomostcommonconductorsusedforelectricalwiringarecopper,whichhas
1electroninitslastshell,andaluminum,whichhas3.Atomswith5,6,or7electronsin
theiroutermostshellsarecallednonmetalsandarepoorconductorsatomswith8electrons
areinsulators.
STATICELECTRICITY
Staticelectricityisanelectricchargethatbuildsupinanobject.Frictioncanbuildanelectric
chargeupinanobject.Weareallfamiliarwithrubbingourstockingfeetonacarpet,
buildingupachargeinourbodies,andthentouchinganuncharged(neutral)objectto
releasethecharge(sometimeswithanaudiblecrackandavisiblespark.)Thischarge
consistsofanexcessnumberofelectronsrelativetotheprotonsintheobject,andthis
excessbuildsupfromrubbingagainstadifferentmaterialthatreleaseitselectronsmore
quicklythantheobjectbeingcharged.
Thischargecanaccumulateinanobjectifisnotdischarged.Forinstance,rubbingaglass
rodwithsilkcauseselectronstoflowfromthesilktotheglassrod,andthusbuildsupa
chargeinboththesilkandtheglassrod.Also,rubbingarubberrodwithfurcauses
electronstoflowfromthefurtotherubberrod.Iftheglassrodisbroughtinproximityto
theanothersimilarlychargedglassrod,theyrepeleachother.Also,tworubberrodsrepel
eachother.Butifaglassrodisbroughtclosetoarubberrod,theyattracteachother,
becausetheyhaveoppositecharges.Thestorageofthischargeiscalledelectricityatrest,
orstaticelectricity.
Therearetwobasicrulesforelectricalcharges:
1. Likechargesrepel,andoppositechargesattract.
2. Thestrengthofthisrepulsionorattractionisdirectlyproportionaltothestrengtyhofthe
electricalchargeandinverselyproportionaltothesquareofthedistancebetweenthe
chargedobjects.
ELECTRICITYINMOTION
Mostelectricitythatweusetodoworkisintheformofanelectriccurrent,whichis
electricityinmotion.Electronsmovethroughaconductorbypassingfromoneatomto
another.Amaterialthathassomeelectronsthatarefreetoflowinthismannerarecalled
conductorsmaterialsthatdonothavefreeelectronsareinsulators.Rubberandceramics
aretypicallygoodinsulatorsmetalsaretypicallygoodconductors.Ifacopperwireis
connectedbetweentwobodiesofoppositecharge,electronswillflowfreelythroughthe
wire,attemptingtobalancethecharge.
Therearetwocommontypesofelectriccurrents,DCordirectcurrent,andACoralternating
current.DCisacurrentthatalwaysflowsinthesamedirection.Commonexamplesare
automobilecircuitsthatarepoweredbybatteries,andflashlights,alsopoweredbybatteries.
Abatteryisadevicethatuseschemicalstocreateanunbalancedchargebetweenits
terminals,andthuscausesadirectcurrenttoflowfroma(+)terminaltoa()terminal.
ThisDCelectricitycanbeharnessedtoperformsuchtasksaslighting,playingmusicona
radio,etc.
ACelectricityistypicalinhouseholdsandbusinesses.Inthisformofcurrent,thedirection
ofelectronflowisreversedatregularintervalsbytheelectricalgeneratorthatproducesthe
AC.Thevoltage(levelorpressureofelectricity)asitisgeneratedincreasesfromzerotoa
maximumvalueinonedirection,thenreversesdowntozero,andcontinuestoamaximum
valueintheotherdirection,andincreasesbacktozerointheoriginaldirection,andsoon.
Ifplottedonagraph,thecurveappearsliketheoneintheaccompanyingfigure.
Electricityhasfourbasiccharacteristics:Voltage(Pressure),Amperes(Flow),Ohms
(Resistance),andWatts(Power).Theflowofelectronsthroughacircuitcan(andcommonly
is)becomparedtotheflowofwaterthroughapipe.Therateofflowofwaterisanalogous
toAmperes,Ohmstopipediameter,waterpressuretoVoltage,andWattstogallonsof
water.Wecantalkabouteachoftheseindividually,andthendiscussspecifictypesof
electricalcircuitssuchasSeriesCircuitsandParallelCircuits.
ELECTRICCURRENT(AMPERE)
Thebasicunitofelectricityisthecoulomb,andisequaltoapproximately628x1016
electrons.Sincetherateofflowofelectricityiswhatistypicallyofinterest,ratherthanthe
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totalquantityofelectricity,thecoulombisnotgenerallyofpracticaluse,exceptasthe
fundamentalquantityonwhichotherelectricalcharacteristicsarebased.
AnAmpererepresentstheflowof1Coulombpersecond.Therelationshipbetweenthe
AmpereandtheCoulombcanberepresentedmathematicallyas:
Q=It
WhereQ=quantityofcoulombs(C)
I=current,inamperes(A)
t=time,inseconds.
Amperagewouldbeanalogoustotherateingallonsofwaterflowthroughapipe.
ELECTRICALRESISTANCE(OHMS)
Allmaterialshavesomeoppositiontocurrentflow,andthisoppositionresultsinsomeofthe
electricalenergybeingconvertedtoheat.Thisconversionisinaccordancewiththeformula,
W=I2R,whereWisWatts,I=Intensityofelectricalcurrent(Amperes),andRisresistance
inOhms.SeethesectiononOHMsLaw,below.Electricalresistanceisanalogoustothe
restrictionofthepipediametertotheflowofwater.
Aswesawabove,differentmaterialshavedifferentquantitiesoffreeelectrons.The
oppositioniscausedbythetypeofmaterialthatthecurrentisattemptingtopassthrough,
aswellasbyfrictioncausedbythemotionofelectrons.Thisfrictionisaffectedbythe
diameterofthewire,aswellasbythelengthofthewire.
Theoppositionoftheflowofelectronsiscalledresistance.Theunitofresistance
measurementistheohm(W).One(1)Ohmistheoppositiontoelectricalflowthatresultsin
electricalenergybeingconvertedintoheatattherateofone(1)WattperAmpereof
effectivecurrent.Theinstrumentthatisusedtomeasureresistanceistheohmmeter.
Somematerialsthataregoodconductors:Copper,silver,gold
Somematerialsthataregoodinsulators:Rubber,glass,bakelite,wood,porcelain
(especiallyelectricalgradeporcelain)
Othermaterialsareconductorsdespitehavingsomeinsulatingpropertiesthesearecalled
resistors.Examplesofresistorsarealloyssuchasironaluminumchrome,andnickel
chrome,whichareusedasheatingelementsinkilns,furnaces,andovens.
ELECTROMOTIVEFORCE(VOLTAGE)
AvoltisaunitofEMF,orelectromotiveforce,andisinternationallydefinedasthatemf
whichwillestablishacurrentof1Amperethrougharesistanceof1Ohm().Voltageis
analogoustowaterpressure,andistheforcethatpushesthewaterthroughapipe.
Referringtothepreviousdiscussionconcerningatoms,electrons,andmatter,itcanbesaid
thatallmatterconsistsofelectricity.Instrictterms,electricitycannotbegenerateditcan
onlybemadetomove,andthereforetransmitpowerfromonesourcetoanother.Electrical
energy(asopposedtoelectricity)canandisgenerated(orconverted)fromotherformsof
energy.Thereareseveralcommonmethodsofgeneratingelectricalenergy,someofwhich
aremechanicalinduction,chemical,thermoelectric,andfriction.Thisishowvoltageis
suppliedinmostcommonapplications.
Forinstance,mechanicalinductionisthemethodwhichACproducesvoltage.AnAC
generatorproducesavoltagefirstinonedirection,andthenanother.Thisisdoneby
rotatingalargecoilofwirethroughamagneticfield(orviceversa).Asthewirecoilmoves
throughthemagneticfield,avoltagedevelops.
ELECTRICALPOWER(WATTS)
Strictlyspeaking,poweristhetimeratefordoingwork.Thefasterworkisdone,thegreater
thepowerthatwillberequiredtodoit.Horsepoweristhebasicunitmeasurementofpower,
andisdefinedas33,000ftlb/min.Theformulais:
hp=LxW=ftlb/min
33,000xt33,000
wherehp=horsepower,L=distanceinfeetthroughwhichWisraisedorovercome,W=
weightinpoundsoftheobjectbeingmoved(orthepushorpullinpoundsofforcebeing
exertec),andtistimeinminutesrequiredtomoveweightWthroughdistanceL.
Electricpoweristherateofdoingelectricalwork.Itsunitisthewatt,orkilowatt,whichis
1000watts.One(1)wattisdevelopedwhen(1)ampereismaintainedthrougharesistance
byanemfof(1)volt.TherelationshipbetweenkWandhpis:
(1)hp=746W
Electricalenergyisexpressedintermsofkilowatthours(kWh),and(1)kWhistheenergy
expendedifworkisdoneatarateof(1)kWfor1hour.
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OHMSLAW
Therelationshipbetweenelectricalpower,current,voltage,andresistanceiscalledOhms
Law.Themathematicalformulaisexpressed:
P=E*Ior:I=E/Ror:R=E/I
Where
P=Power,inkW
I=current,inamperes(A)
E=electromotiveforce,involts(V)
R=resistance,inohms()
Thefollowingdiagramexpressesmostofthecommonrelationshipsingraphicalform.
Ohmslawcanbeappliedtoanentirecircuit,ortoanyportionofit.Thismaybestated:
Thetotalcurrentflowinginacircuitisequaltothetotalvoltageappliedtothecircuit
dividedbythetotalresistanceofthecircuit.
Thecurrentflowinginanypartofacircuitisequaltothevoltageacrossthatpartofthe
circuitdividedbytheresistanceofthatpartofthecircuit.
ELECTRIC CIRCUITS
Anelectriccircuitisthepathoverwhichelectronsflow.Thetwobasickindsofcircuitsare
seriesandparallel.Acombination(orseriesparallel)circuithaselementsofbothbasic
kindsofcircuits,wherecomecomponentsareconnectedinseriesandothersarejoinedin
parallel.
Allcircuitsarecomposedofthesamebasiccomponents:
Avoltagesource
(1)Ormoreelectricalloads
(1)Ormorecontroldevices(switches,relays,etc.)
Asimplecircuitasillustratedconsistsofavoltagesource(L1andN),aSPSTswitch,anda
heater.
SERIESCIRCUITS
Acircuitthatonlyhasonepathoverwhichcurrentcanflowisaseriescircuit.Abreakin
anypartofaseriescircuitstopscurrentflow.Allcomponentsinaseriescircuitseethe
sameamountofcurrenttherefore,eachcomponentmustbecapableofcarryingthat
numberofamperes.
RULESFORSERIESCIRCUITS
Thevalueofacurrentflowinginaseriescircuitisthesamethroughallpartsofthe
circuit.
Thetotalvoltageofaseriescircuitisequaltothesumofthevoltagesacrosseachpart
ofthecircuit.
Thetotalresistanceofaseriescircuitisequaltothesumoftheresistancesacrosseach
partofthecircuit.
Linevoltageisdividedacrosseachcomponentinaseriescircuitinproportiontothe
componentresistancevalues.Referringtotheschematicbelow,thetotalresistanceis(25
+30=55).VoltagemeasuredbetweenpointsAandBis(240Voltsx25/55)=
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109Volts.
Iftherewere(2)resistanceswhosevalueswereequal,thevoltagewouldbedividedequally
inhalf,andwouldmeasure120Volts.
PARALLELCIRCUITS
Acircuitthathastwoorcurrentpathsisaparallelcircuit.Eachcomponentisconnectedto
linevoltage,andcurrentstillflowsthroughpartofthecircuitifonecomponentfails.Each
componentmustbecapableofwithstandinglinevoltage.Thenumberofamperesvaries
accordingtotheresistanceofthecomponent.
Themorecircuitpaths,thelessoppositiontotheflowofelectrons.Totalcircuitresistance
decreaseswhenmorepathsareadded.
RULESFORPARALLELCIRCUITS
Thetotalcurrentsuppliedtoaparallelcircuitisequaltothesumofthecurrentsthrough
thebranches.
Thevoltageacrossanybranchofaparallelcircuitisequaltothesupplyvoltage.
Thetotalresistanceofaparallelcircuitisalwayslessthantheresistanceofanyofthe
branches.
ThefollowingparallelcircuitistypicaloftheDavinciandJ2900kilnringsthereare(3)
elementsperring,connectedinparallel.Inthisexample,eachelementhasaresistanceof
49.8at240VAC,eachelementdevelops(240VAC/49.8)=4.82Amperes.Thetotal
circuitamperes,then,is4.82+4.82+4.82=14.46Amperes.
SERIES/PARALLELOrCOMBINATIONCIRCUITS
CertaincircumstancesrequiretheuseofSeries/Parallel,orCombination,circuits,inwhich
seriesandparallelcircuitsarecombined.Insomefrontloadingindustrialfurnacesthese
circuitsareusedtocombine,forinstance,sidewallheatingelementsandbackwallheating
elements(oftenshorterthansidewall)inabranchcircuitthatiscontrolledbyapowerrelay.
Intheaboveexample,thetotalresistancecanbefoundbyfirstdealingwitheachbranch
circuitindividually.Startingfromtheright,thiscircuitisaseriescircuitaddthe(24+24
=48).Theothertwocircuitsareparallelandareequalinvalue(12each)therefore,the
resistancevalueofthesetwocircuitsisequalto(12/2=6).Drawinganequivalentcircuit
with(2)parallelcircuits,oneof6andoneof48,lookslikethefollowing:
Solvingforthiscircuit:Rt=(6*48)/(6+48)=5.33.
Thetotalresistanceislowerthanthatforanyofthebranchcircuits.
CONDUCTORS AND WIRING METHODS
CONDUCTORS
Aconductorisanymaterialthatofferslittleopposition(resistance)totheflowofanelectric
current.Mostfamiliarconductorsareeithercopperoraluminumwire,coveredinanyof
variousformsofinsulation.Thesizeofconductorsvariesgreatlywiththeamountofcurrent
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theycarry,andtheirintendeduseandenvironment.Becausemostconductorsarerelatively
smallindiameter,theunitcalledcircularmilshasbeenselectedtomeasurethesizeof
conductors.Onemilisequaltoonethousandthofaninch(.001inch).Onecircularmilisthe
areaofacircleonemilindiameter.Thesymbolformilism,andforcircularmiliscm(not
tobeconfusedwiththemetricsymbolsformeterandcentimeter).TheformulaA=m2can
beusedtodeterminethecircularmilareaofwire,where
A=area,incircularmils(cm)
M=diameter,inmils(m)
IntheU.S.,aspecialscalehasbeendevelopedforthemostcommonwiresizes.Thisisthe
AmericanWireGauge,orAWG.Thefollowingtableisbasedonthe1999NationalElectric
Code,Tables31016and31018.ThisistheallowableampacitiesofInsulatedConductors,
(3)currentcarryingconductorsinaracewayorcable,andisbasedonanambient
temperatureof86F.
AWG/
CircularMils
MaximumAmpacity
ofCopperWirewith
60CInsulation
MaximumAmpacityof
CopperWirewith90C
Insulation
MaximumAmpacityof
CopperWirewith
105CInsulation
14
4,110
20
25
34
12
6,530
25
30
43
10
10,380
30
40
55
16,510
40
55
76
26,240
55
75
96
41,740
70
95
120
52,620
85
110
143
66,360
95
130
160
83,690
110
150
186
1/0
105,600
125
170
215
2/0
133,100
145
195
251
3/0
167,800
165
225
288
4/0
211,600
195
260
332
250
250,000
215
290
300
300,000
240
320
350
350,000
260
350
400
400,000
280
380
kcmil
Inpractice,mostelectriciansuseTable31016,andusethevaluesforthe60Cinsulation,
becausethesearethemostconservativevaluesofampacity.Therearecorrectionfactors
thatmustbetakenintoaccountforsuchvariablesasambienttemperature(lessampacity
astheambienttemperarurerises)andnumberofconductorsinacableorracewaythese
factorsarefullydetailedintheNationalElectricalCode.
INSULATION TYPES
Varioustypesofplasticarebyfarthemostcommoninsulationsusedonconductors.For
generalpurposebuildingwire,typesTW,THW,andTHWNareusedmorethananyother
type.Othertypeshavebeendevelopedformachinetools(MTW)wheretheconductorsare
likelytoencounterharshcuttingfluids.Likewise,forhighambienttemperaturesseveral
typesofinsulationhavebeendeveloped,includingthetypefavoredbyL&L,whichisSEWF.
Thisisahightemperaturesiliconrubberbasedinsulation.
VOLTAGEDROP220VVersus230VVersus240V
Wherelongwirerunsareexperiencedbetweenthepowersupplyandthepointof
connection,itispossibleforthemeasuredvoltageatthepointofconnectiontobelower
thanthemeasuredvoltageatthepowersupply.Thisiscausedbytransmissionlosses
throughthewires,andcanalsobeaggravatedbyhavingexcessiveconnectionsfromone
transformerinaneighborhoodpowergrid,orwithinasinglefacility.Forinstance,manyof
theU.S.electricalutilitiessupply240Vfromthetransformer,butthemeasuredvoltage
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comingintoaresidencemaybe230Voreven220V.Forresistanceheatingdevicessuchas
electrickilns(andovensorranges)thislowervoltagecanresultinslightlyslowerfirings
thanwouldbethecaseiftheactualvoltagewere240Vbutinpracticethisdoesnotusually
causeproblems.
Topreventoramelioratethisvoltagedrop,largersizeconductorscanbeused
forlongruns.Oneruleofthumbistouseonesizelargerwireforevery50feet
ofrunfromthepowersupplytotheconnectionpointtheelectricianshouldbe
abletomakethisdeterminationonsite.
Also,usingawirematerialoflowresistivitycankeepvoltagedroptoacceptablelevels.
Aluminumwirehasaresistivity(Ohmscircularmilperfoot)of17.0copperhasa
resistivityof10.4.Therefore,theresistivityofcopperis10.4/17.0=0.61,or61%of
aluminumsresistivity.L&Lrecommendsusingonlycopperwireforconnectionfromakilnto
anypowersupplyinadditiontotheresistivitydifference,therearedifferencesintherate
ofcorrosionthatareaggravatedbythehighambienttemperaturescommonatthekiln
connectionpoint.
WHY 230V AND 460V RATINGS?
Undervoltageconditionscanaffecttheoperationandservicelifeofmotorstheseare
usuallyratedat10%ofnameplatevoltagethusthecommonratingof230Vor460Vfor
motors,whichcanusuallybesafelyoperatedatthelowervoltagessometimesfoundat
serviceconnectionpoints.Inmanyindustrialplantsthemostcommonequipmentis
operatedbyelectricmotors,anditiscommontorefertotheactualpowersupplyas230V
or460Veventhoughthenormalsupplyvoltagefromtheutilityis240Vor480V.
FUSESANDCIRCUITBREAKERS
Fusesandcircuitbreakersareovercurrentdevicesdesignedtoprotectelectricalcircuit
components.Ifacircuitdevelopstoomanyamperes,theyaredesignedtoopen,
interruptingtheflowofcurrentinthecircuit.Fusesselfdestructwhentheysensean
overloadinthecircuit.Circuitbreakersarecommonlyusedinnewconstructiontheytrip
(turnoffpower)whentheysenseanoverload,andcanbereset(turnedbackon)whenthe
circuitisreturnedtonormal.
Circuitbreakersaremoreconvenientbecauseofthisfeature.However,theycancause
nuisancetrippingandruinkilnfiringswhentheytrippartwaythroughafiring.Thisis
becausemostcircuitbreakersareactivatedthermallyifthecircuitbreakertemperature
risesaboveapresetlevel,abimetallicelementinsidethecircuitbreakeropens,andthe
poweristurnedoff.Thisworkswellmostofthetimehowever,overtimethebimetallic
elementbecomesweakerbecauseresistanceheatingcircuitsareattheirratedloadlonger
thanothertypesofelectricalloadssuchasmotors.Eventuallythecircuitbreakerbecomes
tooweaktoholditselfclosedoveralongenoughtimetofinishakilnfiring,unlessthe
circuitisdrasticallyoversizedtocompensateforthisgradualagingprocess.
Therearemanydifferenttypesoffuses,includingdualelementtimedelay,onetime,sub
cycle,etc.Mostofthesedesignationsrelatetohowquicklyafusewillblowinresponseto
anoverload,andthesetypesoffuseshavebeendevelopedtoprotectnotonlythecircuits,
butalsovaryingtypesofequipment.Forinstance,SCRs(siliconcontrolledrectifiers)need
tobeprotectedfromvoltagespikeswhichcanoccurwithin1/60ofasecondanddestroythe
devicetheseareusuallyprotectedbysemiconductorfuseswhichareveryfastacting,
currentlimiting,andhavenotimedelay.
Anotherconsiderationinselectingfusesistheinterruptingcapacityinamperesinother
words,howbigashortcircuitcanbeopenedbythefuse.Inlargeindustrialplantsthiscan
beanimportantfactor,becauseifenoughpowerisavailableitwouldbepossiblethata
shortcircuitwouldallowtoomanyamperestoflowintoacircuitforageneralpurposetype
fusetointerruptwhichcouldpotentiallycauseanelectricalfire.Mostresidencesandsmall
commercialshopsdonothaveenoughpoweravailablebeforethemaincircuitprotector
(usuallya200ampcircuitbreaker)wouldopen,andasmallinterruptingrating(10,000
Ampsor50,000Amps)isenough.
Forprotectingkilncircuits,onetimegeneralpurposetypefusesshouldbeused.Theseare
inexpensive,havenoappreciabletimedelay,andareavailableinalargevarietyofsizes.
Theyarealsowidelyandeasilyavailable,andaremadebyseverallargefuse
manufacturers.Differentmanufacturershavedifferentdesignationsfortheironetime
fusessomeofthemorecommononesare:
MANUFACTURER
MAXRATED
VOLTS
INTERRUPT
RATING
FUSE
DESIGNATION
LITTELFUSE
250VOLTS
50,000AMPS
NLN
BUSSMAN
250VOLTS
50,000AMPS
NON
GOULD
SHAWMUT
250VOLTS
50,000AMPS
OT
LITTELFUSE
600VOLTS
50,000AMPS
NLS
BUSSMAN
600VOLTS
50,000AMPS
NOS
8/12
7/3/2015
GOULD
SHAWMUT
600VOLTS
50,000AMPS
OTS
Allovercurrentdevicesmustbesizedtocarry125%ofthecontinuousampereloadfor
instance,a240V/1PhaseModelJ230kilnisratedat44amperes.Theovercurrentdevice
mustberatedat125%,or(1.25x44=55Amperes)minimum.Theclosestcommercially
availabledeviceisratedfor60Amperesa50Amperedeviceisnotadequate.
ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION
Electricaldistributionfromtheelectriccompanyspowergenerationplantisgenerallyby
highvoltage3phaselines.Thesecanbebranchedtosubstationsthattransformtheas
generatedpowertoalower(butstillrelativelyhigh)voltageforfurtherdistribution.
Ultimately,foreachservice(whetherasingleindustrialplant,shopsinashoppingcenter,or
housesinaresidentialneighborhood)thissupplyisconnectedtoatransformer,which
changesthehighvoltagesupplytolinevoltagesrangingfrom208Vto480V.
SINGLE PHASE SERVICES
Mostresidentialservicesaresinglephase,butmanyofthesearedistributedfrom3Phase
Wyetransformers.TheyincludetwohotlegsfromtheWyeplusagroundedneutral,and,
ofcourse,asystemground.Atruesinglephaseservicecomesfromatransformerthatis
connectedtoonlyonephasefromasubstationhighvoltagesupply.Thesecanbefoundin
manyresidentialneighborhoods,andsometimesinindustrialplants.Usuallythevoltage
suppliedis240V,with120Vfromphasetoneutral.
120/240VOLTS/1PHASE
ThisthemostcommonhouseholdpowersupplyfoundintheU.S.Theprimaryofasingle
phasetransformerisconnectedtotoonephaseofthethreephasedistributionsystem.The
secondarycontainstwocoilsconnectedinserieswithamidpointtaptoprovideasingle
phase,threewiresystem.Thetwohotwires,orlines,provide240Volts,andeitherofthe
hotlinestoneutralprovides120Volts.Youwillsometimesseethisexpresseda110/220.
(Forpurposesoforderelementsyouwillstillget240voltelementswhenyousee110/220.)
120/208VOLTS1PHASE
Forsomecommercialfacilitiesandsomenewerresidentialsupplies,theelectricalsupplyis
distributedwithinaneighborhoodpowergrid,andeachsupplyis120/208V1Phase.Two
hotlegsat208V,agroundedneutralfor(2)120Vcircuits,andofcoursethesystem
ground,comprisetheelectricalsupply.Inthesecasesappliancesareratedfor208V1
Phase,andkilnsshouldbeorderedassuch.
THREE PHASE SERVICES

WYEVERSUSDELTA3PHASESYTEMS
A3PhasepowersupplyisclassifiedasDeltaifthehotlegsareconnectedphasetophase,
withagroundedneutral.Whendiagrammed,thecircuitlookslikeatriangle(thereforethe
termDelta),withthehotlegsshownasthethreepointsdefiningthetriangle,andthe
threepowercircuitsdrawnbetweenthem.Thevoltagebetweenthegroundedneutraland
anyoneofthehotlegsmeasuresofthesuppliedphasetophasevoltage.Avariationof
thiscanbesuppliedwheretwoofthephasetoneutralvoltagesaremeasuredasthe
phasetophasevoltage,andtheotherismeasuredatanothercommonlyseenvoltagesuch
as208V.Thistypeofelectricalserviceisusuallyfoundinindustrialplants,andthephase
toneutralvoltageisnotcommonlyusedforelectricalcircuits.
InaWyepowersupplythehotlegsofthe3phasesystemareeachconnectedtoa
groundedneutral.WhendiagrammedthecircuitlooksliketheletterYwitheachofthehot
legsshownatoneoftheouterarmsoftheYandthegroundedneutralatthecentral
junctionpoint.Thephasetoneutralvoltageisreducedbythe3phasefactor(SquareRoot
of3=1.73).E.g.,foraphasetophasevoltageof208V,divide(208Vby1.73=)120V
circuitvoltage.Thistypeofservicecanbefoundinindustrialplants,commercialsites,and
residentialareasthephasetophasevoltagesandphasetoneutralvoltagesareall
commonlyusedforelectricalcircuits.
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7/3/2015
240VOLTS/3PHASE
Most240Volts/3PhasesystemsareprovidedasDelta,withagroundedneutraltosupply
120Voltsasaphasetoneutralvoltage.Averycommontypeis240VACDelta,threewire
withagroundedcentertapononeofthephaseshighlegtoobtain120Voltsbetweentwo
ofthephasestoneutraland208Voltsbetweenthethirdphasetoneutral.Anothercommon
serviceissimilar,butis120voltstoneutralonallthreephases.
Agroundedneutralconductorisalsousuallyincludedwiththesetypesofelectricserviceto
obtainlowervoltagessuchas110120oreven208volts,andmaybeusedinmany
residentialorcommercialinstallationstohelpindistributingthetypical110120lightingand
outletcircuits.Iftheloadsbetweenthephasetoneutralcircuitsareclosetobeingbalanced
(similarinamperes),theneutralconductorendsupcarryinglittleornoamperesbecause
thethreephasesaregenerated120apartintime,andthereforecanceleachotherout
whenconnectedtogetherontheneutral(hencethenomenclatureneutral.)
208VOLTS/3PHASE
Manyschools,institutions,andcommercialorlightindustrialfacilitiesarewiredwith120/208
Volts,3Phase,Wyeconnectionelectricalpowersupply.Thistypeofsupplyisanefficient
methodofsupplyingheavy120Vloads,andisalsoincreasinglybeingusedinresidential
serviceforthatreason.
TheWyeconnectionworksbyputtinganelectricalcircuitfromonehotlegofthe3phase
systemtoagroundedneutral.Thisreducestheeffectivevoltagebythe3phasefactor
(SquareRootof3=1.73).Therefore,withaphasetophasevoltageof208V,dividethe
208Vby1.73=120V.
Innonresidentialuse,mostfacilitiesaresuppliedwiththefull120/208Vsystem,andthe
distributionisdoneinsidethefacilityforthe120Vcircuitsandforthe208V3Phasecircuits.
Itisgenerallymosteconomicaltousethe3Phasesupplyforequipmenttherefore,itis
recommendedthatsuch208Volt/3phasekilnsbeorderedforthesefacilities.Singlephase
kilnscanbeusedhowever,theywouldrequireheaviergaugewireforhookup,andwould
tendtounbalancethedistributionsysteminsidethefacility.
480VOLTS/3PHASEDELTAANDWYE
Manyindustrialfacilitiesareequippedwith480Vservices,whichareveryefficientfor
supplyingequipmentwithhighpowerrequirements.ThesecanbefoundaseitherDeltaor
Wye.Ineithercase,linetolinevoltageis480Volts.WhensuppliedasaWyesystem,
phasetoneutralvoltageis277Volts,whichisveryefficientforsupplyinglightingloads.In
buildingswherethisserviceisfound,astepdowntransformerisusedtosupply208120
Volts/3PhaseWye,for120Voltloads.Thismakesforaversatilepowersupply,butcan
causeconfusionastowhatvoltageisavailableforequipment.Besuretomeasurelineto
linevoltagesonallthreephasessothatthetypeofvoltageavailablecanbedeterminedfor
certain.Itisagoodideatotalktothebuildingsuperintendentorelectrcianwhenordering
kilnsoranyotherkindofelectricalequipment,becausetheywouldknowforsurewhichof
thepowersupplieswouldbeavailable.Itiscostlytoconverttoadifferentvoltagethanthe
oneorderedafterthefact.
ELECTRICAL CONNECTION NOTES FOR L&L KILNS

208,220AND240VOLT,SINGLEPHASECONNECTION
MoststandardL&Lkilnsaresuppliedfor208,220or240volt,singlephaseservice.
Connectingthesekilnstoapowersupplyisrelativelystraightforward.Thereare(2)hot
linesandaground.SinglephaseL&LKilnsdonotuseaneutralwiretopoweranyofthe
circuitsallcircuitsarebasedonlinevoltage.Forsinglephasekilnsratedfor44Amperes
andless,aNEMA650Pcordsetisprovided.ThepowersupplymustfeedaNEMA650R
receptacle.TheexceptiontothisistheModelGS1714,whichusesa30AmpNEMA1430P
cordset,whichisthetypicaldryercordfoundinmostpartsoftheU.S.AllsinglephaseL&L
Kilnsratedformorethan48Amperesmustbewireddirectthesearenocordsetsprovided.
1PHASE,30AMPEREDRYERCIRCUITPOWERSUPPLYFORJUPITERKILNS
L&LsuppliessinglephaseJUPITERKilnswithaspeciallyconfigured,hightemperatureNEMA
650Pcordset,eventhoughforsomemodelsitwouldbepermissibletousea30Amp
cordsetbasedontheampacitiesinvolved.TheseKilnshavebeenlistedtoUL499standards
thislistingisdependentoncertainspecificcomponentsthataretestedtoULstandards
understrictguidelines.
Becausetherearedifferent"standard"dryeroutletconfigurations,indifferentjurisdictions
10/12
7/3/2015
anddependingonwhentheoutletwasoriginallyinstalled,thereisnosetanswertothe
questionofwhetheryoucanutilizeanexistingdryercircuitforasinglephaseJupiterkiln
equippedwiththeNEMA650PplugandcordassemblythatL&Lusesonthesekilns.IfaKiln
ownerdecidestomakethischangeonhis/herown,beadvisedthattheULlistingnolonger
appliesbecausethislistingisdependentoncertainspecificcomponentsthataretestedtoUL
standardsunderstrictguidelines.Oneofthemostimportantofthesecomponentsisthe
mainpowercord,whichwouldnecessarilybemodifiedtomakethischange.UNDERNO
CIRCUMSTANCESSHOULDANYONEEVERSUBSTITUTEANOFFTHESHELFDRYERCORD
FORTHENEMA650PCORDSUPPLIEDBYL&LSUCHOFFTHESHELFCORDSARENOT
RATEDFORTHETEMPERATURESTHATARENORMALATTHEKILNPOWER
TERMINALBLOCK.
NEMACONFIGURATIONSFORL&LPOWERCORDSETS
L&Lsuppliescordsetsfor1phaseKilns(andsome3phasekilns),ratedfor48Amperesor
less.MostoftheseareNEMA650P.The3PhaseplugweuseontheEasyFirekilnsisa
1550P.TheDoll/TestkilnissuppliedwithwitheraNEMA515Ror520R.LibertyBellekilns
useavarietyof30ampcordsets(seetheLibertyBelleSpecificationsheetformore
information).
208,220AND240VOLT,THREEPHASEDELTACONNECTION
ALLSTANDARDL&LKILNSSUPPLIEDFOR208OR240VOLT,THREEPHASE
SERVICEMUSTBEWIREDINDELTA,ORPHASETOPHASE,RATHERTHANPHASE
TONEUTRAL.DELTAmeansthattheelectricalload(s)areconnectedbetweenthehot
leads,thatis,oneloadisconnectedbetweenL1andL2,anotherisconnectedbetweenL2
andL3,andthethirdisconnectedbetweenL1andL3.
Thereisalotofconfusionconcerningthreephaseservices,becausetherearesomany
differenttypesthatarecommonintheU.S.A.However,whenorderinganL&LKilnfor208
OR240Volt,ThreePhaseoperation,makesuretomeasurethevoltagesbetweenall
combinationsoftheLinewires(L1toL2,L2toL3,andL3toL1.)Thisshouldbecloseto
either240VACacrossallthreephases,or208VAC,withsometolerance(nomorethan
10%)allowedforvoltagedrops.
IntheseStandardL&LKilnsalltheheatingandcontrolcircuitsaredesignedtooperatefrom
Linevoltage,andtherearenocircuitsthatareoperatedfromthepossiblereducedvoltages
availablefromLinetogroundedneutral.
480/277VOLTAnd380/220VOLT,THREEPHASEWYECONNECTION
Therearesomeexceptionstotheaboverule:therearesomespeciallydesignedkilnsto
operateon480VAC/277VAC,threephaseWYE,inwhichtheheatingcircuitsoperatefrom
Linetoneutral,andthecontrolcircuitisoperatedfromanisolatedcontroltransformer.In
addition,somekilnsforoverseasoperationarewiredfor380VAC/220VAC,threephase
WYE,inwhichtheboththeheatingandcontrolcircuitsareoperatedfromLinetogrounded
neutral.
OVERSEAS ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION
Overseaselectricalvoltagesvaryfromcountrytocountry,andrangefrom220/380VWye
powersupplywhere220Visacommonhouseholdvoltage,to240/415VWyewhere240V
iscommon,andcangoashighas575or600VoltsDelta,whichisrelativelycommonin
Canada.ThelowervoltageinWyesystemsisdeterminedbythe3Phasefactor,whichis
thesquarerootof3(approximately1.73).Dividethephasetophaselinevoltagebythe3
phasefactortoobtainthephasetoneutralvoltage(e.g.,380/1.73=220V).L&LKilnsare
availablefor380/220V3PhaseWye,aswellas220V1Phaseand415/240V3Phase
"Wye".
ELECTRONICS AND KILN CONTROL
WiththeadventofAutomatic,orComputercontrol,Kilns,Electronicshastakenonmore
importanceintheceramicsindustry.ElectronicKilncontrollersarecalledupontocontrolthe
flowofelectricitytotheheatingelements,inordertoachieveadesiredtime/temperature
program.Thereisabasicfeedbackloopinvolved,inwhichameasurementoftemperature
iscomparedbytheelectronicmicroprocessortoadesiredprogramwhichisstoredinthe
memoryofthecontroller.Inresponsetotheoffsetbetweenthemeasuredtemperatureand
theprogrammedsetpoint,thecontrollerallowselectricityflowtotheheatingelements.
THERMOELECTRIC EFFECTS
Referringtothediscussioninprevioussectionsconcerningatoms,ittakesalotofenergyto
dislodgeaprotonoraneutronfromanatom.Butelectronsmovewiththeslightestnudge,
especiallyinmetals,whereasmallvoltage,atinyamountofheat,ortheimpactofafew
photonsisallittakes.Thermalandelectricalenergyworktogether,oneenhancingthe
effectsoftheother,asseveralscientistsisthe19thcenturydiscovered.Threeinparticular,
11/12
7/3/2015
ThomasJ.Seebeck,JeanPeltier,andSirWilliamThomson(LordKelvin),madesome
discoveriesthatareveryinfluentialintheheatprocessingindustrytoday.
In1821,Seebeckdiscoveredthatapairofwiresmadefromdissimilarmetalsandjoinedat
bothends,wouldmoveamagneticneedleiftheendswereheldatdifferenttemperatures.
Theneedledeflectionindicateselectronflow,orcurrent.Afurtherdevelopmenthasbeento
openoneoftheends,andexposethejoinedendtotemperature.Averysmallvoltage,
whichdependsonthetemperatureatthejunctionandthecompositionofthetwometals,
canbedetectedattheopenend,andthisiscalledtheSeebeckvoltage.Thisvoltageis
proportionaltothechangeintemperaturetheproportionalityconstantisknownasthe
Seebeckcoefficient.Thiscircuitisknownasathermocouple.Thevoltagesfoundarevery
small,andmeasuredinunitsofthousandthsofavolt,calledmillivolts.
Thermocouplesaremadewithvarioustypesofdissimilarmetals.AutomaticL&LKilnsare
equippedwithavariationofTypeKthermocouplesasstandardequipment.Theseare
madewithanegativeNickelChromium(Chromel)wirejoinedtoapositiveNickel
Aluminum(Alumel)wireThesearetwoalloysmadefrombasemetalswhichhavebeen
developedtoworkwellinthetemperaturesnormallyfoundinceramickilns.
Overthedecades,thermocoupletechnologyhasbecomeverymature.Standardindustrial
practicehasbeendevelopedtoidentifythermocouplewires.Allnegativethermocouple
wiresareidentifiedwitharedinsulationcovering.ForTypeKthermocouples,thepositive
wireismarkedwithayellowcovering.Anotherthermocouplegrade,TypeS,ismadefrom
platinumandplatinumrhodium,whicharepreciousmetalsthatstandupverywelltothe
hightemperaturesandoxidizingconditionsencounteredinceramickilns.Theyusuallyhave
amuchlongerlifethanTypeKthermocouples,butareverycostly.Theyareavailablefor
L&LKilnsbyspecialorder.
FEEDBACK CONTROL
AsappliedtoKilns,feedbackcontrolisthemeanswherebytheKilntemperatureis
controlled.Theoperatorprogramsadesiredtime/temperaturecycleintothememoryofthe
controller.Whenthecontrollerisstarted,itimmediatelystartstocomparetheSetpointasit
isgeneratedfromtheinternalprocessor,totheKilntemperature.TheKilntemperatureis
measuredbyathermocouple,whichgeneratesamillivoltage,whichflowstotheController
inputterminals.TheControllercalculatestheoffsetbetweenthegeneratedSetpointandthe
Kilntemperature,andattemptstocorrecttheoffset.IftheKilntemperatureislow
comparedtoSetpoint,thecontrollercallsforheat.Ifthekilntemperatureishighcompared
toSetpoint,thecontrollerrefrainsfromcallingforheat,andtheKilntemperaturedropsdue
toheatlossesthroughtheinsulationwall.ForL&LKilns,heatissuppliedbyclosingthe
contactsofpowerrelays,whichcarryelectricalenergytotheheatingelements.The
feedbacklooplookslikethefollowing.
ThetemperatureinsidetheKilnisconstantlybeingadjustedbythecontrollerinresponseto
thethermocouplesignal.
THREEZONECONTROL(DYNATROL)
L&LisoneofthepioneersofthreezonecontrolwiththeDYNATROL.Inthismethodof
control,threethermocouplesareplacedinsidetheKilnfromtoptobottom,andconnectedto
thecontroller.Thecontrollerhasthreeinputconnections,andthreeassociatedoutputs.The
outputsareconnectedtopowerrelays.TheDYNATROLisconstantlyadjustingthethree
outputsinresponsetothesignalsfromthethreeinputs,andtherebycontrollingtheKiln
temperatureineachofthethreezones.Toptobottomtemperaturegradients,or
differences,canbecontrolledveryaccurately.Fordetailedinformationonthis,pleaserefer
todynatrolinstructblue.pdf.
(c)2015L&LKilnMfgInc.AllRightsReserved.
505SharptownRoad|Swedesboro,NJ08085|8007508350
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Electrical Theory and Application For Electric Kilns - L&L Electric Kilns - Built To Last

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Electrical Theory and Application For Electric Kilns - L&L Electric Kilns - Built To Last

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7/3/2015

ELECTRICAL THEORY AND APPLICATION FOR

INSTRUMENTS COMMONLY USED TO MEASURE ELECTRICITY

SOME BASIC ELECTRICAL THEORY

WHY 230V AND 460V RATINGS?

SINGLE PHASE SERVICES

THREE PHASE SERVICES

ELECTRICAL CONNECTION NOTES FOR L&L KILNS

OVERSEAS ELECTRICAL DISTRIBUTION

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