Pluto

1 History

This article is about the dwarf planet. For other uses, see
Pluto (disambiguation).

1.1 Discovery
Pluto (minor-planet designation: 134340 Pluto) is a
dwarf planet in the Kuiper belt and the rst transNeptunian object to be discovered. It is the largest and
second-most massive known dwarf planet in the Solar
System and the ninth-largest and tenth-most-massive
known object directly orbiting the Sun. It is the largest
known trans-Neptunian object by volume but is less massive than Eris, a dwarf planet in the scattered disc. Like
other Kuiper belt objects, Pluto is primarily made of ice
and rock* [13] and is relatively smallabout one-sixth the
mass of the Moon and one-third its volume. It has a moderately eccentric and inclined orbit during which it ranges
from 30 to 49 astronomical units (4.47.3 billion km)
from the Sun. This means that Pluto periodically comes
closer to the Sun than Neptune, but a stable orbital resonance with Neptune prevents them from colliding. In
2014, Pluto was 32.6 AU from the Sun. Light from the
Sun takes about 5.5 hours to reach Pluto at its average
distance (39.4 AU).* [14]

Further information: Planets beyond Neptune

In the 1840s, Urbain Le Verrier used Newtonian mechanics to predict the position of the then-undiscovered
planet Neptune after analysing perturbations in the orbit
of Uranus.* [29] Subsequent observations of Neptune in
the late 19th century led astronomers to speculate that
Uranus's orbit was being disturbed by another planet besides Neptune.
In 1906, Percival Lowella wealthy Bostonian who had
founded the Lowell Observatory in Flagsta, Arizona, in
1894started an extensive project in search of a possible
ninth planet, which he termed "Planet X".* [30] By 1909,
Lowell and William H. Pickering had suggested several
possible celestial coordinates for such a planet.* [31] Lowell and his observatory conducted his search until his
death in 1916, but to no avail. Unknown to Lowell, his
surveys had captured two faint images of Pluto on 19
March and 7 April 1915, but they were not recognized
for what they were.* [31]* [32] There are fourteen other
known prediscovery observations, with the oldest made
by the Yerkes Observatory on 20 August 1909.* [33]

Pluto was discovered in 1930 and was originally considered the ninth planet from the Sun. After 1992, its
status as a planet fell into question following the discovery of the Kuiper belt, a ring of objects beyond
Neptune that includes Pluto among other large bodies.
In 2005, Eris, which is 27% more massive than Pluto,
was discovered, which led the International Astronomical Union (IAU) to dene the term planetformally
for the rst time the following year.* [15] This denition excluded Pluto and reclassied it as a member of
the new "dwarf planet" category (and specically as a
plutoid).* [16] Some astronomers believe Pluto should
still be considered a planet.* [17]* [18]* [19]

Pluto has ve known moons: Charon (the largest, with

a diameter just over half that of Pluto), Styx, Nix,
Kerberos, and Hydra.* [20] Pluto and Charon are sometimes considered a binary system because the barycenter
of their orbits does not lie within either body.* [21] The Discovery photographs of Pluto
IAU has not formalized a denition for binary dwarf
planets, and Charon is ocially classied as a moon of Because of a ten-year legal battle with Constance Lowell,
Pluto.* [22]
Percival's widow, who attempted to wrest the observaOn 14 July 2015, the New Horizons probe ew by tory's million-dollar portion of his legacy for herself, the
*
Pluto,* [23]* [24] making it the rst spacecraft to do search for Planet X did not resume until 1929, [34] when
*
*
so. [25] [26] NASA plans for New Horizons to take its director, Vesto Melvin Slipher, summarily handed the
detailed measurements and images of Pluto and its job of locating Planet X to Clyde Tombaugh, a 23-yearold Kansan who had just arrived at the Lowell Observamoons.* [27]* [28]
tory after Slipher had been impressed by a sample of his
1

1 HISTORY

astronomical drawings.* [34]

Tombaugh's task was to systematically image the night
sky in pairs of photographs, then examine each pair and
determine whether any objects had shifted position. Using a blink comparator, he rapidly shifted back and forth
between views of each of the plates to create the illusion
of movement of any objects that had changed position or
appearance between photographs. On 18 February 1930,
after nearly a year of searching, Tombaugh discovered a
possible moving object on photographic plates taken on
23 and 29 January of that year. A lesser-quality photograph taken on 21 January helped conrm the movement.* [35] After the observatory obtained further conrmatory photographs, news of the discovery was telegraphed to the Harvard College Observatory on 13 March
1930.* [31]

1.2

Name

See also: Venetia Burney

The discovery made headlines across the globe. The
Lowell Observatory, which had the right to name the
new object, received over 1,000 suggestions from all over
the world, ranging from Atlas to Zymal.* [36] Tombaugh
urged Slipher to suggest a name for the new object quickly
before someone else did.* [36] Constance Lowell proposed Zeus, then Percival and nally Constance. These
suggestions were disregarded.* [37]

prong of the trident (

).

The name was soon embraced by wider culture. In 1930,

Walt Disney was apparently inspired by it when he introduced for Mickey Mouse a canine companion named
Pluto, although Disney animator Ben Sharpsteen could
not conrm why the name was given.* [44] In 1941, Glenn
T. Seaborg named the newly created element plutonium
after Pluto, in keeping with the tradition of naming elements after newly discovered planets, following uranium,
which was named after Uranus, and neptunium, which
was named after Neptune.* [45]
Most languages use the namePlutoin various transliterations.* [lower-alpha 8] In Japanese, Houei Nojiri suggested the translation Meisei (* ?, Star of the
King (God) of the Underworld) , and this was borrowed
into Chinese, Korean, and Vietnamese.* [46]* [47]* [48]
Some Indian languages use the name Pluto, but others,
such as Hindi, use the name of Yama, the Guardian
of Hell in Hindu and Buddhist mythology, as does
Vietnamese.* [47] Polynesian languages also tend to use
the indigenous god of the underworld, as in Maori
Whiro.* [47]

1.3 Planet X disproved

Once found, Pluto's faintness and lack of a resolvable
disc cast doubt on the idea that it was Lowell's Planet
X.* [30] Estimates of Pluto's mass were revised downward throughout the 20th century.* [49]

The name Pluto, after the god of the underworld, was

proposed by Venetia Burney (19182009), a then elevenyear-old schoolgirl in Oxford, England, who was interested in classical mythology.* [38] She suggested it in
a conversation with her grandfather Falconer Madan, a
former librarian at the University of Oxford's Bodleian
Library, who passed the name to astronomy professor
Herbert Hall Turner, who cabled it to colleagues in the
United States.* [38]

Astronomers initially calculated its mass based on its presumed eect on Neptune and Uranus. In 1931 Pluto was
calculated to be roughly the mass of Earth, with further
calculations in 1948 bringing the mass down to roughly
that of Mars.* [51]* [53] In 1976, Dale Cruikshank, Carl
Pilcher and David Morrison of the University of Hawaii
calculated Pluto's albedo for the rst time, nding that it
matched that for methane ice; this meant Pluto had to be
exceptionally luminous for its size and therefore could not
*
The object was ocially named on 24 March be more than 1 percent the mass of Earth. [54] (Pluto's
*
*
*
1930. [39] [40] Each member of the Lowell Ob- albedo is 1.32.0 times greater than that of Earth. [3])
servatory was allowed to vote on a short-list of three: In 1978, the discovery of Pluto's moon Charon alMinerva (which was already the name for an asteroid), lowed the measurement of Pluto's mass for the rst time:
Cronus (which had lost reputation through being pro- roughly 0.2% that of Earth, and far too small to account
posed by the unpopular astronomer Thomas Jeerson for the discrepancies in the orbit of Uranus. Subsequent
Jackson See), and Pluto. Pluto received every vote.* [41] searches for an alternative Planet X, notably by Robert
The name was announced on 1 May 1930.* [38] Upon Sutton Harrington,* [56] failed. In 1992, Myles Standish
the announcement, Madan gave Venetia 5 (equivalent used data from Voyager 2's yby of Neptune in 1989,
to 282, or $430 USD in 2015),* [42] as a reward.* [38] which had revised the estimates of Neptune's mass downThe choice of name was partly inspired by the fact that ward by 0.5%an amount comparable to the mass of
the rst two letters of Pluto are the initials of Percival Marsto recalculate its gravitational eect on Uranus.
With the new gures added in, the discrepancies, and
, unicode
Lowell, and Pluto's astronomical symbol (
with them the need for a Planet X, vanished.* [57] Today,
U+2647, ) is a monogram constructed from the letters
the majority of scientists agree that Planet X, as Lowell
'PL'.* [43] Pluto's astrological symbol resembles that of
dened it, does not exist.* [58] Lowell had made a preNeptune (
), but has a circle in place of the middle diction of Planet X's orbit and position in 1915 that was

1.4

Classication

fairly close to Pluto's actual orbit and its position at that three main conditions for an object to be considered a
time; Ernest W. Brown concluded soon after Pluto's dis- 'planet':
covery that this was a coincidence,* [59] a view still held
today.* [57]
1. The object must be in orbit around the Sun.

1.4

Classication

Further information: Denition of planet

2. The object must be massive enough to be rounded

by its own gravity. More specically, its own gravity
should pull it into a shape of hydrostatic equilibrium.
3. It must have cleared the neighborhood around its orbit.* [63]* [64]

Artistic comparison of Eris, Pluto, Makemake, Haumea,

Sedna, 2007 OR10 , Quaoar, Orcus, and Earth.
Pluto fails to meet the third condition, because its mass
(
is only 0.07 times that of the mass of the other objects
This box:
in its orbit (Earth's mass, by contrast, is 1.7 million times
the remaining mass in its own orbit).* [62]* [64] The IAU
view
further decided that bodies that, like Pluto, do not meet
criterion 3 would be called dwarf planets. On 13 Septem talk
ber 2006, the IAU included Pluto and Eris and its moon
edit
Dysnomia in their Minor Planet Catalogue, giving them
the ocial minor planet designations "(134340) Pluto,
)
"(136199) Eris, and "(136199) Eris I Dysnomia.* [65]
If Pluto had been given one upon its discovery, the numFrom 1992 onward, many bodies were discovered or- ber would have been about 1,164 instead of 134,340.
biting in the same area as Pluto, showing that Pluto is
part of a population of objects called the Kuiper belt.
This made its ocial status as a planet controversial, with
many questioning whether Pluto should be considered together with or separately from its surrounding population.
Museum and planetarium directors occasionally created
controversy by omitting Pluto from planetary models of
the Solar System. The Hayden Planetarium reopened
in February 2000, after renovationwith a model of
only eight planets, which made headlines almost a year
later.* [60]

There has been some resistance within the astronomical

community toward the reclassication.* [66]* [67]* [68]
Alan Stern, principal investigator with NASA's New
Horizons mission to Pluto, publicly derided the IAU resolution, stating that the denition stinks, for technical reasons.* [69] Stern's contention was that by the
terms of the new denition Earth, Mars, Jupiter, and
Neptune, all of which share their orbits with asteroids,
would be excluded.* [70] He argued that all big spherical moons, including the Moon, should likewise be considered planets.* [19] His other claim was that because
less than ve percent of astronomers voted for it, the
decision was not representative of the entire astronomical community.* [70] Marc W. Buie, then at Lowell Observatory, voiced his opinion on the new denition on
his website and petitioned against the denition.* [71]
Others have supported the IAU. Mike Brown, the astronomer who discovered Eris, said through this whole
crazy circus-like procedure, somehow the right answer
was stumbled on. It's been a long time coming. Science
is self-correcting eventually, even when strong emotions
are involved.* [72]

As objects increasingly closer in size to Pluto were discovered in the region, it was argued that Pluto should
be reclassied as one of the Kuiper belt objects, just as
Ceres, Pallas, Juno and Vesta eventually lost their planet
status after the discovery of many other asteroids. On 29
July 2005, the discovery of a new trans-Neptunian object,
Eris, was announced, which was thought to be substantially larger than Pluto. This was the largest object discovered in the Solar System since Triton in 1846. Its discoverers and the press initially called it the tenth planet,
although there was no ocial consensus at the time on
whether to call it a planet.* [61] Others in the astronomi- Public reception to the IAU decision was mixed. Alcal community considered the discovery the strongest ar- though many accepted the reclassication, some sought
gument for reclassifying Pluto as a minor planet.* [62]
to overturn the decision with online petitions urging the
IAU to consider reinstatement. A resolution introduced
by some members of the California State Assembly face1.4.1 IAU classication
tiously called the IAU decision ascientic heresy.* [73]
The New Mexico House of Representatives passed a resMain article: IAU denition of planet
olution in honor of Tombaugh, a longtime resident of that
state, that declared that Pluto will always be considered
The debate came to a head on 24 August 2006 with an a planet while in New Mexican skies and that 13 March
IAU resolution that created an ocial denition for the 2007, was Pluto Planet Day.* [74]* [75] The Illinois Senterm planet. According to this resolution, there are ate passed a similar resolution in 2009, on the basis that

ORBIT AND ROTATION

In the long term, Pluto's orbit is chaotic. Although

computer simulations can be used to predict its position for several million years (both forward and backward
in time), after intervals longer than the Lyapunov time
of 1020 million years, calculations become speculative:
Pluto is sensitive to unmeasurably small details of the Solar System, hard-to-predict factors that will gradually disrupt its orbit.* [86]* [87]

A promotional event with a staged Pluto protest. Members

playing protesters of the reclassication of Pluto on the left, with
those playing counter-protesters on the right

Clyde Tombaugh, the discoverer of Pluto, was born in

Illinois. The resolution asserted that Pluto wasunfairly
downgraded to a 'dwarf' planetby the IAU.* [76] Some
members of the public have also rejected the change,
citing the disagreement within the scientic community
on the issue, or for sentimental reasons, maintaining that
they have always known Pluto as a planet and will continue to do so regardless of the IAU decision.* [77]
Orbit of Pluto ecliptic view. This side viewof
In 2006, in its 17th annual words of the year vote, the
Pluto's orbit (in red) shows its large inclination to the
American Dialect Society voted plutoed as the word of
ecliptic.
the year. Toplutois todemote or devalue someone
*
or something. [78]
Q

Researchers on both sides of the debate gathered on

q
1416 August 2008, at the Johns Hopkins University
Pluto
Applied Physics Laboratory for a conference that included back-to-back talks on the current IAU denition of a planet.* [79] Entitled The Great Planet DeNeptune
bate,* [80] the conference published a post-conference
press release indicating that scientists could not come
q
to a consensus about the denition of planet.* [81] Just
before the conference, on 11 June 2008, the IAU announced in a press release that the term "plutoid" would
Q
henceforth be used to refer to Pluto and other objects
30
20
10
0
10
20
30
[AU]
that have an orbital semi-major axis greater than that
of Neptune and enough mass to be of near-spherical
Orbit of Plutopolar view. This view from above
shape.* [82]* [83]* [84]
shows how Pluto's orbit (in red) is less circular than
Neptune's (in blue), and how Pluto is sometimes closer to
the Sun than Neptune. The darker halves of both orbits
show where they pass below the plane of the ecliptic.
2 Orbit and rotation
Pluto's orbital period is 248 Earth years. Its orbital characteristics are substantially dierent from those of the
planets, which follow nearly circular orbits around the
Sun close to a at reference plane called the ecliptic.
In contrast, Pluto's orbit is highly inclined relative to
the ecliptic (over 17) and highly eccentric (elliptical).
This high eccentricity means a small region of Pluto's
orbit lies nearer the Sun than Neptune's. The Pluto
Charon barycenter came to perihelion on 5 September
1989,* [2]* [lower-alpha 9] and was last closer to the Sun
than Neptune between 7 February 1979, and 11 February
1999.* [85]

2.2

Other factors

5
if Pluto's orbit were not highly inclined, the two bodies
could never collide.* [90]

2.2 Other factors

Numerical studies have shown that over periods of millions of years, the general nature of the alignment
between the orbits of Pluto and Neptune does not
change.* [88]* [93] There are several other resonances and
interactions that govern the details of their relative motion, and enhance Pluto's stability. These arise principally
from two additional mechanisms (besides the 2:3 meanmotion resonance).
Images of one orbit of Charon around Pluto, acquired by
First, Pluto's argument of perihelion, the angle between
New Horizons along the ecliptic MayJune 2015
the point where it crosses the ecliptic and the point where
it is closest to the Sun, librates around 90.* [93] This
means that when Pluto is closest to the Sun, it is at its
farthest above the plane of the Solar System, preventing
2.1 Relationship with Neptune
encounters with Neptune. This is a direct consequence of
the Kozai mechanism,* [88] which relates the eccentricity
Despite Pluto's orbit appearing to cross that of Neptune
of an orbit to its inclination to a larger perturbing body
when viewed from directly above, the two objects' orbits in this case Neptune. Relative to Neptune, the amplitude
are aligned so that they can never collide or even approach of libration is 38, and so the angular separation of Pluto's
closely. There are several reasons why.
perihelion to the orbit of Neptune is always greater than
At the simplest level, one can examine the two orbits and 52 (9038). The closest such angular separation ocsee that they do not intersect. When Pluto is closest to curs every 10,000 years.* [92]
the Sun, and hence closest to Neptune's orbit as viewed Second, the longitudes of ascending nodes of the two
from above, it is also the farthest above Neptune's path. bodiesthe points where they cross the eclipticare in
Pluto's orbit passes about 8 AU above that of Neptune, near-resonance with the above libration. When the two
preventing a collision.* [88]* [89]* [90] Pluto's ascending longitudes are the samethat is, when one could draw
and descending nodes, the points at which its orbit crosses a straight line through both nodes and the SunPluto's
the ecliptic, are currently separated from Neptune's by perihelion lies exactly at 90, and hence it comes closest
over 21.* [91]
to the Sun when it is highest above Neptune's orbit. This
This alone is not enough to protect Pluto; perturbations
from the planets (especially Neptune) could alter aspects
of Pluto's orbit (such as its orbital precession) over millions of years so that a collision could be possible. Some
other mechanism or mechanisms must therefore be at
work. The most signicant of these is that Pluto lies in the
2:3 mean-motion resonance with Neptune: for every two
orbits that Pluto makes around the Sun, Neptune makes
three. The two objects then return to their initial positions and the cycle repeats, each cycle lasting about 500
years. This pattern is such that, in each 500-year cycle,
the rst time Pluto is near perihelion, Neptune is over
50 behind Pluto. By Pluto's second perihelion, Neptune
will have completed a further one and a half of its own
orbits, and so will be a similar distance ahead of Pluto.
Pluto and Neptune's minimum separation is over 17 AU,
which is greater than Pluto's minimum separation from
Uranus (11 AU).* [90]
The 2:3 resonance between the two bodies is highly stable, and is preserved over millions of years.* [92] This
prevents their orbits from changing relative to one another; the cycle always repeats in the same way, and so
the two bodies can never pass near each other. Thus, even

is known as the 1:1 superresonance. All the Jovian planets, particularly Jupiter, play a role in the creation of the
superresonance.* [88]
To understand the nature of the libration, imagine a polar
point of view, looking down on the ecliptic from a distant
vantage point where the planets orbit counterclockwise.
After passing the ascending node, Pluto is interior to
Neptune's orbit and moving faster, approaching Neptune
from behind. The strong gravitational pull between the
two causes angular momentum to be transferred to Pluto,
at Neptune's expense. This moves Pluto into a slightly
larger orbit, where it travels slightly more slowly, according to Kepler's third law. As its orbit changes, this has
the gradual eect of changing the perihelion and longitude of Pluto's orbit (and, to a lesser degree, of Neptune). After many such repetitions, Pluto is suciently
slowed, and Neptune suciently speeded up, that Neptune begins to catch up with Pluto at the opposite side
of its orbit (near the opposing node to where we began).
The process is then reversed, and Pluto loses angular momentum to Neptune, until Pluto is suciently speeded
up that it begins to catch Neptune again at the original
node. The whole process takes about 20,000 years to

GEOLOGY

complete.* [90]* [92]

2.3

Rotation

Pluto's rotation period, its day, is equal to 6.39 Earth

days.* [94] Like Uranus, Pluto rotates on itssideon its
orbital plane, with an axial tilt of 120, and so its seasonal
variation is extreme; at its solstices, one-fourth of its surface is in continuous daylight, whereas another fourth is
in continuous darkness.* [95] Daylight on Pluto is weak, Theoretical structure of Pluto* [101]
analogous to twilight on Earth; NASA has posted aPluto
Timecalculator that determines when the light on Earth
is equivalent to that on Pluto on a clear day. For exam 1. Frozen nitrogen* [102]
ple, on 13 July 2015, at the coordinates of the Applied
Physics Laboratory where the probe was constructed, the
2. Water ice
Pluto Time was 8:38 p.m.,* [96]* [97] four minutes later
than the apparent sunset of 8:34 p.m. reported for that
location by NOAA.* [98]
3. Rock

2.4

Quasi-satellite

Due to Pluto's distance from Earth, in-depth study from

Earth is dicult. On 14 July 2015, NASA's New Horizons space probe ew through the Pluto system, which
will provide much information about it.* [25]

At least one minor body, (15810) 1994 JR1, is a quasisatellite of Pluto, a specic type of co-orbital conguration.* [99] It has been a quasi-satellite of Pluto for about 3.1 Surface
100,000 years and it will remain so for perhaps another
250,000 years. Its quasi-satellite behavior is recurrent
Pluto's surface is composed of more than 98 percent
with a periodicity of 2 million years.* [99]* [100] There
nitrogen ice, with traces of methane and carbon monoxmay be additional Pluto co-orbitals.
ide.* [102] The face of Pluto oriented toward Charon
contains more methane ice, whereas the opposite face
contains more nitrogen and carbon monoxide ice.* [103]
Pluto's surface is very varied, with large dierences in
both brightness and color.* [104] Pluto is one of the most
3 Geology
contrastive bodies in the Solar System, with as much contrast as Saturn's moon Iapetus.* [105] The color varies
Main article: Geology of Pluto
between charcoal black, dark orange and white.* [106]
Pluto's color is more similar to that of Io with slightly
more orange, signicantly less red than Mars.* [107]

3.2 Internal structure

New Horizons map of Pluto's surface

Hubble map of Pluto's surface

Pluto's density is 2.030.06 g/cm3 .* [7] Because the decay of radioactive elements would eventually heat the ices
enough for the rock to separate from them, scientists expect that Pluto's internal structure is dierentiated, with
the rocky material having settled into a dense core surrounded by a mantle of water ice. The diameter of the
core is hypothesized to be approximately 1700 km, 70%
of Pluto's diameter.* [101] It is possible that such heating
continues today, creating a subsurface ocean layer of liquid water some 100 to 180 km thick at the coremantle
boundary.* [101]* [108]

First signs of geological features on Pluto (9 July 2015)

Mass and size

Pluto's mass is 1.311022 kg, less than 0.24 percent

that of Earth,* [115] and its diameter is 2370 km.* [5] Its
surface area is 1.66510* 7 km2 , or roughly the same surface area as Russia. Its surface gravity is 0.067g (compared to 1g for Earth).
The discovery of Pluto's satellite Charon in 1978 enabled
a determination of the mass of the PlutoCharon system
by application of Newton's formulation of Kepler's third
law. Observations of Pluto in occultation with Charon
allowed scientists to establish Pluto's diameter more accurately, whereas the invention of adaptive optics allowed
them to determine its shape more accurately.* [116]

Size comparisons: Left: Earth, Moon and Pluto.

Center: Pluto and Charon compared to Earth. Right:
Pluto and Charon compared to the United States.

5 Atmosphere

With less than 0.2 lunar masses, Pluto is much less massive than the terrestrial planets, and also less massive than Main article: Atmosphere of Pluto
seven moons, Ganymede, Titan, Callisto, Io, the Moon,
Europa, and Triton. The mass is much less than thought
Pluto has a thin atmosphere consisting of nitrogen (N2 ),
before Charon was discovered.
methane (CH4 ), and carbon monoxide (CO), which are
Pluto is more than twice the diameter and a dozen times in equilibrium with their ices on Pluto's surface.* [117]
the mass of the dwarf planet Ceres, the largest object The surface pressure ranges from 6.5 to 24 bar (0.65 to
in the asteroid belt. It is less massive than the dwarf 2.4 Pa),* [118] roughly one million to 100,000 times less
planet Eris, a trans-Neptunian object discovered in 2005, than Earth's atmospheric pressure. Pluto's elliptical orbit
though Pluto has a larger diameter of 2370 km compared is predicted to have a major eect on its atmosphere: as
to Eris's approximate diameter of 2326 km.* [5]
Pluto moves away from the Sun, its atmosphere should
Determinations of Pluto's size had been complicated gradually freeze out. When Pluto is closer to the Sun,
by its atmosphere,* [112] and possible hydrocarbon the temperature of Pluto's solid surface increases, caushaze.* [110] In March 2014, Lellouch, de Bergh et al. ing the ices to sublimate. Just like sweat cools the body
the skin, this sublimation cools the
published ndings regarding methane mixing ratios in as it evaporates from
*
[119]
surface
of
Pluto.
Pluto's atmosphere consistent with a Plutonian diameter greater than 2360 km, with a best guessof
2368 km.* [114] On 13 July 2015 NASA's New Horizons
mission Long Range Reconnaissance Imager determined
Pluto's diameter to be 2,370 km (1,470 mi).* [5]* [6]

The presence of methane, a powerful greenhouse gas, in

Pluto's atmosphere creates a temperature inversion, with
average temperatures 36 K warmer 10 km above the surface.* [120] The lower atmosphere contains a higher con-

centration of methane than its upper atmosphere.* [120]

Even though Pluto is receding from the Sun, in 2002 the
atmospheric pressure (0.3 Pa) was higher than in 1988,
because in 1987 the south pole of Pluto came out of the
shadow for the rst time in 120 years, causing extra nitrogen to start sublimating from the polar cap. It will take
decades for this nitrogen to condense out of the atmosphere as it freezes onto Pluto's now continuously dark
north pole's ice cap.* [121]

ORIGINS

Pluto's moons are believed to have been formed by a collision between Pluto and a similar-sized body early in the
history of the Solar System. The collision released material that consolidated into the moons around Pluto.* [134]
However, Kerberos has a much lower albedo than the
other moons of Pluto,* [135] which is dicult to explain
with a giant collision.* [136]

Satellites

Main article: Moons of Pluto

Pluto has ve known natural satellites: Charon, rst
identied in 1978 by astronomer James Christy; Nix
and Hydra, both discovered in 2005;* [122] Kerberos,
discovered in 2011;* [123] and Styx, discovered in
2012.* [124] The satellites' orbits are circular (eccentricity < 0.006) and coplanar with Pluto's equator (inclination < 1),* [125]* [126] and therefore tilted approximately 120 relative to Pluto's orbit. The Plutonian system is highly compact: the ve known satellites orbit
within the inner 3% of the region where prograde orbits
would be stable.* [127] Closest to Pluto orbits Charon,
which is large enough to be in hydrostatic equilibrium and
for the system's barycenter to be outside Pluto. Beyond
Charon orbit Pluto's smaller circumbinary moons, Styx,
Nix, Kerberos, and Hydra, respectively.
The orbital periods of all of Pluto's moons are linked
in a system of orbital resonances and near resonances.* [128]* [126] When precession is accounted for,
the orbital periods of Styx, Nix, and Hydra are in an exact 18:22:33 ratio.* [126] There is also a 3:4:5:6 sequence
of approximate ratios between the periods of Styx, Nix,
Kerberos and Hydra with that of Charon, which becomes
closer to exact going outward.* [126]* [129]
The PlutoCharon system is one of the few systems in
the Solar System whose barycenter lies above the primary's surface (617 Patroclus is a smaller example, the
Sun and Jupiter the only larger one).* [130] This and the
large size of Charon relative to Pluto have led some astronomers to call it a double dwarf planet.* [131] The system is also unusual among planetary systems in that each
is tidally locked to the other: Charon always presents
the same face to Pluto, and Pluto always presents the
same face to Charon: from any position on either body,
the other is always at the same position in the sky, or
always obscured.* [132] This also means that the rotation period of each is equal to the time it takes the entire system to rotate around its common center of gravity.* [94] In 2007, observations by the Gemini Observatory of patches of ammonia hydrates and water crystals
on the surface of Charon suggested the presence of active
cryo-geysers.* [133]

(Left): The Pluto system: Pluto, Charon, Styx, Nix,

Kerberos, and Hydra, imaged by the Hubble Space
Telescope in July 2012. (Middle): Pluto and Charon, to
scale. Image acquired by New Horizons on 8 July 2015.
(Right): Comparison of the scale and brightness of the
moons of Pluto (artist's concept).* [137]

7 Origins
Further information: Kuiper belt and Nice model
Pluto's origin and identity had long puzzled astronomers.
One early hypothesis was that Pluto was an escaped moon
of Neptune, knocked out of orbit by its largest current
moon, Triton. This idea was eventually rejected after dy-

Plot of the known Kuiper belt objects, set against the four giant
planets

namical studies of the two planets' orbits showed it to be

impossible.* [138]* [139]
Pluto's true place in the Solar System began to reveal itself only in 1992, when astronomers began to nd small
icy objects beyond Neptune that were similar to Pluto
not only in orbit but also in size and composition. This
trans-Neptunian population is believed to be the source
of many short-period comets. Astronomers now believe
Pluto to be the largest* [lower-alpha 10] member of the
Kuiper belt, a stable belt of objects located between 30
and 50 AU from the Sun. As of 2011, surveys of the
Kuiper belt to magnitude 21 were nearly complete and
any remaining Pluto-sized objects are expected to be beyond 100 AU from the Sun.* [140] Like other Kuiper-belt
objects (KBOs), Pluto shares features with comets; for
example, the solar wind is gradually blowing Pluto's surface into space, in the manner of a comet.* [141] It has
been claimed that if Pluto were placed as near to the Sun
as Earth, it would develop a tail, as comets do.* [142] This
claim has been disputed with the argument that Pluto's
escape velocity is too high for this to happen.* [143]
Though Pluto is the largest Kuiper belt object discovered,* [110] Neptune's moon Triton, which is slightly
larger than Pluto, is similar to it both geologically and
atmospherically and is believed to be a captured Kuiper
belt object.* [144] Eris (see above) is about the same size
as Pluto (though more massive) but is not strictly considered a member of the Kuiper belt population. Rather, it
is considered a member of a linked population called the
scattered disc.
A large number of Kuiper belt objects, like Pluto, are in
a 2:3 orbital resonance with Neptune. KBOs with this
orbital resonance are called "plutinos", after Pluto.* [145]
Like other members of the Kuiper belt, Pluto is thought
to be a residual planetesimal; a component of the original

protoplanetary disc around the Sun that failed to fully coalesce into a full-edged planet. Most astronomers agree
that Pluto owes its current position to a sudden migration undergone by Neptune early in the Solar System's
formation. As Neptune migrated outward, it approached
the objects in the proto-Kuiper belt, setting one in orbit
around itself (Triton), locking others into resonances, and
knocking others into chaotic orbits. The objects in the
scattered disc, a dynamically unstable region overlapping
the Kuiper belt, are believed to have been placed in their
current positions by interactions with Neptune's migrating resonances.* [146] A computer model created in 2004
by Alessandro Morbidelli of the Observatoire de la Cte
d'Azur in Nice suggested that the migration of Neptune
into the Kuiper belt may have been triggered by the formation of a 1:2 resonance between Jupiter and Saturn,
which created a gravitational push that propelled both
Uranus and Neptune into higher orbits and caused them
to switch places, ultimately doubling Neptune's distance
from the Sun. The resultant expulsion of objects from
the proto-Kuiper belt could also explain the Late Heavy
Bombardment 600 million years after the Solar System's
formation and the origin of the Jupiter trojans.* [147] It
is possible that Pluto had a near-circular orbit about 33
AU from the Sun before Neptune's migration perturbed
it into a resonant capture.* [148] The Nice model requires
that there were about a thousand Pluto-sized bodies in
the original planetesimal disk, which included Triton and
Eris.* [147]

8 Observation and exploration

Pluto's distance from Earth makes in-depth study from
Earth dicult. On 14 July 2015, NASA's New Horizons space probe ew through the Pluto system, which
will provide much information about it.* [25]

8.1 Observation
Pluto's visual apparent magnitude averages 15.1, brightening to 13.65 at perihelion.* [3] To see it, a telescope
is required; around 30 cm (12 in) aperture being desirable.* [149] It looks star-like and without a visible disk
even in large telescopes, because its angular diameter is
only 0.11.
The earliest maps of Pluto, made in the late 1980s,
were brightness maps created from close observations of
eclipses by its largest moon, Charon. Observations were
made of the change in the total average brightness of
the PlutoCharon system during the eclipses. For example, eclipsing a bright spot on Pluto makes a bigger total
brightness change than eclipsing a dark spot. Computer
processing of many such observations can be used to create a brightness map. This method can also track changes
in brightness over time.* [150]* [151]

10

OBSERVATION AND EXPLORATION

Computer-generated rotating image of Pluto based on observations by the Hubble Space Telescope in 20022003
New Horizons, launched on 19 January 2006

Better maps were produced from images taken by the

Hubble Space Telescope (HST), which oered higher
resolution, and showed considerably more detail,* [105]
resolving variations several hundred kilometers across,
including polar regions and large bright spots.* [107]
These maps were produced by complex computer processing, which nds the best-t projected maps for the
few pixels of the Hubble images.* [152] These remained
the most detailed maps of Pluto until the yby of New
Horizons in July 2015, because the two cameras on the
HST used for these maps were no longer in service.* [152]

8.2

Exploration

Further information: New Horizons

Pluto presents signicant challenges for spacecraft because of its small mass and great distance from Earth.
Voyager 1 could have visited Pluto, but controllers opted
instead for a close yby of Saturn's moon Titan, resulting
in a trajectory incompatible with a Pluto yby. Voyager 2
never had a plausible trajectory for reaching Pluto.* [153]
No serious attempt to explore Pluto by spacecraft occurred until the last decade of the 20th century. In August
1992, JPL scientist Robert Staehle telephoned Pluto's
discoverer, Clyde Tombaugh, requesting permission to
visit his planet. I told him he was welcome to it,
Tombaugh later remembered,though he's got to go one
long, cold trip.* [154] Despite this early momentum, in
2000, NASA cancelled the Pluto Kuiper Express mission,
citing increasing costs and launch vehicle delays.* [155]
After an intense political battle, a revised mission to
Pluto, dubbed New Horizons, was granted funding from
the US government in 2003.* [156] New Horizons was
launched successfully on 19 January 2006. The mission
leader, S. Alan Stern, conrmed that some of the ashes

The hemisphere of Pluto that will be imaged at closest approach

by New Horizons

of Clyde Tombaugh, who died in 1997, had been placed

aboard the spacecraft.* [157]
In early 2007 the craft made use of a gravity assist from
Jupiter. Its closest approach to Pluto will be on 14 July
2015; scientic observations of Pluto have begun ve
months before the closest approach and will continue for
at least a month after the encounter. New Horizons captured its rst (distant) images of Pluto in late September
2006, during a test of the Long Range Reconnaissance
Imager (LORRI).* [158] The images, taken from a distance of approximately 4.2 billion kilometers, conrm the
spacecraft's ability to track distant targets, critical for maneuvering toward Pluto and other Kuiper belt objects.

8.3

Proposed exploration

11

8.3 Proposed exploration

A Pluto orbiter/lander/sample return mission was proposed in 2003. The plan included a twelve-year trip from
Earth to Pluto, mapping from orbit, multiple landings, a
warm water probe, and possible in situ propellant production for another twelve-year trip back to Earth with samples. Power and propulsion would come from the bimodal
MITEE nuclear reactor system.* [165]

9 Gallery
10 See also
How I Killed Pluto and Why It Had It Coming
First Pluto sighting from New Horizons

Pluto in astrology
Pluto in ction
Solar eclipses on Pluto

11 Notes
New Horizons will use a remote sensing package that includes imaging instruments and a radio science investigation tool, as well as spectroscopic and other experiments, to characterize the global geology and morphology
of Pluto and its moon Charon, map their surface composition and analyze Pluto's neutral atmosphere and its escape
rate. New Horizons will also photograph the surfaces of
Pluto and Charon.
Pluto's small moons, discovered shortly before and after
the probe's launch, may present it with unforeseen challenges. Debris from collisions between Kuiper belt objects and the smaller moons, with their relatively low escape velocities, may produce a tenuous dusty ring. If New
Horizons ies through such a ring system, there would be
an increased potential for micrometeoroid damage that
could disable the probe.* [159]
On 4 February 2015, NASA released new images of
Pluto (taken on 25 and 27 January) from the approaching
probe.* [160] New Horizons was more than 203,000,000
km (126,000,000 mi) away from Pluto when it began taking the photos, which showed Pluto and its largest moon,
Charon.
On 20 March 2015, NASA invited the general public to
suggest names for surface features that will be discovered
on Pluto and Charon.* [161]
On 15 April 2015, Pluto was imaged showing a possible
polar cap.* [162]
Between April and June 2015, New Horizons began returning images of Pluto that exceeded the quality that the
Hubble Space Telescope could produce.* [163]* [164]

[1] Orbital elements refer to the barycenter of the Pluto system, and are the instantaneous osculating values at the
precise J2000 epoch. Barycenter quantities are given because, in contrast to the planetary center, they do not experience appreciable changes on a day-to-day basis from
the motion of the moons. The orbital period of Pluto is
listed as 248 years because most references use the more
stable barycenter of the Solar System (Sun+Jupiter) to list
the orbital period of the Pluto-Charon system. A J2000
heliocentric solution would give a value of 246 years.
[2] Surface area derived from the radius r: 4r2 .
[3] Volume v derived from the radius r: 4r3 /3 .
[4] Surface gravity derived from the mass M, the gravitational
constant G and the radius r: GM /r2 .
[5] Escape velocity derived from
the mass M, the gravitational
constant G and the radius r: 2GM /r .
[6] Based on the orientation of Charon's orbit, which is assumed the same as Pluto's spin axis due to the mutual tidal
locking.
[7] Based on geometry of minimum and maximum distance
from Earth and Pluto radius in the factsheet
[8] The equivalence is less close in languages whose
phonology diers widely from Greek's, such as Somali
Buluuto and Navajo Totoo.
[9] The discovery of Charon in 1978 allowed astronomers to
accurately calculate the mass of the Plutonian system. But
it did not indicate the two bodies' individual masses, which
could only be estimated after other moons of Pluto's were
discovered in late 2005. As a result, because Pluto came

12

12

to perihelion in 1989, most Pluto perihelion date estimates are based on the PlutoCharon barycenter. Charon
came to perihelion 4 September 1989. The PlutoCharon
barycenter came to perihelion 5 September 1989. Pluto
came to perihelion 8 September 1989.
[10] The dwarf planet Eris is roughly the same size as Pluto,
about 2330 km; Eris is, however, 28% more massive than
Pluto. Eris is a scattered-disc object, often considered
a distinct population from Kuiper-belt objects like Pluto;
Pluto is the largest body in the Kuiper belt proper, which
excludes the scattered-disc objects.

}}-->

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13

External links

New Horizons homepage

Pluto Prole at NASA's Solar System Exploration
site
NASA Pluto factsheet

Website of the observatory that discovered Pluto

Earth telescope image of Pluto system
Keck infrared with AO of Pluto system
Gray, Meghan (2009). Pluto. Sixty Symbols.
Brady Haran for the University of Nottingham.

18

14

14
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File:071215-Charon-NewHorizons-20150711.png
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071215-Charon-NewHorizons-20150711.png License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/thumbnails/
image/071215_charon_alone.png Original artist: NASA/JHUAPL/SWRI
File:071215-Pluto-NewHorizons-20150711.png
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3b/
071215-Pluto-NewHorizons-20150711.png License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/thumbnails/
image/071215_pluto_alone_0.png Original artist: NASA/JHUAPL/SWRI
File:15-143-PlutoSystem-NewHorizons-20150626.jpg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/
15-143-PlutoSystem-NewHorizons-20150626.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/
thumbnails/image/15-143.jpg Original artist: NASA/JHU-APL/SwRI
File:A_Moon_over_Pluto_(Close_up).gif Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/A_Moon_over_Pluto_
%28Close_up%29.gif License: Public domain Contributors: http://pluto.jhuapl.edu/Multimedia/Science-Photos/pics/PR_E12_proper_
nosat_3fps.png Original artist: NASA/Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory/Southwest Research Institute
File:Charon-NewHorizons-Annotated-20150711.jpg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/
Charon-NewHorizons-Annotated-20150711.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors:
http://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/
thumbnails/image/charon_annotated.jpg Original artist: NASA/JHUAPL/SWRI
File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
File:First_Pluto_sighting_from_New_Horizons.gif Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/First_Pluto_
sighting_from_New_Horizons.gif License: Public domain Contributors: NASA Original artist: NASA
File:Gnome_globe_current_event.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/Gnome_globe_current_event.
svg License: LGPL Contributors: Derived from Image:Gnome-globe.svg, Image:Current event clock.svg and Image:Stock alarm.svg (see
below). Original artist: David Vignoni (globe, clock face/ring), Anomie (clock hands), David Gthberg (making the clock red, shadows).
Anomie and David G (putting all the parts together).
File:Internal_Structure_of_Pluto.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d3/Internal_Structure_of_Pluto.
jpg License: Public domain Contributors: source from Artist impression of Pluto and Charon.jpg Original artist: Jcpag2012
File:MH-07-10-15-Pluto-FirstGeology-20150709.jpg
Source:
Public
MH-07-10-15-Pluto-FirstGeology-20150709.jpg License:
new-image-of-pluto-houston-we-have-geology Original artist: NASA

https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d7/
domain Contributors:
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File:May29-June2Pluto.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/May29-June2Pluto.jpg License: PD Contributors:

https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/thumbnails/image/nh-lorri-images-6-1-15.jpg Original artist:
NASA/Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory/Southwest Research Institute
File:NH-7-13-15-Charon-NewHorizons-20150712.png
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NH-7-13-15-Charon-NewHorizons-20150712.png License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/
thumbnails/image/nh-7-13-15_charon_image_nasa-jhuapl-swri.png Original artist: NASA/JHUAPL/SWRI

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File:NH-7-13-15-Pluto-NewHorizons-20150712.png
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5c/
NH-7-13-15-Pluto-NewHorizons-20150712.png License:
Public domain Contributors:
http://pluto.jhuapl.edu/Multimedia/
Science-Photos/image.php?gallery_id=2&image_id=222 Original artist: NASA/JHUAPL/SWRI
File:NH-Pluto-bw-NewHorizons-20150713a.jpg
Source:
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NH-Pluto-bw-NewHorizons-20150713a.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/thumbnails/
image/tn-p_lorri_fullframe_bw.jpg Original artist: NASA/APL/SwRI
File:NH-Pluto-color-NewHorizons-20150714.png
Source:
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NH-Pluto-color-NewHorizons-20150714.png License: Public domain Contributors: http://pluto.jhuapl.edu/Multimedia/Science-Photos/
pics/P_LORRI_FULLFRAME_COLOR.png Original artist: NASA / JHUAPL / SwRI
File:NH-PlutoCharon-Color-NewHorizons-20150711.jpg
Source:
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NH-PlutoCharon-Color-NewHorizons-20150711.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
nasa website How Big Is Pluto? New Horizons Settles Decades-Long Debate Original artist: NASA-JHUAPL-SWRI
File:NH-SizeComparison-PlutoCharonEarth-20150713.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/13/
NH-SizeComparison-PlutoCharonEarth-20150713.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/
thumbnails/image/nh-pluto-charon-earth-size.jpg Original artist: NASA
File:Neptune_symbol.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/47/Neptune_symbol.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Amit6
File:New_Horizons_Jan19_06.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/39/New_Horizons_Jan19_06.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Crop of File:New Horizons Lifto.jpg Original artist: NASA/Kim Shiett (cropped by User:
Latitude0116 at en.wikipedia)
File:Nh-pluto-map.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c4/Nh-pluto-map.jpg License: Public domain
Contributors: http://pluto.jhuapl.edu/Multimedia/Science-Photos/image.php?gallery_id=2&image_id=204 (image link) Original artist:
NASA/Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory/Southwest Research Institute
File:Office-book.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a8/Office-book.svg License: Public domain Contributors: This and myself. Original artist: Chris Down/Tango project
File:Outersolarsystem_objectpositions_labels_comp.png
Source:
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Outersolarsystem_objectpositions_labels_comp.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:PIA19693-Pluto-Charon-2Sides-20150627.jpg
Source:
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PIA19693-Pluto-Charon-2Sides-20150627.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors:
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PIA19693_fig1.jpg Original artist: NASA/Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory/Southwest Research Institute
File:PIA19694-PlutoCharon-NewHorizons-20150701.jpg
Source:
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PIA19694-PlutoCharon-NewHorizons-20150701.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/jpeg/
PIA19694.jpg Original artist: NASA/Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory/Southwest Research Institute
File:PIA19697-Pluto-Animation-20150706-crop.gif
Source:
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PIA19697-Pluto-Animation-20150706-crop.gif License: Public domain Contributors: http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/browse/
PIA19697.gif Original artist: NASA/Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory/Southwest Research Institute
File:PIA19701-PlutoSystem-Animation-NewHorizons-20150701.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/
c8/PIA19701-PlutoSystem-Animation-NewHorizons-20150701.gif License: Public domain Contributors: http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.
gov/archive/PIA19701_fig1.gif Original artist: NASA/Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory/Southwest Research Institute
File:PIA19702-Pluto-HeartFeature-NewHorizons-20150707.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/be/
PIA19702-Pluto-HeartFeature-NewHorizons-20150707.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/jpeg/
PIA19702.jpg Original artist: NASA/Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory/Southwest Research Institute
File:Pluto'{}s_astrological_symbol.svg Source:
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symbol.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Cropped from File:Astrological Glyphs.svg Original artist: Lexicon
File:Pluto'{}s_moons_2015-0603_115-111.jpg
Source:
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Pluto%27s_moons_2015-0603_115-111.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors:
http://www.nasa.gov/press-release/
nasa-s-hubble-finds-pluto-s-moons-tumbling-in-absolute-chaos Original artist: NASA/ESA/M. Showalter (SETI)/G. Bacon (STScI),
NASA/ESA/A. Feild (STScI)
File:Pluto-11jul-color.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/26/Pluto-11jul-color.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.nasa.gov/feature/how-big-is-pluto-new-horizons-settles-decades-long-debate Original artist: NASAJHUAPL-SWRI
File:Pluto-3bw-images-NewHorizons-20150706.jpg
Source:
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