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Near infrared spectroscopy for on/in-line

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Journal of Food Engineering 87 (2008) 303313

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Review

Near infrared spectroscopy for on/in-line monitoring of quality

in foods and beverages: A review
Haibo Huang, Haiyan Yu, Huirong Xu, Yibin Ying *
College of Biosystems Engineering and Food Science, Zhejiang University, 268 Kaixuan Road, Hangzhou 310029, China
Received 17 June 2007; received in revised form 17 December 2007; accepted 22 December 2007
Available online 8 January 2008

Abstract
Over the past 30 years, on/in-line near infrared (NIR) spectroscopy has proved to be one of the most ecient and advanced tools for
continuous monitoring and controlling of process and product quality in food processing industry. A lot of work has been done in this
area. This review focuses on the use of NIR spectroscopy for the on/in-line analysis of foods such as meat, fruit, grain, dairy products,
beverage and other areas, and mainly looks at the literature published in the last 10 years. The topics covered emphasize the methods
designed for on/in-line measurement of data, chemometric treatment, as well as interpretation of the experimental observations. Finally,
problems relating to the successful applications of on/in-line NIR spectroscopy in production processes have been briey outlined.
2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Near infrared spectroscopy; Foods and beverages; Quality; On/in-line; Process monitoring

Contents
1.
2.

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1. NIR spectroscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Applications in food systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1. Meat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2. Fruits and vegetables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3. Grain and grain products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4. Dairy products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5. Oils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.6. Fish and fish products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.7. Beverages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.8. Others . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.9. Constraints of NIR techniques in food analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.10. Conclusions and future outlook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Acknowledgements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Corresponding author. Tel.: +86 571 86971140; fax: +86 571 86971885.
E-mail address: ybying@zju.edu.cn (Y. Ying).

0260-8774/$ - see front matter 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2007.12.022

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1. Introduction
During the last 50 years, there has been a lot of emphasis
on the quality and safety of the food products, of the production processes, and the relationship between the two
(Burns and Ciurczak, 2001). These requirements call for
on-line detection techniques which have the following
advantages: (i) can be assembled in the production line
and take place under realistic environment, (ii) early detection of possible failures, (iii) permanent monitoring of the
conditions, (iv) assessment of conditions at any desired
time (Pemen et al., 1998). These advantages enable detection of quality changes of raw materials and nal product
under steady process conditions Compared to other nondestructive techniques, NIR spectroscopy does not need any
sample preparation. Hence the analysis is very simple and
rapid, which is a requirement for on-line application. Furthermore, NIR technique allows several constituents to be
measured simultaneously. Finally, the relatively weak
absorption due to water enables high-moisture foods to
be analyzed (Osborne, 2000). All these properties make
NIR technique widely acceptable in recent years as one
of most promising on/in line detection methods in food
and other areas.
Industries involved with foods and beverages have
traditionally used NIR measurements for quality control,
blending, and process control (Workman et al., 1999).
Developments in computer science and chemometrics have
prompted parallel developments in the on/in-line NIR
techniques, and have attracted considerable attention from
food researchers. For example, this technique was applied
for on-line detecting fat, moisture, and protein content during meat processing (Isaksson et al., 1996). With respect to
grains, some researchers have installed NIRS equipment in
the harvester for continuous detection of parameters characterizing grain quality such as protein and moisture content (Maertens et al., 2004). These on/in-line applications
have established their control capability in food processing.
1.1. NIR spectroscopy
NIR spectroscopy is based on the absorption of electromagnetic radiation at wavelengths in the range 780
2500 nm. NIR spectra of foods comprise broad bands arising
from overlapping absorptions corresponding mainly to
overtones and combinations of vibrational modes involving CH, OH, and NH chemical bonds (Osborne,
2000). This makes it very feasible for measurements to be
made in organic and biological systems. Radiation interacting with a sample may be absorbed, transmitted or
reected. Thus, there are dierent NIR spectroscopy measurement modes tting dierent applications. In practice,
the common modes are transmittance, interactance, transectance, diuse transmittance, and diuse reectance,
with the last two being most frequently used. Diuse transmittance measurements are usually carried out in the
region of the spectrum between 800 and 1100 nm where

Fig. 1. Illustration of an on-line NIR instrument with the MM55 gauge

mounted at the outlet of a meat grinder (Isaksson et al., 1996).

weak absorptions enable useful data to be obtained using

sample thickness of 12 cm, such as with meat, cheese or
whole grain. In the wavelength range 11002500 nm, the
amount of scattering makes the path length so high that
transmittance through 1 cm thickness of most samples is
negligible. This situation is called diuse reectance
because most of the incident radiation is reected. This
measurement is suitable for thicker samples such as fruits
and wheat power.
2. Applications in food systems
2.1. Meat
Meats are very susceptible to spoilage and are also
expensive as compared to other food types. Hence, there
has been a considerable interest in measuring their composition and quality, in order to improve the eciency of unit
operations applied in meat processing (Hildrum et al.,
2004). From an industrial and marketing perspective, the
major raw materials in the processing of meat are carcasses
of beef and pork. NIR analysis is capable of rapid assessment of fat, water, protein, and other parameters simultaneously (Clark and Short, 1994; Hildrum et al., 1994;
Isaksson et al., 1995; Alomar et al., 2003; Geesink et al.,
2003; Prevolnik et al., 2005; Prieto et al., 2006; Savenije
et al., 2006). However, NIR technique had not been used
for on/in-line detections of meat until 1996.
The rst on-line application of this technique was
reported for determination of fat, moisture, and protein
contents in ground beef (Isaksson et al., 1996) on a conveyor using a diuse NIR instrument set at the outlet of
the meat grinder (Fig. 1), using multiple linear regression
(MLR) as the calibration method. Besides being feasible
for on-line determination of parameters of meat quality,
the amount of sample required was relatively small. Tgersen

H. Huang et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 87 (2008) 303313

et al. (1999) extrapolated this concept to determine fat,

water, and protein content in beef and pork in industrial
scale batches. Although the amount of sample was much
larger than that reported by Isaksson et al. (1996), the prediction errors were similar. Thereafter, with the same
equipment by reectance spectroscopy, Tgersen et al.
(2003) determined fat, water, and protein content in semifrozen raw meat, which is largely used in the manufacturing industry, due to mismatches between supply and
demand of raw meat in the market.
A NIR reectance instrument with a diode array detector was applied for in-line monitoring of the proximal composition of ground beef on a conveyer belt. (Hildrum et al.,
2004). This technique makes it possible to perform measurements over large meat surface areas on each batch
under industrial conditions. Sixty batches of coarsely
ground beef were processed under industry conditions
and monitored continuously. After removing signals originating from the belt itself, the remaining data were used to
form partial least squares (PLS) models for each component in beef at two dierent sizes. The results showed that
the predictions were generally better when using smaller
grinding size. In addition, a forward variable selection
method based on jack-kning was used, and obtained
similar results. A NIR transmission system for on-line measurement of fat in unhomogenized meat has been reported
by Schwarze (1997). The system was used for the continuous analysis of meat products with varying composition
and particle size during mixing process. Samples were automatically extracted, analyzed and fed back into mixer. The
results showed NIR spectroscopy to be suitable for on-line
monitoring fat contents during meat processing.
Modern blending operations use two blending steps to
achieve a target fat content, whereas only one step would
be required if the fat content of the unblended heterogeneous stream of ground beef were determined on-line. With
the purpose of eliminating blending steps and improving
the quality of blended beef, Anderson and Walker
(2003a) applied the Perten DA700 NIR/VIS analysis system for measuring fat content in ground beef in the moving
stream of meat formed by a grinder equipped with a custom forming head. The measurements on 27 kg blocks of
beef achieved high accuracy with SEP (Standard Error of
Prediction) of 1.001.68% for the calibration set and
2.152.28% for the validation set. However, it did not show
how or whether these measurements could eectively eliminate a blending step. Thus, thereafter, a simulation was
used by Anderson and Walker (2003b) to demonstrate
the ecacy of on-line visible/near infrared spectroscopic
measurements of fat content in the streams of ground beef
to achieve a target fat content in a nal blender. Three
styles of control limits (constant limit, tapered limit, and
funnel limit) were tested for the model, which was calibrated by more than 10,000 spectra from 31 blocks of frozen beef. The control limits for these styles achieved the
target fat content with a tolerance of 0.75% fat, 99.7% of
the time.

305

On-line analysis of fatty acids (C14:0, C16:0,

P C16:1,
C17:0, C17:1,
C18:0,
C18:1,
C18:2,
C18:3,
and
polyunP
P
saturated,
monounsaturated and
saturated) in the
intramuscular and subcutaneous fat in Iberian pork loin
has been successfully achieved using NIR spectrometer
equipped with a remote reectance ber-optic probe (Gonzalez-Martn et al., 2003, 2005). In addition to predicting
chemical parameters, visible and NIR spectroscopy was
also used for on-line analysis of tenderness of longissimus
steaks during commercial beef carcass grading (Shackelford et al., 2004).
Interference by signals caused by uneven surface of
moving meat poses a serious problem during on-line monitoring of ground beef composition on a conveyor belt
using a NIR reectance sensor. Thus, no good calibration
models were obtained with the original raw spectra. Westad et al. (2004) developed a soft independent modeling
of class analogies (SIMCA) classication method for yielding pure meat spectra, which was shown to be useful.
NIR spectroscopy could also used to determine sodium
chloride (NaCl) in cured meat. As early as 1984, Begley
et al. (1984) applied the NIR technique to measure the
amount of NaCl in canned cured hams. A high correlation
between salt content determined by chemical analysis and
by NIR spectra at 1806 nm was obtained. Finally, they
concluded that the ability of NIR to measure salt content
was due to a shift in the water spectrum caused by saltinduced changes in the amount of hydrogen bonding.
2.2. Fruits and vegetables
Fruit and vegetables are a unique class of food items in a
sense that their size, colour, shape, and chemical composition vary, even when harvested at the same place and same
time. Hence, sorting them on the basis of their quality is
very important. Use of conventional analytical techniques
is very time-consuming and labour intensive. NIR spectroscopy is an attractive non-destructive technology well-suited
to the measurement of moisture in fruit and vegetables
(Kays, 1999). Determination of quality parameters under
o-line conditions using NIR instrumentation has been
reported previously (Slaughter et al., 1996; Shen et al.,
1998; Hart et al., 1998; Lu, 2001; Terasaki et al., 2001;
Liu and Ying, 2004; Walsh et al., 2004; Gomez et al.,
2006), providing an impetus for the development of on-line
monitoring and grading techniques.
Kawano et al. (1992, 1993) used NIR spectroscopy for
determination of sugar content in intact peaches and mandarins, and reported an automated fruit sorting machine
based on this principle. Since then, on-line NIR has been
widely applied in fruit and vegetable processing. Choi
(1998) developed an on-line machine based on NIR reectance spectroscopy for real time determination of sugar
content at a sorting speed of two fruits per second. A good
result with a low SEP of 0.78 Brix was obtained in Fuji
apples; such errors were acceptable for rapid on-line detection. High-resolution laboratory-based spectrometers are

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H. Huang et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 87 (2008) 303313

commercially available, but are generally expensive and not

feasible for on-line integration in an industrial process.
Greensill and Newman (2001) reported the performance
of three simple wavelength dispersion elements (single equilateral prism, two equilateral prisms in series, and ruled diffraction grating) for the design of a simple, low-cost, and
robust NIR spectrometer for application in automated
fruit grading systems. They found all the designs to perform well; the dual-prism instrument demonstrated the
highest potential for reliable, rapid sorting of the fruit than
the other two types.
He et al. (2001) compared three NIR measuring methods: the on-line reex, the partially shaded light transmission and the fully shaded light transmission. They
detected sugar content, acidity, and internal browning in
oranges and apples by a fully shaded light transmission
detecting device. Satisfactory results were obtained with
R2 of 0.95 for Brix, and 0.85 for acidity. Both the on-line
commercial NIR equipment and hand-held NIR units were
used to measure Brix level of Florida citrus by Miller and
Zude (2002). For the determination, spectral data were
obtained using two light sources mounted on a special
cup, placed against the fruits surface. The on-line tests
were conducted at a rate of 5.5 fruits per second. For calibration, linear regression relationships were developed
between the non-destructive NIR techniques and the labo-

ratory Brix measurements. However, all R2 values were

lower than 0.7. Then, they evaluated a neural network
model with combined inputs of physical and colour attributes and predicted Brix using NIR. Correct classication
accuracy was 90% for 10Brix, and 80% for 11Brix set
point.
Internal browning is a disorder that aects many varieties of commercial apple cultivars including Braeburn,
Sunrise, Fuji, Red Delicious and Golden Delicious
(Elgar et al., 1999; Lau and Lane, 1998; Volz et al., 1998;
Keener et al., 1999). Hence, development of accurate
non-destructive test methods for on-line inspecting of fruits
for internal browning and removing them from consignments is a long-felt necessity. Clark et al. (2003) appraised
the use of NIR transmittance to segregate Braeburn
apples aected by a full range of browning, by applying different analytical techniques to fruit in dierent orientations, and concluded it to be suitable for sorting fruits,
and thereby reduce the incidence of Brownheart in commercial consignments. Thereafter, practical prototype systems were constructed and tested (McGlone et al., 2005).
These systems demonstrated an accurate measurement of
Brownheart in fruits moving at realistic grading speeds.
Two specic on-line transmission systems (a time-delayed
integrating spectrometer (TDIS), and a large aperture spectrometer (LAS) (Fig. 2) were constructed and compared.

Fig. 2. A conceptual view of NIR transmission system. As the fruit passes through a relatively large eld-of-view in the TDIS system (A), a detector
simultaneously accumulates many sequential points over three apples. In contrast, the LAS system (B) takes a simple snapshot, like a camera, over a much
shorter time for a small portion of one fruit (McGlone and Martinsen, 2004).

H. Huang et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 87 (2008) 303313

These two systems were each optimally congured to operate at typical grader speeds (500 mm s 1 or approximately
ve fruit per second), and detect the low levels of light diffusely transmitted through apples in the wavelength range
650950 nm. Finally, they concluded LAS system to give
better results. In addition, these two systems were previously tested by McGlone and Martinsen (2004) for their
ability to measure dry matter (DM) in apples. Both these
gave excellent predictions with standard errors of less than
0.5% at the speed of 500 mm s 1. NIRS technique was used
by Golic and Walsh (2006) to sort stone fruits (peaches,
nectarines, and plums) on the basis of total soluble solids
in an in-line setting. Mixed nectarinepeach calibration
and plum models performed well in predicting of total soluble solids (TSS) in nectarines and peaches, and plums,
respectively. The calibration set samples were scanned at
dierent temperatures (5 and 20 C) over several seasons
to conrm the robustness of these mixed models.
Hahn (2004) explored NIR spectral bandwidth eect on
Rhizopus stolonifer spores detector and its on-line behavior
during classication of red tomatoes. The NIR spectra
were acquired before and after inoculating tomatoes in
the laboratory. Discriminant analysis carried out at 5, 2,
and 1 nm wide spectral bandwidths showed 1 nm bandwidth to possess the highest accuracy (88.92%). When the
same was used for on-line classication on an automatic
conveyor, a 92% detection accuracy was encountered for
a spore count of 6.5  104 sporangiospores ml 1.
Xie et al. (2007b) used Vis/NIR diuse reectance spectroscopy combined with multivariate analysis to dierentiate 70 transgenic tomatoes and 94 of their parents. PCA,
discriminant analysis (DA), and PLSDA were applied to
classify these tomatoes with dierent genes into two
groups. After comparison, PLSDA model with the leaveone-out cross-validation technique after second derivative
pre-treatment gave the most satisfactory calibration
and prediction ability. Thereafter, Vis/NIR diuse transmittance spectroscopy, in combination with dierent
chemometrics was used to distinguish transgenic and
non-transgenic tomatoes (Xie et al., 2007a). PCA, SIMCA,

Fig. 3. Measurement conguration on the bypass of the elevator

(Maertens et al., 2004).

307

discriminant partial least squares (DPLS) regression based

on PCA scores were applied to classify these transgenic and
non-transgenic tomatoes. When using DPLS after pretreatment of second derivative method, the accuracy could
reach 100%, showing Vis/NIR technique to be an eective
method to dierentiate objects with similar properties.
2.3. Grain and grain products
Grains including wheat, rice, and corn are main agricultural products in most countries. Grain quality is an
important parameter not only for harvesting, but also for
shipping (Burns and Ciurczak, 2001). In many countries,
the price of grain is determined by its protein content,
starch content, and/or hardness, often with substantial
price increments between grades. Several studies show
grain quality parameters to be signicantly variable, even
when harvested in the same eld and at the same time
(Reyns et al., 2000; Bramble et al., 2002). NIRS technology
has made it possible to directly measure dierent constituentsin the grain products (Wehling et al., 1996; Delwiche,
1998; Campbell et al., 1999; Kawamura et al., 1999; Ber zdemir, 2006). Furthermore, its ability
ardo et al., 2005; O
to be installed on the harvesting machine itself is advantageous for on-line determination and grading.
Engel et al. (1997) described an approach for inspecting
grain protein on-line by the use of NIR analysis. On-line
measurement of grain quality with respect to moisture
and protein content by a NIR measurement device (Maertens et al., 2004) that was installed in a bypass unit of the
clean grain elevator in a conventional combine harvester
has been possible (Fig. 3). The calibration models between
NIR spectra and quality parameters were developed by
PLS algorithm and validated through cross-validation,
with standard error of cross-validation (SECV) of 0.57%
and 0.31% for protein and moisture content, respectively.
Thereafter, with similar equipment, Montes et al. (2006)
examined the potential of NIR on combine harvest for
determination of dry matter, crude protein, and starch
content in maize grain. NIR spectra were collected over a
range of 9601690 nm with the interval of 6 nm, The
instrumentation was calibrated by using modied partial
least squares (MPLS). In addition, calibration models for
determination of dry mater, starch content, in vitro digestibility by cellulase, and soluble sugars in maize forage
based on NIR measurements taken directly on the chopper
during harvest were developed (Welle et al., 2003). Using a
network of six diode arrays, NIR spectrometers were
implemented successfully for on-line analysis of dry matter
corn grain (Welle et al., 2005). With this method, calibration models were derived from the database of spectra from
all six instruments; this eliminated the need to apply specic standardization algorithms when using dierent NIR
instruments.
In Japan, Kawamura et al. (2003a) developed another
type of automatic rice-quality inspection system using a
NIR instrument and a visible light segregator. In the

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H. Huang et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 87 (2008) 303313

system, the NIR transmission was used to determine moisture and protein content of the samples while the Vis
segregator was used to determine sound whole kernel of
brown rice. This system enabled rough rice transported
to a rice-drying facility to be classied into six qualitative
grades.
De Temmerman et al. (2007) applied NIR spectroscopy
for in-line determination of moisture concentrations in
semolina pasta immediately after the extrusion process.
Reectance spectra between 308 and 1704 nm were
acquired at the extruded die. PLS regression method was
used to develop an adequate prediction model for the inline moisture content. The best cross-validation results
were obtained for non-transformed data. The results
indicated that NIR spectroscopy could be used for process
control in the pasta industry.
Besides qualitative and quantitative chemical analysis,
NIR spectroscopy technique could also be used for
food structure determination. Bruun et al. (2007) applied
NIR spectroscopy for monitoring changes in gluten protein structures and interactions when the gluten power is
modied by increasing water content and heat treatment.
Second-derivative transformation and extended multiplicative spectral signal correction were used as pretreatments of
spectra, in order to improving the band resolution and
removing physical and quantitative spectral variations.
Then PCA and PLS regression method were applied
for making classication and calibration models. The
results showed NIR spectrum to be able to give important
information on structure changes in gluten proteins,
including secondary changes. Thereafter, with the similar
method mentioned above, the same authors applied NIR
spectroscopy for analysis of protein structures and interactions in hydrated gluten, and obtained satisfactory results.
Kays et al. (1996) used NIR spectroscopy for the prediction of total dietary ber in food. Cereal and grain products, including breakfast cereals, ours, bran, crackers,
and samples containing commercial oat and wheat bers,
were selected for analysis. These samples were dry milled,
and scanned with a NIR spectrometer in the bandwidth
range 11002800 nm. PLS regression method was applied
to develop the models. The results showed that NIR satisfactorily predicted the total dietary ber content in a wide
range of cereal products.

not suitable for milk powder and other dairy products

(Rodriguez-Otero et al., 1997). With developments in computer programming and chemometrics, NIR analysis has
been widely used in this area. Furthermore, when coupled
with ber-optics, it can be successfully used for on-line control in the production line.
Kawamura et al. (2003b) constructed a NIR spectroscopic sensing system for on-line predicting of three major
milk constituents (fat, protein, and lactose), somatic cell
count, and milk urea nitrogen in uid milk. This system
consisted of an NIR instrument, a milk ow meter and a
milk sampler (Fig. 4), taking the diusion transmittance
spectra in the range of 6001050 nm at 1 nm intervals every
10 s during milking. This system can be used for real-time
monitoring of quality parameters during milking with sufcient precision and accuracy. With the same equipments,
a further study (Kawasaki et al., 2005) to improve the
robustness of calibration models for on-line measurement
of milk quality items using NIR spectrum data were conducted from two dairy herds. It was found that when calibration models developed from data acquired from one
herd were used for validation of data from the same herd,
the milk quality items could be measured with high levels
of accuracy. However, when the calibration models were
used for validation of data obtained from the other herd,
the accuracy in measurements of all milk analytes except
fat was low. Thus, it is very important to use a combined
variable sample to develop a robust calibration model. A
NIR microspectrometer system for on-line monitoring of
fat during milk processing has also been developed (Brennan et al., 2003). This system used Microsystems optical
components fabricated using the LIGA technique. These
spectrometers have been widely used for color and quality
analysis in diamonds, but seldom used for on-line processing detection. NIR spectra were obtained in the range of
8001100 nm. Evaluation of a number of regression models
showed Ridge regression techniques to give best results.
Specially designed ber-optics for on-line NIR measure-

2.4. Dairy products

Traditional reference analytical procedures for moisture, fat, protein, and lactose in dairy products are time
consuming, expensive, need trained manpower, and fail
to comply with requests in modern industry. In order to
solve this problem, a lot of instrumental analytical techniques have been developed. From 1980s, middle-infrared
spectroscopy technique permitting detection without any
previous treatments, and in the absence of chemical regents
has indeed revolutionized the dairy laboratories (Kennedy
et al., 1985; Luinge et al., 1993). However, this technique is

Fig. 4. An on-line NIR spectroscopic sensing system (Kawamura et al.,

2003).

H. Huang et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 87 (2008) 303313

ment of 222 rumen uid in milking cows (Turza et al.,

2002) has been developed. This system could improve the
quality of milk, since components in cows rumen can be
considered as precursors for milk production in milking
cows.
NIR analysis has also been used in cheese making.
Adamopoulos et al. (2001) applied NIR spectroscopic technique for process control of traditional feta cheese during
production. NIR spectra were obtained at wavelengths of
1940, 2180, and 2310 nm relating to moisture, protein,
and fat, respectively. The calibration models were developed by a suitable computer program and validated using
an independent set of analyzed samples. Thereafter, Mertens et al. (2002) proposed a statistical model based on
NIR for real-time prediction of cutting time in cheese manufacture, since the cutting point is very important for the
process of curd forms (Laporte et al., 1998).
In addition, NIR spectrometry combined with electronic
nose (EN) data have been used for on-line monitoring of
yogurt and lmjolk (a Swedish yogurt-like sour milk)
fermentations under industrial conditions (Navratil et al.,
2004).
2.5. Oils
Oils are very important food groups. Conventional analytical methods for measuring the oxidation and adulteration of oil are time consuming, destructive, expensive,
require chemical reagents, and are laborious. NIR spectroscopy technique has many applications in this area.
Yildiz et al. (2001) applied NIR spectroscopy for monitoring oxidation levels in soybean oils. Peroxide value
(PV), conjugated diene value (CD), and anisidine value
(AV) in soybean oils were quantitatively determined. For
the determination, PLS regression and forward stepwise
multiple linear regression (FSMLR) combined with rst
derivative and second derivative methods were used to
develop models. They concluded that wavelengths in the
11002200 nm regions were most useful for prediction,
and PLS regression using rst derivative spectra gave the
best results for PV. However, as opposed to PV and CD,
measurement of AV by NIR was not as well as expected.
Thereafter, they (Yildiz et al., 2002) determined PV in corn
and soybean oils by NIR spectroscopy technique. When
the calibration models developed by PLS regression of rst
derivative spectra were used to predict validation sets containing equal numbers of corn and soybean oil samples,
good results were obtained. Later, NIR spectroscopy was
used for measuring degradation products in frying oils,
including total polar materials (TPMs), and free fatty acid
(FFAs), which have a negative eect on the avor and
nutritional value of fried products (Ng et al., 2007). PLS
and FSMLR were used to develop models. The authors
found that when using a wavelength at 7001100 nm,
PLS models gave better results than FSMLR models.
Moreover, the derivative treatments had limited utility,
especially in the longer wavelength regions (1100

309

2500 nm). This method could be adapted to an automated,

continuous-ow sampling system.
Visible and NIR spectroscopy was used for detecting
and quantifying sunower oil adulteration in extra virgin
oils (Downey et al., 2002). One-hundred and thirty-eight
oil samples were analyzed by Vis/NIR transectance
spectroscopy. A number of mathematical methods were
investigated to detect and qualify the sunower oil adulteration, including hierarchical cluster analysis, SIMCA, and
PLS. The accuracy of these mathematical models was compared. SIMCA could successfully discriminate between
authentic extra virgin olive and the same oils adulterated
with sunower oil at levels as low as 1% (w/w). Once adulteration was detected, PLS was used to quantitatively
analyze the sunower contents. The results showed that
this level of accuracy was acceptable for industrial use.
Vis/NIR transmittance spectroscopy was used by Marquez
(2003) to determine the total levels of chlorophyll and
carotenoid in virgin oil. An initial smoothing technique
combined with rst derivative treatment was used to correct the signal. PLS regression was used to develop calibration models, which were used to monitor on-line levels of
these compounds during virgin olive oil processing in olive
oil mills. Satisfactory results were obtained. Thereafter,
Marquez et al. (2005) applied NIR transmittance spectroscopy for on-line detection of acid value, bitter taste (k225),
and fatty acid compositions in virgin olive oils. NIR spectra were obtained in the wavelength range of 7502500 nm.
A 1 mm optical path length ow cell with a sample volume
of 120 ll was used. PLS regression was used to develop
models for on-line prediction of all these characteristics.
2.6. Fish and sh products
Uddin et al. (2002) applied NIR spectroscopy to assess
the end-point temperature (EPT) of heated sh and shellsh meats. In this research, blue marlin, skipjack, red sea
bream, kuruma prawn and scallop meats were heat-treated
at dierent temperatures. NIR spectra were measured at
the wavelength range of 11002500 nm at 2 nm intervals.
For calibration, stepwise multiple linear regression was
used to develop models. The inference of the water content
in the sh meats on the performance was eliminated by
selecting appropriate wavelength. A promising linear relationship between the EPT and NIR-predicted temperatures
was obtained, revealing the ability of NIR spectroscopy to
monitor EPT during the sh and shellsh heating. Thereafter, NIR spectroscopy was used to verify EPT of kamaboko gel (Uddin et al., 2005). PLS and MLR were used
to develop model which was tested with validation set.
The result showed that NIR-predicted EPT and actual
heating temperatures revealed a linear relationship. The
models developed by PLS and MLR had similar performance for predicting EPT of kamaboko gel when using
appropriate wavelength range.
A muli-spectral imaging NIR transectance system was
developed for on-line determination of moisture content in

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H. Huang et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 87 (2008) 303313

dried salted coash (bacalao) (Wold et al., 2006). The combination of NIR transectance measurement with spectral
imaging allows rather deep penetrating optical sampling
and large exibility in spatial sampling patterns and calibration approaches. In addition, the technique of reectance,
contact transectance and non-contact trandectance were
compared with a small set of dried salted cod samples.
The result showed the last two were superior to reectance
measurements.
2.7. Beverages
NIR technique has been used for on-line determination
of constituents in alcoholic beverages such as beer, wine,
and distilled spirits; nonalcoholic beverages such as fruit
juices, teas, and soft drinks; and other products such as
infant and adult nutritional formulas. Some of the applications are described below.
Recently, Zeaiter et al. (2006) applied Vis/NIR spectroscopy to the study of on-line monitoring the alcohol content
during alcoholic wine fermentation. For the determination,
samples were scanned in transmission mode over the range
of 2002500 nm at 2 nm intervals using a NIR spectrometer.
For calibration, PLS regression method was used to develop
the models. In order to correct prediction model used in
spectroscopy-based process monitoring, a new method
called dynamic orthogonal projection (DOP) was applied.
The results showed this method to improve the robustness
of the calibration model. NIR spectroscopy combined with
multivariate analysis (PCA, DPLS, and linear discriminant
analysis (LDA)) has been used for in-line monitoring the
progress of red wine fermentation in a pilot scale (Cozzolino
et al., 2006). Samples (n = 652) were collected at dierent
times from several pilot scale fermentations, and scanned
in transmission mode with the spectra range between 400
and 2500 nm. They used PCA to demonstrate consistent
progressive spectral changes that occur through the time
course of the fermentation. Linear LDA showed that regardless of variety or vintage, samples belonging to a particular
time point in fermentation could be correctly classied.
In addition, continuous processing of apple, grape, pear,
applecherry and applebanana juices for soluble solids
and total solids/total moisture can also be assessed (Singh
et al., 1996). Three in-line sensors: NIR, guided microwave
and Maselli refractometer were compared for their in-line
performance of testing. The result showed NIR and guided
microwave to be good for assessing the soluble and total
solids, and Maselli refractometer to be excellent for predicting soluble solids under dierent operating conditions.
Leon et al. (2005) applied NIR transectance spectroscopy
for detection of adulteration of apple juice samples. Two
types of adulterants were assessed: a high fructose corn
syrup (HFCS) and a sugar solution. DPLS regression
method was used. The results showed that the accuracy
of detection of authentic apple juice and adulterated apple
juice were 86100% and 91100%, respectively, depending
on the adulterant type and level of adulteration.

2.8. Others
On-line application using NIR methods on other kinds
of food are also known. Although these foods are not
among the ve categories mentioned above, the methodology and interpretation there from are very important and
should not be ignored. NIR methods have been used for
on-line viscosity and conductivity measurements in frozen
model sorbet in a continuous freezer/extrusion process
(Bolliger et al., 1998). Monitoring of colour and composition in an extruder during the extrusion of yellow corn
our (Apruzzese et al., 2000), and on-line classication of
poultry carcass quality (Chen et al., 2003) by Vis/NIR
spectrophotometer system has been known. In baking area,
Sinelli et al. (2004) used FT-NIR spectrometer with an
optic probe for monitoring the kinetics of dough proong
and bread staling.
2.9. Constraints of NIR techniques in food analysis
Although the operating cost of NIRS is low, the instrument itself is highly priced; this limits its practical application. Eorts by researchers and industrial organizations to
develop simple and low-cost instruments could revolutionize the use of NIR techniques for on/in-line quality monitoring of foods.
Some calibration models based on NIR spectroscopy,
especially for on-line application, are not reliable and stable enough when used practically. Hence, it is imperative
for researchers to choose proper chemometrics to build
robust models. In some cases, conventional methods may
not oer a satisfactory solution to a given problem due
to complexity of the data. This also necessitates the development of new chemometric methods so as to further
improve the reliability and accuracy of the calibration
models.
In addition, there are other limitations of NIR spectroscopy technique. The technique is not sensitive to the
mineral content, since there is no absorbtion of minerals
in the NIR spectrum region. An alternative way to solve
this problem eciently is to combine dierent detection
techniques with NIR spectroscopy, such as X-ray uorescence spectroscopy, UV light, and electronic nose technique. Some papers describing the use of a combination
of techniques using dierent detection methods have been
published in recent years (Cimander et al., 2002; Navratil
et al., 2004), although more eorts should be made to solve
this issue.
2.10. Conclusions and future outlook
On/in line applications of NIR spectroscopy in food
science are reviewed in meats, fruit and vegetables, grain,
and grain products, milk and dairy products, and beverages and other areas. At present, NIR technique is widely
accepted as one of the most promising on/in-line process
control techniques NIR is obviously a nondestructive,

H. Huang et al. / Journal of Food Engineering 87 (2008) 303313

reliable and accurate technique for monitoring chemical

and physical parameters during food processing. Furthermore, it is worth mentioning that the appearance of beroptic probes signicantly improves the ability of NIR
techniques to monitor and control processes especially
using remote on/in line detection.
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge the nancial support provided by National Natural Science Foundation
of China (No. 30671197) and National Key Technology
R&D Program (No. 2006BAD11A12).
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