TRAINING REPORT

On

NETWORKING
Submitted in partial fulfillment of requirement for the
award of the degree of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
in
ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

Submitted By:

AJIT SINGH
Roll. No. 3211163
Submitted to:
Er. Kaushal Kishore

ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

GANPATI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & MANAGEMENT, BILASPUR.
(Affiliated to Kurushetra University, Kurushetra)
2013-2014

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to thank the Director Mr. A.P. Singh Ganpati institute Of Technology &
Management for providing this opportunity to carry out the 45 days industrial training
from Advance computer links.Dehradun.
The constant guidance and encouragement recived from Mr. Kaushal Kishor H.O.D
ECE DEPTT. has been of great help in carrying out the project work and is
acknowledged with reverential thanks
I would like to thank the project coordinators for providing all the material possible and
encouraging throughout the course. it is great pleasure for me to acknowledge the
assistance and contributes for his prompt and timely help in the official clearnces and
valuable suggestions during the devolvement of this training.

By:Ajit Singh

LIST OF FIGURES
S No.

List table

Page no

Fig 2.1

Basic Network Design

Fig 2.2

Networking Basics

10

Fig 2.3

Basic LAN

12

Fig 2.4

Basic MAN

13

Fig 2.5

Basic WAN

13

Fig 2.6

Connections Via.Hubs

15

Fig 2.7

Hubs

15

Fig 2.8

Switches

17

Fig 2.9

OSI Reference Model

18

Fig 2.10

Bus Topology

22

Fig 2.11

Star Topology

23

Fig 2.12

Ring Topology

Fig 2.13

Mesh Topology

24

Fig 2.14

Hybrid Bus Star Topology

25

Fig 2.15

Subnet Diagram

27

Fig 2.16

Network Interface Card (NIC)

32

Fig 2.17

Inserting NIC

32

Fig 3.1

CISCO Packet Data Tracer 5.3.2

36

23

LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1

Supernetting

29

Table 2.2

Supernetting Addressed

33

COMPANY PROFILE
The Advance computer links was established since 1998. It is a private limited firm .
Its basic operations are to deal with the hardware and software parts of computer and
Also has its roots established in networking.
This private company firm is runed by Mr. Arvind kumar Sharma.,the company also do
the repairing work of computers.
The company deals with the DRDO in Dehradun .It also look after the problems in the
Workstation of DRDO and provide immediate solution to the problem. Mainly
problems
are related to networking.

ii

iii

iv

CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
CERTIFICATE
CHAPTER-1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Company Profile

4-6

CHAPTER-2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1

Networking

2.1.1

LAN

2.1.2

MAN

2.1.3

WAN

2.2

Objectives of Networking

2.2.1

Data Sharing

2.2.2

Resource Sharing

2.3

Networking Basics

2.3.1

Network

2.3.2

Node

10

2.3.3

Segment

10

2.3.4

Backbone

10

2.3.5

Topology

11

2.3.6

LAN

11

2.3.7

Network Interface Card (NIC)

11

2.3.8

Media Access Control (MAC) Address

11

2.3.9

Unicast

11

2.3.10

Multicast

11

2.3.11

Broadcast

11
v

2.4

Types of Networking

2.4.1

Local Area Network

12

2.4.2

MAN

12-13

2.4.3

WAN

13-14

2.5

Hardware Used in Networking

2.5.1

Hubs

14

2.5.1.1

Need of Hubs

14

2.5.1.2

Basic Specification

16

2.5.1.3

Passive Hubs

16

2.5.1.4

Active Hubs

16

2.5.2

Routers

16-17

2.5.3

Switches

17

2.6

OSI Model

2.6.1

Layers of OSI Model

19

2.6.1.1

Layer 1-Physical

19

2.6.1.2

Layer 2-Datalink

19

2.6.1.3

Layer 3-Network

19

2.6.1.4

Layer 4-Transport

19

2.6.1.5

Layer 5-Session

20

2.6.1.6

Layer 6-Presentation

20

2.6.1.7

Layer 7-Application

20-21

2.7

Requirement for Networking

2.7.1

Software Includes

21

2.7.2

Hardware Includes

21-22

2.8

Network Topologies

2.8.1

Physical Topologies

22-25

2.9

Introduction to TCP/IP

25-26

vi

2.10

Addresses

2.10.1

Subnets

2.11

IP Addressing

2.11.1

Subnet Mask

29

2.11.2

Super netting

29

2.11.3

Domain Name System

30

2.11.4

MAC Address

30

2.11.5

What is a MAC Address?

30

2.14.6

MAC vs. IP Addressing

31

2.12

Basic Router Introduction

31

2.13

Network Interface Card (NIC)

2.13.1

Inserting NIC

32-33

2.13.2

Supernetting

33

2.14

How to prepare a Network

2.14.1

Providing Service for Network

CHAPTER-3
3.1

26-27

PROJECT WORK

CISCO packet tracer

CHAPTER-4

34

35-39

CONCLUSION

vii

40

1.1

COMPANY PROFILE

INTRODUCTION TO COMPANY
Jetking Infotrain Ltd. is an organization came into establishment in 1947. Jetking
is Indias number one Computer Hardware and Networking Institute.
Birth and Evolution
It took a lot of failure before mankind tasted technological success. Jetking evolved in
tune with the changing face of technology. During 55 years in the field of electronic
technology. Jetking successfully trained thousands of students to overcome failure for
high paying careers.
1947

Birth

1962

Pioneered Do-It-Yourself Kits in India

1972

Introduced Asia- 72, Fairchild and Wildcat transistors

1986

Became a Public Limited Company and also introduced

entertainment electronics product-T.V sets, Two-in-ones and
amplifiers.

1990

Launched Jetking School of Electronics Technology

1993

Network of Jetking training centers spread all over India

1994

Opening of Jetking, Chandigarh

1995

Tie-up with Heath kit Educational System (U.S.A.)

1996

Introduced advanced courses on Pentium, Notebooks, Modems,

Email/Internet, LAN 4.X

1997

Novell Education Academic Partner

1998

Representative for International Correspondence School (ICS)

1999

Added cyber technology to the curriculum

viii

2008

ISO 9001-2000 company and Authorized Microsoft online testing

Centre (VUE) for MS, CISCO, MCSA, MCSE, CCNA, A+ etc.

Mr. Suresh G. Bharwani is the CHAIRMAN and MANAGING Director of Jetking

Infotrain Ltd. Indias leading Computer Hardware and Networking Institute. With the
vision to promote and the conviction to deliver the widespread propagation of computer
hardware and networking education across the nation, Mr. Bharwani was the first to set
up a training institute offering innovative courses in computer hardware in 1990.
Jetkings core competency lies in providing complete training and developing hardware
engineers and professionals with sound technical knowledge. It focuses on the overall
development of personality of an individual with emphasis on personality development,
presentation and communication skills, leadership skills etc.

Jetking has established more than 125 operational centers and 250 faculties across the
country and has trained over 3, 50,000 students who have move onto the crave successfull career. With its alumni placed in the best of organizations in India and some abroad,
Jetkings vocational training and placement promises has helped build the career
prospects of many young boys and girls.

The company has been awarded the ISO 9000:2000 certification in 2008.The company
has been awarded the Maharashtra IT Award for a key role in manpower activities in
year 2006-07,it was felicitated with Franchise Award as Best Franchisor for the year
2007-08.Also,ranked 4th in the list of 26th hot franchises as per outlook money magazine.

Mr. Suresh Bharwani was awarded with Pikes Peak Award by the Bob Pike
Group USA for effective implementing smart lab plus for making technical training fun,
faster and easier for non- technical person.

ix

Across all the sectors, industries are upgrading their information technology system.
Industries ranging from plastics, chemicals, textiles and power to the automotive and
telecom sector are now IT savy.
The courses in Jetking comprises lecture and theory session, with a great focus on active
participation through smart lab plus ,that focuses on audio visual and learning with
hands-on training and equips students with an in depth domain knowledge that is
technical; it also equips students with soft skills ,to face the multi-faceted challenges of
corporate world.
PLACEMENT: Jetking is the first and only institute that promises the 100% jobs
guarantee to its students. The companies that have recruited Jetking students include:
Samsung, Sun Micro system, IBM, Canon, Siemens, reliance, TATA, Compaq HP invent,
IT-T solutions, Videsh Sanchar Nigam Limited, D-Link, Novell, Dell, Wipro, LG, ICIC
InfoTech and several other MNCs.
Jetking, Indias leading hardware and networking training institute has trained over 3,
00,000 students from its 125 centers spread across India. With its alumni placed in the
best of organizations in India and some abroad, Jetking vocational training and placement
promises has helped build the career prospects of many young boys and girls. Jetking has
partnered with some of the worlds most renowned names in networking to provide you
with cutting edge courses and technologies. With academic partnerships with Microsoft,
Comp TIA, LINUX, NOVELL, and person VUE.
Jetking, Chandigarh is a division of Hi-Tech point. Hi-Tech point is an ISO 9001-2000 IT
Company. It was established in year 1993 and run by a company of IT professionals.
Jetking, Chandigarh branch is considered to be the best Centre among all centers. It has
bagged number 1 center award consecutively for last 7 years. Here training on various
fields is going on like Basic Electronic, Hardware, Networking, JCHNP Analog and
Digital electronics and Hardware, RHCE, RHCSS, MNA, MCSE (Microsoft System
Engineers), MCITP, MNA, CCNA (CISCO Certified Network Associate), CCNP.
x

2.1 NETWORKING
Computer networking is the scientific and engineering discipline concerned with
communication between computer systems. Such networks involve at least two devices
capable of being networked with at least one usually being a computer. The devices can
be separated by a few meters (e.g. via Bluetooth) or thousands of kilometers (e.g. via the
Interne). Computer networking is sometimes

considered a sub-discipline of

telecommunication. Networking is an interconnection of computers and peripheral

devices with carriers and data communication devices for the purpose of exchanging data
information and saving the resources. Computers in the network may be connected within
a building, city and nation or worldwide.

2.1.1 LAN-:LAN stands for Local Area Network. These types of networks are established within a
building or campus or cover a distance of less than 10 km. It was developed in 1970. Its
a high speed n/w.

2.1.2 MAN-:MAN stands for Metropolitan Area Network. This network is established within a city in
different buildings i.e. data can be shared by two or more buildings within a city up to a
distance of 150 km. It was developed in 1980.

2.1.3 WAN-:WAN means Wide Area Network. In this network computers can be connected within a
country or globally. It is developed in 1960. Generally covers distance of more than 150
km. It can further be classified as Global Network or Enterprise Network.

11

2.2 OBJECTIVE OF NETWORKING

New networks are popping up daily in developed countries but also in the developing
nations. The Eastern European countries were technologically starved under Soviet
control, and purchasing advanced technology, taking a sizable leap in the upgrade path. A
global linking is taking place, and thousands more join in the benefits of networking
daily.

2.2.1 Data Sharing:Sharing data today is easier due to networking and become better than the proliferation of
electronic mail. E-mail has become one of the leading motivators for companies. As a
means of sharing important information, E-mail is among organizations from every
industry imaginable. A large number of people have become used to seeing a letter
waiting in their electronic mailboxes. The letter itself may contain notes about a friendly
after-work game of golf, or last year's fiscal report. The ability to effortlessly and quickly
move data from one person to the next is an option too good to pass up for many
organizations.
Shared files may exist in one location with multiple people accessing them or updating
parts of them. Database applications are found in every computerized organization.
Networks offer the capabilities of multi-user access. More database applications
incorporate record locking; a means by which a person updating a record has exclusive
use of the record while others who attempt to access it cannot do so.
Not only data files, but also executable files may be shared. When a user invokes an
executable file on a network server, a copy of it is transmitted over the network into the
memory of the local user's workstation.

12

2.2.2 Resource Sharing

The benefits of modern networking are the ability to share peripherals. Few companies
have the resources to place a printer on every user's desk. Networks offer a logical and
cost-effective solution. Since, the introduction of several users could cause conflict at the
printer; spooling is utilized so that print jobs can be arranged in an orderly manner.
NetWare provides such services in the form of print queues and print servers.
LAN topologies can be described using either a physical or a logical perspective. A
physical topology describes the geometric arrangement of components that comprise the
LAN. It is a theoretical construct that graphically conveys the shape and structure of the
LAN.A logical topology describes the possible connections between pairs of networked
endpoints that can communicate. This is useful in describing which endpoints can
communicate with which other endpoints, and whether those pairs capable of
communicating have a direct physical connection to each other.

2.3 Network
A Network is a group of two or more computers connected together. This connection is
done physically using a wired or wireless system.

These computers are able to

communicate, exchange information and use software that observes the same set of
protocols. Networks can also be characterized in terms of their size. The size is a
measurement of the spatial distance that the network covers. Networks can interconnect
with other Networks and contain many levels of sub Networks.
Fig 2.1: Basic network design

2.3 Networking Basics

13

Here are some of the fundamental parts of a network:

Fig 2.2 Networking Basics

2.3.1 Network
A network is a group of computers connected together in a way that allows information to
be exchanged between the computers.

2.3.2 Node
A node is anything that is connected to the network. While a node is typically a
computer, it can also be something like a printer or CD-ROM tower.

2.3.3 Segment
A segment is any portion of a network that is separated, by a switch, bridge or router,
from other parts of the network.

2.3.4 Backbone The backbone is the main cabling of a network that all of the
segments connect to. Typically, the backbone is capable of carrying more information
than the individual segments.

2.3.5 Topology Topology is the way that each node is physically connected to the
network (more on this in the next section).
14

2.3.6 Local Area Network (LAN) A LAN is a network of computers that are in
the same general physical location, usually within a building or a campus. If the
computers are far apart (such as across town or in different cities), then a Wide Area
Network (WAN) is typically used.

2.3.7 Network Interface Card (NIC) Every computer (and most other devices)
is connected to a network through an NIC. In most desktop computers, this is an Ethernet
card (normally 10 or 100 Mbps) that is plugged into a slot on the computer's
motherboard.

2.3.8 Media Access Control (MAC) address This is the physical address of
any device -- such as the NIC in a computer -- on the network. The MAC address, which
is made up of two equal parts, is 6 bytes long. The first 3 bytes identify the company that
made the NIC. The second 3 bytes are the serial number of the NIC itself.

2.3.9 Unicast A unicast is a transmission from one node addressed specifically to

another node.

2.3.10 Multicast In a multicast, a node sends a packet addressed to a special group

address. Devices that are interested in this group register to receive packets addressed to
the group. An example might be a Cisco router sending out an update to all of the other
Cisco routers.

2.3.11 Broadcast In a broadcast, a node sends out a packet that is intended for
transmission to all other nodes on the network.

2.4 Types of Networking:

2.4.1 Local Area Network: -

15

A Local Area Network (LAN) is a network that is confined to small area, such as school,
or building. LAN computers are more than a mile apart. In a LAN, one computer is
design as the file server. It stores the software that controls the network and that can be
shared by the computers attached to the network. Computers connected to the file server
are called workstations. The workstations can be less powerful than the file server. On
LAN cables are used to connect the network interface cards in each computer.

Figure 2.3: The basic LAN

2.4.2. Metropolitan Area Network: A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) covers large geographic areas, such as cities or
school districts. By interconnecting smaller networks within a large geographic area,
information is easily disseminated throughout the network. Local libraries and
government agencies often use a MAN to connect to citizens and private industries. The
example of a MAN is the MIND Network located in Pasco County, Florida. It connects
all of Pasco's media centers to a centralized mainframe at the district office.
Range

1Km - 10Km

Topology

Bus

Cable

Twisted pair/Fibber optics

16

FIG 2.4 The basic MAN

2.4.3. Wide Area Network: Wide Area Networks (WAN) connect geographic areas, such as Florida, the United
States, or the world. Satellite uplinks may be used to connect this type of network.

Figure 2.5 The basic WAN

Using a WAN, schools in Florida can communicate with place like Tokyo in a matter of
minutes.

It uses multipliers to connect local and metropolitan networks to global

17

communications networks like the Internet. A WAN will not appear to be much different
than a LAN or a MAN.
Range

No area specified

Topology

Mix

Cable

Fibber optics/Wireless

Speed

32/512 Kbps

2.5 HARDWARE USED IN NETWORKING

2.5.1 Hub
A hub is a center of activity. A hub, or concentrator, is a common wiring point for
network that is around a star topology. Arpanet, 10base-T, and 10base-F, as well as many
other proprietary network topologies the use of hubs to connect different cable runs and
to distribute data across the various segments of a network. Hubs act as a signal splitter.
They take all of the signals they receive in through one port and redistribute it out
through all ports. Some hubs regenerate weak signals before re-transmitting them. Other
hubs retime the signal to provide true synchronous data communication between all ports.
Hubs with multiple 10base-F connectors use mirrors to split the beam of light among the
ports. The data being sent from the first system in the chain must be handled by each
system between the originating and destination systems.

18

Fig 2.6 Connections via Hub.

2.5.1.1 Need of Hub

For star topology we need a hub. If we are building a 10base-T network and we have only
two machines, then we can connect them without using a hub. We have a special jumper
cable to match the transmitter leads of one system with the receiver leads of the other
system and vice-versa. Now these kinds of cables becoming common. It is also important
to point out that the parts required to assemble them are relatively inexpensive. The
physical diagram of Hub is given below.

Figure 2.7 Hub

2.5.1.2 Basic Specifications

Hubs have basic features that are determined by the type of cabling that run to the hub. A
hub is network device, which perform in the standard parameters of the particular type of
network to which the hub is connected. Despite this hubs provide additional services to a
network than simply an interface, they must still follow the restrictions placed on the
medium by the IEEE.

2.5.1.3 Passive Hubs

Passive hubs do not do very much to enhance the performance of your LAN, nor do they
do anything to assist you in troubleshooting faulty hardware or finding performance

19

bottlenecks. They simply take all of the packets they receive on a single port and
rebroadcast them across all ports.
Passive hubs commonly have one 10base-2 port in addition to the RJ-45 connectors that
connect each LAN device. 10base-5 is 10Mbps Ethernet that is run over thick-coax. This
10base-2 connector can be used as your network backbone

2.5.1.4 Active Hubs

Active hubs do something other than the rebroadcast data. They have all of the features of
passive hubs, with the added bonus of watching the data being sent out. Active hubs take
a larger role in Ethernet communications by implementing a technology called store &
forward where the hubs look at the data they are transmitting before sending it.

2.5.2 Routers
Routers are networking devices that forward data packets between networks using
headers and forwarding tables to determine the best path to forward the packets. Routers
work at the network layer of the TCP/IP model or layer 3 of the OSI model. Routers also
provide interconnectivity between like and unlike media (RFC1812). They use
preconfigured static routes, status of their hardware interfaces, and routing protocols to
select the best route between any two subnets. A router is connected to at least two
networks, commonly two LANs or WANs or a LAN and its ISP's network. Some DSL
and cable modems, for home (and even office) use, have been integrated with routers to
allow multiple home/office computers to access the Internet through the same connection.
Routers to allow for IEEE 802.11b/g wireless enabled devices to connect to the network
without the need for cabled connection

2.5.3 Switches
In the late 1990s the rapid pace at which the underlying technologies consistently manage
to evolve. In other industries, core technologies experience revolutionary growth every 5
to 15 years (or more), but even the most conservative projections show the underpinnings
20

of the information technology industry growing by leaps and bounds every 18 months,
sometimes even more frequently! Most recently, companies have become locked in a
number of heated battles over which vendors will provide the hardware and software that
will lead the industry into the twenty-first century.

Fig 2.8 Switches

2.6 OSI MODEL

The OSI model is the very heart of networking with every layer performing a specific
task in order to facilitate data communications. In the world of networking the first four
layers are the focus. They define the following:

What type and speed of LAN and WAN media to be implemented

How data is sent across the media

What type of addressing schemes will be used?

How data reliably sent across the network and how flow control will be done?

What type of routing protocol will be implemented?

21

Fig 2.9 OSI Reference Model

2.6.1 Layers of OSI model

2.6.1.1 Layer 1 - Physical
The Physical layer defines the electrical, mechanical, and all physical hardware means of
sending and receiving data itself. It includes cables, cards, and all physical aspects. It
conveys the bit stream through the network at the electrical and mechanical level. The
physical layer specifications also define characteristics, such as voltage levels, timing of
impulses, physical data rates, max transmission distance, and physical connectors.
Physical layer implementations can be categorized as either WAN or LAN specifications.

22

2.6.1.2 Layer 2 - Data Link

The data link layer defines the format of data, and provides its reliable transit across the
physical network link. At this layer, bits are encoded/decoded into data packets (with
protocol-specific headers, including checksums, source/destination addresses, etc.). The
layer facilitates transmission protocol management, flow control, frame synchronization,
and handles any errors in the physical layer. It contains two sub layers - MAC (Media
Access Control), and LLC (Logical Link Control).

2.6.1.3 Layer 3 Network

The Network layer provides network addressing (which differs from the data link layer
MAC address). It also facilitates switching, routing, error handling, congestion control,
and packet sequencing. It allows for defining the logical network layout, and virtual
logical paths for transmitting data between network nodes. The Internetwork Protocol
(IP) operates at this layer. IP defines network addresses in a way that route selection can
be determined systematically by comparing the source network address with the
destination address, and applying the subnet mask.

2.6.1.5 Layer 5 Session

The Session layer generally deals with session and connection coordination. It
establishes, manages and terminates communications sessions. Sessions consist of service
requests and responses that occur between applications in different network devices.
Session protocol implementations include RPC (Remote Procedure Call), ZIP (Zone
Information Protocol), AppleTalk, SCP (Session Control Protocol).

2.6.1.6 Layer 6 - Presentation

23

The Presentation layer deals with conversion and coding of data from application to
network format. It ensures the application layer data can be readable by other systems'
application layer. This layer formats and encrypts data, providing compatibility between
systems. It is sometimes called the "syntax layer".

2.6.1.7 Layer 7 - Application

The Application layer supports and interacts directly with software applications. Its
functions include identifying communication partners, determining resource availability
and synchronizing communication. Some examples of application layer implementations
include FTP (File Transfer Protocol), Telnet, SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol).
If System A has data from software application to send to System B, the data is passed to
the application layer. The application layer in System a then communicates any control
information required by the application layer in System B by preparing a header to the
data. The resulting information unit (a header and the data) is passed to the presentation
layer, which prepares its own header containing control information intended for the
presentation layer in System B. The information unit grows in size as each layer prepares
its own header (and, in some cases, a trailer) that contains control information to be used
by its peer layer in System B. At the physical layer, the entire information unit is placed
onto the network medium.

The physical layer in System B receives the information unit and passes it to the data link
layer. The data link layer in System B then reads the control information contained in the
header prepared by the data link layer in System A. The header is then removed, and the
remainder of the information unit is passed to the network layer. Each layer performs the
same actions: The layer reads the header from its peer layer, strips it off, and passes the
remaining information unit to the next highest layer. After the application layer performs.

24

2.7 Requirements for Networking

The requirement components are divided into two basic categories: 1. Software component.
2. Hardware component.

2.7.1 Software includes: Network operating System (Client/Server)

Workstation Shell
Communication Protocols.
NIC drivers.

2.7.2 Hardware includes: Server

Workstation
Shared Peripherals
Connection hardware (NIC)
Connecting Media (Cable Plant etc.)

2.8 NETWORK TOPOLOGIES

A topology is a way of laying out the network.
Physical topologies describe how the cables are run in the network.

2.8.1 Physical Topologies

a) Bus Topology

25

In the bus topology, the network nodes (computers, printers, and other devices connected
together to share information) are connected to a common backbone cable.

Fig 2.10 Bus Topologies

i. Data is sent to all computers on the trunk. Each computer examines every packet on the
wire to determine who the packet is for and accepts only messages addressed to them.
ii. Good for a temporary, small (fewer than 10 people) network.
iii. Performance degrades as more computers are added to the bus.
iv. Bus is a passive topology.
b) Star Topology
26

i. The star topology is a network configured with a central hub and individual cable
segments connected to the hub, resembling the shape of a star.
ii. A hub is a central device used in the star topology that joins single cable segments or
individual LANs into one network.

Fig 2.11 Star Topology.

.c) Ring Topology
A ring topology is a network in the shape of a ring or circle, with nodes connected around
the ring.

Fig 2.12 Ring topology.

d) Mesh Environment
1. Every device interconnected
2. Most expensive
3. Most Fault tolerant
4. Cable fault tolerant
5. Device fault tolerant
6. The Internet is Mesh Topology

27

Fig 2.13 Mesh Topology

e) Hybrid (Bus-Star)

A combination of any two or more network topologies. Note 1: Instances can occur
where two basic network topologies, when connected together, can still retain the basic
network character, and therefore not be a hybrid network. For example, a tree network
connected to a tree network is still a tree network. Therefore, a hybrid network accrues
only when two basic networks are connected and the resulting network topology fails to
meet one of the basic topology definitions. For example, bus-star networks connected
together exhibit hybrid network topologies.

Fig 2.14 Hybrid bus star topology.

28

2.9 INTRODUCTION TO TCP/IP:

TCP and IP were developed by a Department of Defense (DOD) research project to
connect a number different networks designed by different vendors into a network of
networks (the "Internet"). It was initially successful because it delivered a few basic
services that everyone needs (file transfer, electronic mail, remote logon) across a
very large number of client and server systems. Several computers in a small
department can use TCP/IP (along with other protocols) on a single LAN. The IP
component provides routing from the department to the enterprise network, then to
regional networks, and finally to the global Internet. On the battlefield a
communications network will sustain damage, so the DOD designed TCP/IP to be
robust and automatically recover from any node or phone line failure. This design
allows the construction of very large networks with less central management.
However, because of the automatic recovery, network problems can go undiagnosed
and uncorrected for long periods of time.
As with all other communications protocol, TCP/IP is composed of layers:

IP - is responsible for moving packet of data from node to node. IP forwards each
packet based on a four byte destination address (the IP number). The Internet
authorities assign ranges of numbers to different organizations. The organizations
assign groups of their numbers to departments. IP operates on gateway machines that
move data from department to organization to region and then around the world.

TCP - is responsible for verifying the correct delivery of data from client to server.
Data can be lost in the intermediate network. TCP adds support to detect errors or lost
data and to trigger retransmission until the data is correctly and completely received.

Sockets - is a name given to the package of subroutines that provide access to TCP/IP
on most systems

2.10 ADDRESSES:
Each technology has its own convention for transmitting messages between two
machines within the same network. On a LAN, messages are sent between machines by
29

supplying the six byte unique identifier (the "MAC" address). In an SNA network, every
machine has Logical Units with their own network address. DECNET, Apple talk, and
Novell IPX all have a scheme for assigning numbers to each local network and to each
workstation attached to the network. On top of these local or vendor specific network
addresses, TCP/IP assigns a unique number to every workstation in the world. This "IP
number" is a four byte value that, by convention, is expressed by converting each byte
into a decimal number (0 to 255) and separating the bytes with a period. For example, the
PC Lube and Tune server is 130.132.59.234.
The organization then connects to the Internet through one of a dozen regional or
specialized network suppliers. The network vendor is given the subscriber network
number and adds it to the routing configuration in its own machines and those of the
other major network suppliers.

2.10.1 SUBNETS:
Although the individual subscribers do not need to tabulate network numbers or provide
explicit routing, it is convenient for most Class B networks to be internally managed as a
much smaller and simpler version of the larger network organizations. It is common to
subdivide the two bytes available for internal assignment into a one byte department
number and a one byte workstation ID.
SUBNET DIAGRAM :

30

Fig 2.15 Subnet diagram

The enterprise network is built using commercially available TCP/IP router boxes. Each
router has small tables with 255 entries to translate the one byte department number into
selection of a destination Ethernet connected to one of the routers. Messages to the PC
Lube and Tune server (130.132.59.234) are sent through the national and New England
regional networks based on the 130.132 part of the number.

2.11 IP ADDRESSING
An IP Address is a 32-bit (4-bytes) numeric address that uniquely identifies a host system
on an inter-network. The 32-bit IP address is sub-divided into two Ids i.e. Network_Id &
Host Id. The current version of protocol is IPv4 is 32-bit long and IPv6 is the next
generation internet protocol which is 128-bit long.
IP address can be defined by the following rules:
It is 32-bit address which is divided into 4-parts of 8-bits each.
0 - 255

0 - 255

0 - 255

32-bit Long

31

0 - 255

Each 8-bit is presented in decimal format called octet number.

In first octet of IP address some values are not valid i.e. 0, 127, 224-255 as they
are reserved for special purposes.

Each IP address is divided into two parts i.e. i) Network-Id ii) Host-Id.

Network-Id & Host_Id depends upon the Sub-Net Mask

Mask

Net-Id

Host-Id

Class

255.0.0.0

8-bit

24-bit

255.255.0.0

16-bit

16-bit

255.255.255.0

24-bit

8-bit

Sub-net mask depends upon the first octet value of IP-address and accordingly
describes the Network address and the host address :

Ist-Octet
1-126
128-191
192-223

Subnet-mask
255.0.0.0
225.255.0.0
255.255.255.0

Class
A
B
C

In host portion of the IP address if all the bits are set to 0 then this is called the
network address & this is used in the routing table.

In the host portion of IP address if all the bits are set to 1 then this address is
called Network broadcast address.

If all the bits of the subnet mask are set to 1 i.e. 255.25.255.255 then this is called
the All network broadcast address.

32

The address range starting from 224-239 is called Class-D IP-address & is used
for multi-cast IP-address.

Address range staring from 240-255 falls under Class-E & is reserved for
Defense purposes.

2.11.1. Subnet Mask

It defines the size of the network. For entire network the subnet mask is constant i.e. for
one range of addresses the subnet mask does not change. The default subnet masks for
different classes are given below:
A 255.0.0.0
B 255.255.0.0
C 255.255.255.0

2.11.2. Super netting

Super netting is the IP address is split into separate network address and host address
portion according to the subnet mask. Instead breaking down larger networks into several
smaller subnets, you group smaller networks together to make one larger super net. For
example 16 class C networks, ranging from 201.66.32.0 to 201.66.47.0 whole network
can be addressed as 201.66.32.0 with a subnet mask of 255.255.240.0.It's not possible to
allocate groups of addresses a range of 16 class C network from 201.66.71.0 to
201.66.86.0 doesn't have a single network address the host portion of the beginning of the
address range is not 0.
Address

Subnet mask

Network address

Host address

201.66.32.0

255.255.240.0

201.66.32

0.0

201.66.84.0

255.255.240.0

201.66.64

3.0

Table: 2.1 Super Netting

33

2.11.3. DOMAIN NAME SYSTEM

The DNS is a distributed database used by TCP/IP applications to map between
hostnames and IP addresses and provide e-mail routing information. Each site maintains
its own database of information and runs a server program that other systems across the
Internet can query. The DNS provides the protocol, which allows clients and servers to
communicate with each other. The systems access the DNS through a revolver. The
revolver gets the hostname and returns the IP address or gets an IP address and look up a
hostname.

2.11.4 MAC ADDRESS

In computer networking, the Media Access Control (MAC) address is every bit as
important as an IP address.

2.11.5. What is a MAC Address?

The MAC address is a unique value associated with a network adapter. MAC addresses
are also known as hardware addresses or physical addresses. They uniquely identify an
adapter on a LAN.MAC addresses are 12-digit hexadecimal numbers (48 bits in length).
By convention, MAC addresses are usually written in one of the following two formats:
MM:MM:MM:SS: SS: SS
MM-MM-MM-SS-SS-SS
The first half of a MAC address contains the ID number of the adapter manufacturer.
These IDs are regulated by an Internet standards body (see sidebar). The second half of a
MAC address represents the serial number assigned to the adapter by the manufacturer. In

34

the example, 00:A0:C9:14:C8:29.The prefix 00A0C9 indicates the manufacturer is Intel

Corporation.

2.11.6 MAC vs. IP Addressing

MAC addressing works at the data link layer, IP addressing functions at the network layer
(layer 3). It's a slight oversimplification, but one can think of IP addressing as supporting
the software implementation and MAC addresses as supporting the hardware
implementation of the network stack. The MAC address generally remains fixed and
follows the network device, but the IP address changes as the network device moves from
one network to another. IP networks maintain a mapping between the IP address of a
device and its MAC address. This mapping is known as the ARP cache or ARP table.
ARP, the Address Resolution Protocol, supports the logic for obtaining this mapping and
keeping the cache up to date. DHCP also usually relies on MAC addresses to manage the
unique assignment of IP addresses to devices.

2.12 BASIC ROUTER INTRODUCTION

A router needs to be configured in order to operate within the network. Once it is
configured, a network operator has to check the status of various router components.
There are several methods available for configuring Cisco router. The best method to
configure is from command line interface.

2.13 Network Interface Card (NIC)

A network interface card (NIC) is a computer circuit board or card that is installed in a
computer so that it can be connected to a network. Personal computers and workstations
on a local area network (LAN) typically contain a network interface card specifically
designed for the LAN transmission technology, such as Ethernet or token ring. Network
interface cards provide a dedicated, full-time connection to a network. Most home and
35

portable computers connect to the Internet through as-needed dial-up connection. The
modem provides the connection interface to the Internet service provider. Data Link,
Layer 2 Device.

Fig 2.16 NIC

2.13.1 Inserting Network Interface Computer:

Layer 2, Data Link Layer, device
Connects the device (computer) to the LAN
Responsible for the local Layer 2 address (later)
Common Layer 2 NICs:
Ethernet
Token Ring
Common Bandwidth
10 Mbps, 10/100 Mbps, 10/100/1000 Mbps
Fig 2.17 Inserting NIC

36

2.13.2 Supernetting: - Super netting is the IP address is split into separate network
address and host address portion according to the subnet mask. Instead of breaking down
larger networks into several smaller subnets, you group smaller networks together to
make one larger super net.
For example 16 class C networks, ranging from 201.66.32.0 to 201.66.47.0 whole
network can be addressed as 201.66.32.0 with a subnet mask of 255.255.240.0.
It's not possible to allocate groups of addresses a range of 16 class C network from
201.66.71.0 to 201.66.86.0 doesn't have a single network address the host portion of the
beginning of the address range is not 0:
Address

Subnet mask

Network address

Host address

201.66.32.0

255.255.240.0

201.66.32

0.0

201.66.84.0

255.255.240.0

201.66.64

3.0

. Table 2.2 Supernetting Addresses

2.14 How to prepare a network?

As this point you will connect to your system with other to prepare/construct a
network .Here two options are given: Attach your computer with existing network.
Construct a new network or connect two systems.
In both choices first install the network card and detect it by system. After this, check the
LAN Card is OK or NOT, by using the command utility Ping 127.0.0.1. It is a loop back
utility. If it executes successfully: it means LAN card is Ok. Now at that point take a UTP
8-conductor wire and connect two RJ-45 connectors at both ends using straight cabling
standards For connecting two systems or construct a new network then cross cabling is
used to connect two network cards of two systems with using other devices. If two or
37

more system is connected using hub then straight cabling is used. After connecting the
system using LAN cable, the services are provided by installing various types of protocol
and other components of network.

2.14.1 Providing service for Network

After connecting the computer with hardware device you must provide the service for
network by installing the various types of protocol. The various steps for installing the
network TCP/IP Protocol, client service for network and client service for Microsoft
network as given below: From desktop, right click on the network place icon and select properties.
Right click on local are connection and choose properties in the network place
properties dialog box.
In LAN properties dialog box click on install button.
Select network component type like protocol, client, and service etc. one y one to add
into the system to make your system able for any networking.

3.1 CISCO Packet Data Tracer 5.3.2

Cisco Packet Tracer 5.3.2 is a powerful network simulation program that allows students
to experiment with network behavior and ask what if questions. As an integral part of
the Networking Academy comprehensive learning experience, Packet Tracer provides
simulation, visualization, authoring, assessment, and collaboration capabilities and
facilitates the teaching and learning of complex technology concepts.

Packet Tracer supplements physical equipment in the classroom by allowing students to

create a network with an almost unlimited number of devices, encouraging practice,
discovery, and troubleshooting. The simulation based learning environment helps

38

students develop 21st century skills such as decision making, creative and critical
thinking, and problem solving.

.3.1.1 Features
Cisco Packet Tracer includes the following features:
Makes teaching easier by providing a free, multiuser environment for instructors to
easily teach complex technical concepts.
Makes learning easier by providing a realistic network simulation and visualization
environment.
Provides authoring of learning activities, tasks, labs, and complex assessments.
Supports lectures, group and individual labs, homework, assessments, case studies,
games, and competitions.
Supplements real equipment and enables extended learning opportunities beyond
physical classroom limitations.
Simulates continuous real-time updates of underlying network logic and activities
Empowers students to explore concepts, conduct experiments, and test their
understanding.
Promotes social learning through a network-capable (peer-to-peer) application with
opportunities for multiuser competition, remote instructor-student interactions, social
networking, and gaming.
Supports the majority of protocols and technologies taught in the following Networking
Academy curricula: Cisco CCNA Discovery, CCNA Exploration, and CCNA Security,
and can also be used to teach concepts from IT Essentials and Cisco CCNP courses.

39

Fig 3.1 CISCO Packet Data Tracer 5.3.2

Static Routing Configuration

LAB

40

1700A
Router>enable
Router#configuration terminal
Router(config)#hostname 1700A
1700A(config)#interface Fast Ethernet 0/0
1700A(config-if)#ip address 10.0.0.1 255.0.0.0
1700A(config-if)#no shutdown
1700A(config)#interface Serial 0/0
1700A(config-if)#ip address 20.0.0.1. 255.0.0.0
1700A(config-if)#no shutdown
1700A(config-if)#control Z
1700A#show ip route
1700A#show ip interface brief
1700A(config)#ip route 30.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 20.0.0.2 or S0/0 exit interface
1700A(config)#ip route 40.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 20.0.0.2 or S0/0 (exit interface)
1700A(config)#ip route 50.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 20.0.0.2 or S0/0 (exit interface)
1700A(config)#exit
1700A#show ip interface brief
1700A# show ip protocol

41

3600A
Router>enable
Router#configuration terminal
Router(config)#hostname 3600A
3600A(config)#interface S3/0
3600A(config-if)#ip address 20.0.0.2 255.0.0.0
3600A(config-if)#no shutdown
3600A#show controllers S3/0

(to see a DCE end or DTE end)

3600A(config-if)#clock rate 64000

3600A(config)#interface Serial 3/1
3600A(config-if)#ip address 30.0.0.1. 255.0.0.0
3600A(config-if)#no shutdown
3600A(config-if)#clock rate 64000
3600A(config-if)#control Z
3600A#show ip route
3600A#show ip interface brief
3600A(config)#ip route 10.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 20.0.0.1 or 20.0.0.2
3600A(config)#ip route 50.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 40.0.0.2 or 40.0.0.1
3600A(config)#exit
3600A#show ip interface brief
3600A# show ip protocol
1700B
Router>enable
Router#configuration terminal
Router(config)#hostname 1700B
1700B(config)#interface Fast Ethernet 0/0
1700B(config-if)#ip address 40.0.0.1 255.0.0.0
1700B(config-if)#no shutdown
1700B(config)#interface Serial 0/0
1700B(config-if)#ip address 30.0.0.2 255.0.0.0
1700B(config-if)#no shutdown
42

1700B(config-if)#control Z
1700B#show ip route
1700B#show ip interface brief
1700B(config)#ip route 10.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 40.0.0.1 or 40.0.0.2
1700B(config)#ip route 20.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 40.0.0.1 or 40.0.0.2
1700B(config)#ip route 30.0.0.0 255.0.0.0 40.0.0.1 or 40.0.0.2(exit interface) S0/0
1700B(config)#exit
1700B#show ip interface brief
1700B#show ip route
1700B#show ip protocol
1700B#ping 10.0.0.1

43

4.1 CONCLUSION
In this we study about the basic networking, the types of networking and in which
particular area we have to use which particular type of networking process for example in
small geographical area we have to use LAN. We also study about the different type of
topologies and the use of IP addressing and the use of Domain Name System in the
networking.

REFERENCES
44

www.google.com
www.networking.com
www.altavista.com
www.metacrawler.com
CCNA by Todd Lamml
Document provided by jetking

45

46