Article

Green composites
from kapok husk and
recycled polypropylene:
Processing torque,
tensile, thermal, and
morphological properties

Journal of Thermoplastic Composite

Materials
119
The Author(s) 2015
Reprints and permissions:
sagepub.co.uk/journalsPermissions.nav
DOI: 10.1177/0892705715569822
jtc.sagepub.com

Koay Seong Chun, Salmah Husseinsyah and

Chan Ming Yeng

Abstract
The present work was developed to utilize kapok husk (KH) as filler in recycled polypropylene (rPP) green composites. Stearic acid (SA) was used as surface modifier in rPP/
KH composites. It was found that the modified KH with SA was reduced the stabilization
torque of composites. The addition of KH in rPP decreased the tensile strength and
elongation at break but increased tensile modulus of composites. The modified KH with
SA improved the tensile strength, tensile modulus, crystallinity, and thermal stability of
composites. The scanning electron microscopic micrograph provd that the interfacial
interaction and adhesion was improved by SA modification.
Keywords
Kapok husk, recycled polypropylene, composites, stearic acid, surface modifier

Introduction
In recent years, green composites have garnered interest among researchers and industries due to todays environmental issues and economic factor as well as the accumulation of agricultural waste and by-product. Many agricultural waste and by-product such
as coconut shell,14 palm oil empty fruit bunch,5 groundnut shell,6 palm kernel shell,7

Division of Polymer Engineering, School of Materials Engineering, Jejawi, Perlis, Malaysia

Corresponding author:
Salmah Husseinsyah, Division of Polymer Engineering, School of Materials Engineering, Universiti Malaysia
Perlis, 02600 Jejawi, Perlis, Malaysia.
Email: irsalmah@unimap.edu.my

Journal of Thermoplastic Composite Materials

pineapple leaf,8 cocoa pod husk,9,10 and corn cob1113 have utilized as filler in composite materials. Kapok (Ceiba pentandra) tree is heavily cultivated in Malaysia
country purposely to obtain the kapok cotton and seed.14 In the kapok industry, kapok
cotton is used to fill pillows and mattress as well as the kapok seeds are processed to
obtain seed oil, which has similar properties to cotton seeds oil.14,15 However, kapok
husk (KH) became one of the by-products in kapok cotton industry.14 During harvesting of kapok pod (as shown in Figure 1), the KH become waste after removing the
kapok cotton and seeds. Commonly, the KH is readily abundant and do not have any
economic value. Therefore, KH has a potential use as inexpensive filler in thermoplastic materials. The utilization of KH in thermoplastic can also reduce the waste of
kapok industry.
Nowadays, various combinations of agricultural waste and thermoplastic material
have been successfully made into commercial products. In Malaysia, a series ecotableware was made from rice husk-filled thermoplastic eco-composites by Melsom
Biodegradable Enterprise, Malaysia.4 In our previous research, coconut shell powder or
corn cob was incorporated with polylactic acid to produce eco-packaging product3 and
eco-tableware.11 However, the incompatibility between natural filler and thermoplastic
material was a major issue in processing of natural filler-filled thermoplastic composites.
The interface incompatibility between hydrophilic nature of the natural filler and
hydrophobic nature of thermoplastic was hardly to produce good properties of composites. Usually, unmodified natural filler has poor dispersion, wettability, and adhesion
with thermoplastic material. In general, the good performance composites can be
achieved by filler modification via alkaline treatment,1618 esterification,1,3,9,13,1921
silane treatment,2,22,23 use of maleated polymer,10,2427 and other chemical.4,11 Besides,
fatty acid and its derivative can be also used as green coupling agent in natural filler
treatment as it acts asa coupling effect on the natural filler-based composites. Some
studies claimed that the use of stearic acid (SA) as coupling agent was able to improve
the properties of sisal fiber28,29 or coconut coil-30 reinforced composites.
In this research, the KH was combined with recycled polypropylene (rPP) to produce
green composites. The SA was used to modify KH in order to promote the dispersion as
well as enhance the properties of rPP/KH eco-composites. The effect of SA modification
on tensile, thermal and morphology properties of rPP/KH composites have been
investigated.

Methodology
Materials
The KH was obtained from Kapok Plantation, Perlis, Malaysia. The KH was dried in
oven at 80 C for 24 h. Then, KH was crushed and ground into fine powder. The average
particle size of KH was 28 mm, which is analyzed by Malvem Particle Size Analyzer
Instrument (Malaysia). The density of KH was 1.148 g cm3. The rPP was supplied by
Toray Plastics Sdn. Bhd (Malaysia). The SA and ethanol were supplied by Sigma
Aldrich (Penang, Malaysia).
2

Chun et al.

Figure 1. Dried kapok pod.

Table 1. Formulation of unmodified and modified rPP/KH composites.
Materials

Unmodified rPP/KH

Modified rPP/KH

rPP (wt%)
KH (wt%)

100, 90, 80, 70, 60

0, 10, 20, 30, 40

100, 90, 80, 70, 60

0, 10, 20, 30, 40

rPP: recycled polypropylene; KH: kapok husk.

Filler modification
The SA was dissolved in ethanol with amount of 3% (w/v). The KH powder was added in
SA solution and stirred with mechanical stirrer for 1 h and soaked it for overnight. The
modified KH was filtered and dried in oven at 80 C for 24 h.

Preparation of composites samples

The rPP/KH composites were prepared by using Brabender1 Plastrograph (Germany)
internal mixer with counterrotating mode at 180 C and 50 r min1 of rotor speed. The
rPP/KH composites were mixed according to formulation in Table 1. Firstly, the rPP
was transferred into mixing chamber for 2 min until it fully melted. After that, KH
was added to melted rPP and mixed for 6 min. The total mixing time was 8 min. All
formulated rPP/KH composites were molded into sheet form with 1 mm thickness
using compression molding model GT 7014A at 180 C. The compression sequences
involved preheat compound for 4 min, compression under pressure at 9.81 MPa for 1
min, and cooling under same pressure for 5 min. The rPP/KH composites sheet was
cut into tensile bar by using dumbbell cutter. Figure 2(a) and (b) shows the rPP/CPH
composites in form of sheet and tensile bar. The dimension of the tensile bar was
referring to ASTM D638 type IV.31
3

Journal of Thermoplastic Composite Materials

Figure 2. rPP/KH composites in (a) sheet form and (b) tensile bar.
rPP: recycled polypropylene; KH: kapok husk.

Processing torque measurement

The processing torque was measured during the compounding of composites using
Brabender Plastrograph internal mixer. The torque changes of compound with the time
were recorded and torques versus time curves were plotted by computer. The torque
values at the end of processing time were taken as stabilization torque.

Tensile testing
Tensile testing was performed using an Instron machine model 5566 (USA) according to
ASTM D638 standard.31 The test was carried out at 23 + 2 C. A crosshead speed of 30
mm min1 was used and the loading was 50 kN.

Morphology analysis
The tensile fracture surface of rPP/KH composites was analyzed using a scanning
electron microscope (model JEOL JSM-6460 LA, Japan). The samples were coated with
a thin layer of palladium for conductive purpose before analyzed.

FTIR spectroscopy
Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) analysis was conducted using FTIR spectroscopy,
Perkin Elmer, Waltham, Massachusetts, USA, model Paragon 1000, which equipped
with an attenuated total reflectance (ATF) device. FTIR was used to determine the
functional chemical groups of unmodified and modified KH. The samples were recorded
with 16 scans in the wavelength range 6004000 cm1 with resolution of 4 cm1.
4

Chun et al.

DSC analysis
Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) analysis was carried out using DSC Q10,
Research Instrument (USA). The sample was cut into small pieces and placed into closed
aluminum pan with sample weight in range 7 + 2 mg. The specimen was heated from
30 C to 200 C with a heating rate of 10 C min1 under nitrogen atmosphere. The
nitrogen gas flow rate was 50 ml min1. The degree of crystallinity of composite (Xc) can
be evaluated from DSC data by using equation (1).
Xc

Hf
 100;
Hf0

the rPP composites, and Hf0 is the heat fusion for 100%
where Hf is the
 heat fusion of 
0
1 4
crystalline PP Hf 209 J g
.
The crystallinity of PP matrix (XrPP) was calculated using following equation (2),
where Wf rPP is the weight fraction of rPP matrix.
XrPP

Xc
Wf rPP

Thermogravimetric analysis
Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) was evaluated using TGA Pyris Diamond PerkinElmer apparatus. The sample was about 7 + 2 mg in weight and was placed into
platinum crucible. Then, the sample was heated from 30 C to 700 C at a heating rate of
10 C min1 under nitrogen atmosphere with the nitrogen flow rate of 50 ml min1.

Results and discussion

Processing torque
Figure 3 shows the processing torque versus times curves for the unmodified and
modified rPP/KH composites with different filler content. The first processing torque
increased rapidly due to the shearing action from the solid rPP pellets. The processing
torque was followed by a gradual reduced indicates the decrease of viscosity as rPP
pellets molten by the high temperature and continuous shear. The second torque
development can be found at time after 2 min. This caused by the addition of the KH into
molten rPP. The processing torque decreased gradually and the stabilization torque
achieved after the rPP/CH in homogenized mixture. The similar trend on processing
torque was also found in previous study.9,10 From Figure 4, the stabilization torque was
increased with the increasing of KH content. This due to the fact of the presence of
dispersive resistance from KH particles increased the viscosity of rPP especially at high
filler content. However, the stabilization torque of modified rPP/KH composites lowers
as compared to unmodified rPP/KH composites. This is because the modified KH shows
lower dispersive resistance due to the SA attached on the filler surface separated each
KH particles from agglomeration and promoted the organophilic behavior to KH
5

Journal of Thermoplastic Composite Materials

Figure 3. Processing torque versus time curves of unmodified and modified rPP/KH composites
with different filler content.
rPP: recycled polypropylene; KH: kapok husk.

Figure 4. Stabilization torque of unmodified and modified rPP/KH composites with different filler
content.
rPP: recycled polypropylene; KH: kapok husk.

particles (as shown in Figure 5). The unmodified KH was easily to agglomerate to each
other through the hydrogen bonding and contributed high dispersive resistance. Therefore, modified KH was well dispersed in molten rPP, resulting in modified rPP/KH
composites with lower viscosity than unmodified rPP/KH composites.
6

Chun et al.

Figure 5. The reduction of KH agglomeration after filler modification with SA.

KH: kapok husk; SA: stearic acid.

Figure 6. Effect of filler content on tensile strength of unmodified and modified rPP/KH composites.
rPP: recycled polypropylene; KH: kapok husk.

Tensile properties
The effect of filler content on tensile strength of unmodified and modified rPP/KH
composites is shown in Figure 6. The incorporation of KH decreased the tensile strength
of both composites. A similar trend was found in our previous work.4 Besides, the poor
wettability between hydrophilic filler and matrix was usually contributed to poor dispersion and weak fillermatrix adhesion. This due to hydrophobic rPP was hardly to wet
7

Journal of Thermoplastic Composite Materials

Figure 7. (a) Unmodified rPP/KH eco-composites with poor wettability due to rPP matrix unable
to penetrate the asperities on KH surface and (b) modified rPP/KH composites with good interfacial interlocking.
rPP: recycled polypropylene; KH: kapok husk.

the unmodified KH during the compounding by penetrating crevices on KH surface,

which lead to weak interfacial bonding and interfacial voids (as shown in Figure 7(a)).
Therefore, the efficiency of stress transfer was reduced in the presence of weak interfacial bonding and voids. As a result, the tensile strength of composites decreased. On
the other hand, modified KH had long alkyl chains (from SA) covalent bonded on its
surface, leading to increase the wettability with rPP matrix and it enhanced the interfacial
bonding with greater surface interlocking as illustrated in Figure 7(b). At 40 wt% of filler
content, the tensile strength of modified rPP/KH composites with SA (17.95 MPa) was
slightly higher than modified rPP/coconut shell powder (CSP) composite with sodium
dodecyl sulfate (SDS, 17.02 MPa) as found in previous study.4
Figure 8 shows the elongation at break of unmodified and modified rPP/KH composites. It can be seen that the elongation at break decreased when the KH was added.
The presence of KH reduced the polymer chain flexibility induced to more rigid and
brittle composites. This was a commons trend that also found in our previous work and
other researchers.14,7,22,25 Nevertheless, filler modification had decreased the elongation at break of rPP/KH composites. As discussed before, the modified KH had better
interfacial bonding with rPP matrix, resulting in the ductility of rPP/KH composites was
decreased by the strong interfacial bonding. Modified rPP composites with KH or CSP4
exhibited lower elongation at break compared to unmodified rPP composites.
However, the increasing of KH content increased the tensile modulus of unmodified
and modified rPP/KH composites was displayed in Figure 9. This is attributed by the
friction between KH particles and rPP matrix generated a rigid interface, which inhibited
the polymer chain mobility. Chun et al.9 also report that the increased of the filler content
increased the tensile modulus of polypropylene/cocoa pod husk eco-composites. As the
8

Chun et al.

Figure 8. Effect of filler content on elongation at break of unmodified and modified rPP/KH composites.
rPP: recycled polypropylene; KH: kapok husk.

Figure 9. Effect of filler content on tensile modulus of unmodified and modified rPP/KH composites.
rPP: recycled polypropylene; KH: kapok husk.

friction area increased with increases of filler content, the stiffness of eco-composites
also increased. Moreover, the stiffness of modified rPP/KH composites is higher than
unmodified rPP/KH composites. This might be due to the improvement of fillermatrix
interaction with SA modification. At similar filler content, the modified rPP/KH
9

10

Journal of Thermoplastic Composite Materials

composites with SA has 20% lower tensile modulus compared with modified rPP/CSP
composites with SDS as reported in previous study.4
The relationship between filler modification and interfacial adhesion can be
expressed quantitatively by using Pukanszkys model.32 The model (equation (3))
included the three important factors affecting the tensile strength of composites as following: (i) n is the change of specimen dimensions during the deformation and the raise
of tensile strength due to strain hardening; (ii) 1  =1 2:5 is the effect of
reducing load bearing cross section of matrix due to addition of filler; and (iii) exp (B)
represented the interfacial adhesion.32,33
T T 0 n

1
expB;
1 2:5

where T and T0 represent the true strength of the composite and the polymer matrix,
respectively (T , where  is the measured engineering tensile strength),  is relative
elongation ( L/L0, where L0 is the original length and L is length at the failure point), n
is related to strain hardening exponent of polymer matrix,  is the volume fraction of filler,
and B is a parameter expresses the load-bearing capacity of filler, which is related to the
effect of interfacial adhesion. Equation (4) can be rewritten and expressed in linear form:
ln Tred ln

T 1 2:5
ln T0 B
n 1  

The graph of ln-reduced tensile strength (Tred) versus filler content will give a
straight line with a slope of parameter B. The plot of ln Tred as function of filler content
of unmodified and modified rPP/KH composites is displayed in Figure 10. The results
show a two straight linear correction line. This means that the parameter B related to
interfacial adhesion and stress transfer can be measured with more accuracy. The slope
of line represent unmodified and modified rPP/KH composites was different, where the
parameter B of modified rPP/KH composites (2.85) was higher compared to unmodified
rPP/KH composites (2.29). This indicates the adhesion between KH and rPP matrix was
improved due to the filler modification using SA. Thus, the stress transfer at the interfacial region was enhanced, which result in a significant increase of the tensile strength.

Morphological properties
Figure 11(a) and (b) shows the scanning electron microscopic (SEM) micrograph of
tensile fracture surface of unmodified rPP/KH composites with 20 wt% and 40 wt% of
filler content. Regarding the SEM micrograph, there are discontinuouss phase presence
between KH particles and rPP matrix. This indicates the poor wetting between
hydrophilic filler and hydrophobic matrix. There were numerous voids caused by filler
pull-out from matrix. This proves that the poor interfacial adhesion occurred in
unmodified rPP/KH composites. The SEM micrograph of modified rPP/KH composites in Figure 12(a) and (b) exhibited better wettability and adhesion between KH
filler and rPP matrix.
10

Chun et al.

11

Figure 10. Reduced tensile strength of unmodified and modified rPP/KH composites plotted
against filler content.
rPP: recycled polypropylene; KH: kapok husk.

Figure 11. SEM micrographs of unmodified rPP/KH composites with (a) 20 wt%, and (b) 40 wt%
filler content.
SEM: scanning electron microscopic; rPP: recycled polypropylene; KH: kapok husk.

FTIR analysis
The FTIR spectra of unmodified and modified KH are shown in Figure 13. The
characteristic peaks of unmodified and modified KH were summarized in Table 2. The
broad peak at 30003800 cm1 was attributed by the hydroxyl groups (OH) of KH.
According to Table 3, the peak intensity of the OH groups absorption band was
significantly reduced after KH modified with SA. This means that the hydrophilicity of
KH was reduced while the OH groups react with SA. The peak intensity at 2920 cm1
11

12

Journal of Thermoplastic Composite Materials

Figure 12. SEM micrographs of modified rPP/KH composites with (a) 20 wt%, and (b) 40 wt%
filler content.
SEM: scanning electron microscopic; rPP: recycled polypropylene; KH: kapok husk.

Figure 13. FTIR curves of unmodified and modified rPP/KH composites.

FTIR: Fourier transform infrared; rPP: recycled polypropylene; KH: kapok husk.

and 2850 cm1 were also increased after the KH modified with SA. The change of peak
intensity at 28002950 cm1 was assigned to the CH groups of long alkyl chain from SA,
which chemically bonded on KH surface. Furthermore, the increase of peak intensity at
1724 cm1 indicated the presence of ester bonding (CO) occur between SA and KH. The
proposed schematic reaction between SA and KH is illustrated in Figure 14.
12

Chun et al.

13

Table 2. The functional groups of kapok husk.

Wave Number (cm1) Compounds
30003800
2921, 2850
1724
1609
1420
13801320
1252
1161
10001150
700900

Hydroxyl (OH) groups from cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin34

CH streching34
Carboxyl group (CO) steching in acetyl group in hemicellulose
or ester linkage of carboxylic group35
CC stretching from hemicellulose4
CH2 groups deformation from cellulose or CH deformation in lignin36
CH groups deformation in cellulose and hemicellulose37
CO groups from acetyl group in lignin13
COC groups of cellulose and hemicellulose9,10
COC and CO groups from main carbohydrates of cellulose
and lignin38
CH vibration in lignin13

Table 3. The major spectra of modified KH with SA.

Frequency (cm1)

Type of bonding

Intensity (%)

3328
2920
2850
1724

OH bonding
CH streching
CH streching
CO ester bonding

Decreased (4.9)
Increased (2.2)
Increased (2.3)
Increased (3.4)

KH: kapok husk; SA: stearic acid.

Figure 14. Proposed schematic reaction between KH and SA.

KH: kapok husk; SA: stearic acid.

Thermogravimetric analysis
The derivative TG and TGA curves of neat rPP, unmodified, and modified rPP/KH
composites are illustrated in Figures 15 and 16, respectively. The TGA data of samples
was summarized in Table 4. Figure 12 shows that the neat rPP was decomposed in single
step at temperature 250500 C. The unmodified and modified rPP/KH composites
decomposed in the following three steps: (i) loss of moisture at temperature 30150 C,
13

14

Journal of Thermoplastic Composite Materials

Figure 15. DTG curves of unmodified and modified rPP/KH composites.

DTG: derivative thermogravimetric; rPP: recycled polypropylene; KH: kapok husk.

Figure 16. TGA curves of unmodified and modified rPP/KH composites.

TGA: thermogravimetric analysis; rPP: recycled polypropylene; KH: kapok husk.

(ii) decompose of hemicellulose at temperature 200350 C, and (iii) decompose of

lignocellulose at temperature 350400 C and along with decompose of rPP matrix. The
weight loss of rPP/KH eco-composites at 100 C was increased with the increase of KH
content. This is assigned to the increase of moisture content as KH content increased.
However, the moisture content of composites was decreased with the SA modification.
14

Chun et al.

15

Table 4. TGA data of unmodified and modified rPP/KH composites.

Sample
Neat rPP
rPP/KH: 80/20 (unmodified)
rPP/KH: 60/40 (unmodified)
rPP/KH: 80/20 (modified)
rPP/KH: 60/40 (modified)

Weight loss
at 100 C (%)

Weight loss
at 300 C (%)

Tdmax (oC)

Residue at
700 C (%)

0.03
1.72
3.65
0.91
2.06

6.89
8.52
13.76
7.62
12.75

412
422
444
433
447

0.22
3.11
8.09
4.64
10.23

TGA: thermogravimetric analysis; rPP: recycled polypropylene; KH: kapok husk; Tdmax: maximum
decomposition temperature.

An early thermal decomposition of unmodified and modified of rPP/KH composites can

be found around temperature 300 C. This weight loss at temperature 300 C was referring to the weight loss of decomposed hemicellulose. Therefore, the weight loss at 300 C
increased at more KH content. The decomposition temperature at maximum rate (Tdmax)
of neat rPP was found to be at 412 C. The Tdmax was shifted to higher temperature with
increased residue at 700 C as the content of KH increased. This indicated that the
addition of KH increased the thermal stability of rPP matrix at higher temperature. It can
also be explained by the presence of high thermal stability pyrolysis product from early
thermal decomposition, given rPP matrix a thermal protecting layer and delay the
thermal decomposition. This statement was agreed by other researchers.13 In addition,
the modified rPP/KH composites showed better thermal stability than unmodified rPP/
KH composites. It can be observed that from the decrease of weight loss at 300 C, Tdmax
and residual at 700 C increases. This might be due to the improvement of filler dispersion and fillermatrix interaction. According to Koay et al.,4 the modified CSP with
SDS has improved the thermal stability of rPP composites.

Differential scanning calorimetry

The DSC curves of unmodified and modified rPP/KH composites are shown in
Figure 17. The DSC data of both composites are summarized in Table 5. The increase
of KH content decreased the crystallinity (Xc) of rPP/KH composites. However, the
XrPP of composites was slightly increased at 20 wt% of KH content. This is because of
nucleating effect of natural filler. Similar results are also reported by other researchers.9,10 At 40 wt% of filler content, an endothermic peak 50120 C can be observed
due to the evaporation of the moisture in KH. The presence of moisture probably forms
hydrogen bonding among the KH particles and it influences adhesion with rPP matrix.
As mentioned early, the KH tends to form agglomeration at higher filler content. Thus,
the results show the addition of more KH hindered the crystallization of the rPP matrix,
especially at 40 wt% of KH content. The decrease of XrPP is probably due to the poor
filler dispersion and poor adhesion between unmodified KH and rPP matrix. Most of
the literatures reported that the crystallinity of composites usually affected by filler
15

16

Journal of Thermoplastic Composite Materials

Figure 17. DSC curves of unmodified and modified rPP/KH composites.

DSC: differential scanning calorimetry; rPP: recycled polypropylene; KH: kapok husk.
Table 5. DSC data of unmodified and modified rPP/KH composites.
Sample
Neat rPP
rPP/KH: 80/20 (unmodified)
rPP/KH: 60/40 (unmodified)
rPP/KH: 80/20 (modified)
rPP/KH: 60/40 (modified)

Tm (oC)

Xc (%)

XrPP (%)

163
163
163
163
162

43
38
16
43
25

43.0
47.5
26.7
53.8
41.7

DSC: differential scanning calorimetry; rPP: recycled polypropylene; KH: kapok husk; Tdmax: maximum
decomposition temperature; Tm: melting temperature; Xc: degree of crystallinity; XrPP: crystallinity of
polypropylene matrix.

content, filler dispersion, and fillermatrix interaction.1,4,7,2123 However, the modified rPP/KH composites exhibited higher crystallinity than unmodified rPP/KH
composites (Table 5). The hydrophilicity of KH has reduced after the modification
with SA, which improves the filler dispersion and adhesion at interface between KH
and rPP matrix. The improvement of interfacial adhesion enhanced the migration and
diffusion of rPP chain to form crystalline structure. Moreover, a better filler dispersion
provided more nucleating site for initiation of spherulites growth. Thus, modified KH
showed nucleating effect on the rPP/KH composites. The results show the melting
temperature (Tm) of rPP/KH composites remains unchanged with the increasing of KH
content or filler modification. In general, the Tm of semi-crystallinity polymer
increased with increase of crystallinity due to the larger spherulites size.39 The addition
of particulate filler often increases crystallinity of semi-crystalline polymer by
16

Chun et al.

17

increasing the number of spherulites, but the size of spherulites is smaller.40,41 As a

result the Tm of composites might not significantly change by filler content or filler
modification.42,43

Conclusion
The addition of KH in rPP composites showed higher stabilization torque. However,
filler modification with SA reduced the dispersive resistance of KH particles resulting in
lower stabilization torque compared to unmodified rPP/KH composites. The increase of
KH content decreased the tensile strength and elongation at break, but it increased the
tensile modulus rPP/KH composites. The modified rPP/KH composites have higher
tensile strength and modulus compared with unmodified rPP/KH composites. The
modified rPP/KH shows higher tensile strength but lowers tensile modulus compared to
modified rPP/CSP composites. The thermal stability of rPP/KH composites improved
with presence of KH as the Tdmax and residual at 700 C increase. The thermal stability of
rPP/KH composites was further enhanced by SA treatment. The crystallinity of rPP/KH
composites decreased with increasing of the KH content. The filler modification wit SA
improved the nucleating effect of KH and increased the crystallinity of rPP/KH composites. The improvement of tensile and thermal properties due to the enhanced interfacial bonding between KH and rPP matrix is proved by SEM micrograph. The
development of such green composites in this study can be used as a material in producing injection-molded furniture.
Funding
This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
References
1. Chun KS, Husseinsyah S and Osman H. Mechanical and thermal properties of coconut shell
powder filled polylactic acid biocomposites: effect of the filler content and silane coupling
agent. J Polym Res 2012; 19: 18.
2. Salmah H, Koay SC and Hakimah O. Surface modification of coconut shell powder filled
polylactic acid biocomposites. J Thermoplast Compos Mater 2013; 26: 809819.
3. Chun KS, Husseinsyah S and Osman H. Properties of coconut shell powder-filled polylactic
acid ecocomposites: effect of maleic acid. Polym Eng Sci 2013; 53: 11091116.
4. Chun KS, Husseinsyah S and Azizi FN. Characterization and properties of recycled polypropylene/coconut shell powder composites: effect of sodium dodecyl sulphate modification.
Polym Plast Technol Eng 2013; 52: 287294.
5. Ibrahim NA, Hashim N, Rahman MZA, et al. Mechanical properties and morphology of oil
palm empty fruit bunch-polypropylene composites: effect of adding ENGAGETM7467.
J Thermoplast Compos Mater 2011; 24: 713732.
6. Ishidi EY, Adamu IK, Kolawale EG, et al. Flammability and thermal characteristic of alkaline
aqueous solution treated groundnut shell-HDPE composites. J Thermoplast Compos Mater
2011; 24: 875888.
17

18

Journal of Thermoplastic Composite Materials

7. Hussiensyah S, Chun KS, Hadi A, et al. Effect of filler loading and coconut oil coupling agent
on properties of low-density polyethylene and palm kernel shell eco-composites. J Vinyl Addit
Technol. Epub ahead of print 29 July 2014. DOI: 10.1002/vnl.21423.
8. Smitthipong W, Tantatherdtam R and Chollakup R. Effect of pineapple leaf fiber-reinforced
thermoplastic starch/poly(lactic acid) green composite: mechanical, viscosity, and water resistance properties. J Thermoplast Compos Mater. Epub ahead of print 18 June 2013. DOI: 10.
1177/0892705713489701.
9. Chun KS, Husseinsyah S and Osman H. Modified cocoa pod husk-filled polypropylene composites by using methacrylic acid. BioResources 2013; 8: 32603275.
10. Koay SC, Salmah H and Hakimah H. Ultilization of cocoa pod husk as filler in polypropylene
biocomposites: effect of maleated polypropylene. J Thermoplast Compos Mater. Epub ahead
of print 26 November 2013. DOI: 10.1177/0892705713513291.
11. Chun KS and Husseinsyah S. Polylactic acid/corn cob eco-composites: effect of new organic
coupling agent. J Thermoplast Compos Mater. 2014; 27: 16671678.
12. Yeng CM, Husseinsyah S and Ting SS. Chitosan/corn cob biocomposite films by cross-linking
with glutaraldehyde. BioResources 2013; 2: 29102923.
13. Yeng CM, Husseinsyah S and Ting SS. Modified corn cob filled chitosan biocomposite films.
Polym Plast Technol Eng 2013; 52: 14961502.
14. Husseinsyah S, Yeng CM, Kassim AR, et al. Kapok husk-reinforced soy protein isolate biofilms: tensile properties and enzymatic hydrolysis. BioResources 2014; 9: 56365651.
15. Broad N. Modern technology of oils, fats & its derivatives. Delhi: Asia Pacific Business Press,
2002.
16. Jacob M, Jospeh S, Prothan LA, et al. A study of advances in charaterization of interfaces and
fiber surfaces in lignocellulosic fiber-reinforced composites. Compos Interfaces 2005; 112:
95124.
17. Pothan LA, George J and Thomas S. Effect of fiber surface treatments on the fiber-matrix
interaction in banana fiber reinforced polyester composites. Compos Interfaces 2002; 9:
335352.
18. Gwon JG, Lee S, Chun SJ, et al. Effect of chemical treatment of hybrid fillers on the physical
and thermal properties of wood plastic composites. Compos A 2010; 42: 14911497.
19. Zhang Y, Xue Y, Toghiani H, et al. Modification of wood flour surfaces by esterification with
acid chlorides: use in HDPE/wood flour composites. Compos Interfaces 2009; 16: 671686.
20. Ismail SH and Abu Bakar A. The effect of chemical modification of paper sludge filled polypropylene (PP)/ethylene propylene diene terpolymer (EPDM) composites. J Reinforc Plast
Compos 2006; 25: 4358.
21. Salmah H, Faisal A and Kamarudin H. The mechanical and thermal properties of chitosan
filled polypropylene composites: the effect of acrylic acid. J Vinyl Addit Technol 2011; 17:
125131.
22. Ismail SH and Abu Bakar A. Properties of paper sludge filled polypropylene (PP)/ethylene
propylene diene terpolymer (EPDM) composites: the effect of silane-based coupling agent.
Int J Polym Mater 2006; 55: 643662.
23. Salmah H, Faisal A and Kamaruddin H. Chemical modification of chitosan filled polypropylene composites: the effect 3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane on mechanical and thermal properties. Int J Polym Mater 2011; 60: 429440.
24. Sameni JK, Ahmad SH and Zakaria S. Performance of rubberwood fiber-thermoplastic natural
rubber composites. Polym Plast Technol Eng 2003; 42: 139152.
25. Vineta S, Gordana BG, Maurizio A, et al. Utilization of recycled polypropylene for production
of eco-composites. Polym Plast Technol Eng 2009; 48: 11131120.
18

Chun et al.

19

26. Salmah H and Ismail H. The effect of filler loading and maleated polypropylene on properties
of rubber wood filled polypropylene/natural rubber composites. J Reinforc Plast Compos
2008; 27: 18671876.
27. Husseinsyah S, Azmin AN and Ismail H. Effect of maleic anhydride-grafted-polyethylene
(MAPE) and silane on properties of recycled polyethylene/chitosan biocomposites. Polym
Plast Technol Eng 2013; 52: 168174.
28. Kalaprasad G, Francis B, Thomas S, et al. Effect of fibre length and chemical modification on
the tensile properties of intimately mixed short sisal/glass hybrid fibre reinforced low density
polyethylene composites. Polym Int 2004; 53: 16241638.
29. Torres FG and Ubillas ML. Study of the interfacial properties of natural fibre reinforced
polyethylene. Polym Test 2005; 24: 694698.
30. Enriquez JKEDV, Santiago PJM, Ong TF, et al. Frabication and charaterization of highdensity polyethylene-coconut coir composites with stearic acid as compatibilizer. J Thermoplast Compos Mater 2010; 23: 361373.
31. ASTM Standard D638. Standard test method for tensile properties of plastics. West Conshohocken: ASTM International, 2010. DOI: 10.1520/D0638-10.
32. Pukanszky B. Influence of interface interaction on the ultimate tensile properties of polymer
composites. Composites 1990; 21: 255262.
33. Danyadi L, Renner K, Moczo J, et al. Wood flour filled polypropylene composites: interfacial
adhesion and micromechanical deformations. Polym Eng Sci 2007; 47: 12461255.
34. Khalil HPSA, Ismail H, Rozman HD, et al. The effect of acetylation on interfacial shear
strength between plant fiber and various matrices. Eur Polym J 2001; 37: 10371045.
35. Alemdar A and Sain M. Isolation and characterization of nanofibers from agricultural
residues-wheat straw and soy hulls. Biores Technol 2008; 99: 16641671.
36. Sgriccia MC, Hawley MC and Misra M. Characterization of natural fiber surfaces and natural
fiber composites. Compos A 2008; 39: 16321637.
37. Troedec ML, Sedan D, Peyratout C, et al. Influence of various chemical treatments on the
composition and structure of hemp fibres. Compos A 2008; 39: 514522.
38. Nacos MK, Katapodis P, Pappas C, et al. Kenaf xylan a source of biologically active acidic
oligosaccharides. Carbohyd Polym 2006; 66: 126134.
39. Daniels CA. Polymers: structure and properties. Lancaster: CRC Press, 1989.
40. Ning N, Fu S, Zhang W, et al. Realizing the enhancement of interfacial interaction in semicrystalline polymer/filler composites via interfacial crystallization. Prog Polym Sci 2012;
37: 14251455.
41. Ning N, Yin Q, Luo F, et al. Crystallization behavior and mechanical properties of polypropylene/halloysite composites. Polymer 2007; 48: 73747384.
42. Mattos BD, Misso AL, Cadematartori PHG, et al. Properties of polypropylene composites
filled with a mixture of household waste of mate-tea and wood particles. Constr Build Mater
2014; 61: 6068.
43. Parparita E, Darie RN, Popescu CM, et al. Structuremorphologymechanical properties relationship of some polypylene/lignocellulosic composites. Mater Des 2014; 56: 763772.

19