PlanningMaterial

Principlesanddesignofwatersupplysystems
1. firstmodernwatersupplyandsanitaryschemeswerestartedin1800.(UK,US)
2. Firstwatersupplysystem,inIndiawasforCalcuttain1870.
3. Watersupplylayoutcollectionfromsources.
Treatmentplants
Sedimentationsuspendedsolidsareremoved.
Filtrationcolloidalmater,bacteriaareremoved.
Disinfectionremovingbacteria,addingchlorine
Distributions.
4. Thequalityofwaterrequireddependsonrateofdemand
Designperiod.
Populationtobeserved.
5. Percapitademand=
Q/P*365,lit[Q=qualityP=population]
6. Watersupplyschemesarefor30yrsperiod.
7. Factorseffectingrateofdemand.
Climate
Costofwater
Habitsofpeople
Efficiencyofwatersystem
Meteringofservices
Presenceorabsenceofindustries
Qualityofwater
Presenceofabsenceofsewagesystem
System
8. Waterrequirements
(200li)Domesticneedsdrinking,washing,cooking,bathing,flushingoftoilets,gardening,air
conditioning.
Commercial,institutionShops,hotel,cinemahouses,schools,offices,hostels.
Industrialsmall,largescale.
Publicusewashingstreets,flushingofsewers,parks(25li)
Firedemand10li/day
Loss2030%
9. Qualityofwaterforatown
Domestic
135LPCD
Industrial
40
Publicuse
25
Firedemand 15
Losses55
TOTAL
270
10. Sourcesofwatersurface,groundwater.
11. choiceofthesourcedependson,locationofsource,qualityofwateravailable,qualityofwater,costof
entirescheme.(surfacewater)
12. Determinationofyielddependson
13. Intensityofrainfall
14. Runofffromthegivencatchments.
15. Actualgivingofflowinstreams.
13. Q=CMpow(3/4)dickenssformula
Q=CMpow(2/3)ryvesformula
Q=124M/(Msq(2)+10.4)pow(1/2)
Q=max,flooddischarge
M=catchmentarea
C=coefficientofnatureofcatchment
14. Yieldfromwelldependson
i. Qualityofwateravailableinthequalifier.

ii. Depthofthewell.
iii. Porosityofaqualifier.
iv. Locationofnearbywells.
v. Rateofpumpingwater.
vi. Slopeofwatertable.
15. FormulaflowintoagravitywellQ=
Pi[k](Hsqhsq)/LogbaseN(R/r)
flowintopressurewellQ=2Pi[k](Hsqhsq)/LogbaseN(R/r)
Q=rateofflowintowellinmcube/day
K=permeabilityconstantinm/day
m=depthoftheconfinedaqualifierinm
H=depthofwaterinwellbeforepumping
H=depthofwaterinwellafterpumping
R=radiusofinfluenceinm
R=radiusofwellinm
16. Methodsofdistributionfromreservoir
Gravitysystemeconomical
Pumpingsystem
Dualsystem
17.
Systemofsupply
Continuoussystemadvantageous
Intermittentsystemdisadvantageous
18. Waternetworksystem
i. Deadendortreesystem
a) Advantagesdischargecanbeeasilycalculated
Diameterofthepipesissmaller
Fewervaluearerequires.
a) Disadvantagesrepairsmakeinconvenienttopeople
Adequatewaterforfirefightingmaynotbeavailable
Contaminationmayoccur
ii. GridIronsystem
a) Advantagesduringrepairs,watercanbesuppliedfromotherpipelines
Incaseoffire,waterisavailable
Astherearenodeadends,watercirculatesfreely
Lossisminimum
b) DisadvantagesExactcalculationisdifficult
longerpeoplesarerequired
Morevaluesarerequired
iii. Circularorringsystem
a) Advantageeverypointreceivesfrom2directions
duringbreakdownwatercanbesuppliedfromotherpipes
forfirefightingwaterisavailable
Designofpipesisregarded.
Largernumberofpipesregardisdisadvantage
iv. Radialsystem
a)
Calculationofpipesizeseasy
b)
Quickserviceareadvantages
19. Pressurerequireddependsonheightofthehighestbuilding
Distanceofthepointfromreservoir
Thepressurerequiredforfirehydrants
20. Theresidualpressureatferrulepoints
a) Singlestorey7mofwater
b) Double12m
c) Three17m
d) Six22m
21. Themaintaingoodpressureindistribution
Servicereservoirshouldbelocatedinacentralplace
Shouldbebalanced
Boosterpumpswhichmaybeprovidedfordistantlocalities.

22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.

Thevalueinflowpipewhich
preventswaterfromreturninginto
pipeisairvalue.
Thevaluethatregulateswaterinanoutflowpipeofanoverheadreservoirisgatevalue.
thevaluethatrelieveshighpressureinpipelinesandplumbingfixturesinabuildingsafetyvalue
Thevaluethatprovidedateverydepressionanddeadendsofwaterdistributionsofsystemiscalled
scorevalve.
Valvewhichallowsapipetoflowinonedirectionisrefluxvalve.
Dividedusedinthiscaseoffireishydrant.
Dividedusedformeasuringamountofwaterthroughpipeiswatermater.
Seweragesystems

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

8.

Sewage
combination
of
domestic sewage, industrial
waste,stormwater
Sullagewaterfromkitchens,baths,sinksfrombuildings,excepthumanoranimalexcreta
Refusedryrubbishfromstreetandhousesweeping.
GarbageAlltypesofsemisolidandsolidwastefoodandproductssuchasvegetables,wastemeats.
SewerPipecarryingsewage
SewerageSystemofpipeslaidforcarryingsewage.
Methodsofdisposalofsewageconservancysystem
Carriedoutbybuckets.
Sullagesledintonearbystream
Organicwasteisburnorburied
Watercarriagebyconveyedundergrounddesignedsewers
SystemofsewerageSeparatesystemSewage,stormwaterisseparate.
Sewagetotreatmentplant
Stornwatertonearbywatercourse
Combinedsystembothfortreatment
Partiallyseparatebothfrombuildingsarecombined
Stormwaterfromroadsisseparate.

9.

Quality of storm water depends

on

Catchmentarea
Impermeabilityfactor(runofcoefficient)
Intensityofrainfall

10.

run off Q in m[cube]/s is

Q=CAR/360,Rationalmethod
C=runoffcoefficient
A=catchmentareainhac
R=intensityofrainfallinmm/hr

11.

Emprical
formula
Q=CiA/14.158[(S/A)pow(1/4)]
cnstantdependsongroundsurface(0.50.9)=C
max.rainfallinmm/hr=i
areainhac=A
S=slopeinm/1000m,lengthofsewer

12.

memaths
formula

Q=CiA/14.835[(S/A)pow(1/5)]
fanningsQ=3125Mpow(5/8),
M=areainkmsq
TalbotsQ=87000Mpow(1/4)
dicketsQ=14=14cmpow(3/4)
ryvesQ=15cmpow(2/3)
Selfcleaningvelocities

13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
Diameterofsewer
150250mm

Selfcleaningvelocity
1.00m/sc

300600
Above600

0.75
0.6

18.

design of sewers Q=A*V,

Q=discharge, Vvelocity, A=area
ofcrosssection
qualityoesewagedependson
areatobeserved

19.

arrangementofsewage
typeofsystem

20.

21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.

33.

population

Upto20000
3.5
20,00050,000
2.5
500007,50,000
2.25
Above7,50,000
2.0
velocityofflowchezysformula,V=Cmi[pow(1/2)],m=hydraulicmeandepthinm
Bazins
formula
C=157.6/[1.81+k/m pow(1/2)],
k=constant
crimps and burges formula
V=83.45mpow(2/3)Ipow(1/2)
mannings formula V=1/n m
pow(2/3)ipow(1/2),m=A/P
hazan and Williams formula
V=0.85 cm pow(0.63) i pow
(10.54)
thequalityofliquidwastethatflowsthroughacombinedsewerindryweatherincludingstormwaterin
thesewerisdryweatherflow.
theminimumvelocityisrequiredtobemaintainedtoavoidsillingiscalledselfcleaningvelocity.
theweatherthatenterssewerthroughpoorjoints,crackesiscalledinfilteration
inseparatesystem,stormwaterandsullageareconveyedinsurfacedrain.
thetimerequiredfordevelopingmaximumratioofrunoffiscalledtimeofconcertration
aandbareconstantsdependingonfrequency,tthedurationofstorminminitstheintensityofrainfallin
mmhouris25.4a/t+b
shapesofsewers
rectangular
circularmosteconomical,onlyforseparatesystem
semielliptical
horseshoeforlargedischarge
eggshapedforcombinedsystem,moreselfcleaningvelocity
Meterialsforsewers

34.
35.
36.
37.

peakfactor

StonewearY.Tjunctionforms
forcommonuse,housedrainandlaterals
cementconcreteforstormwater
R.C.Cforstormwater
Precastforwatertightjoints
Castinsituformakingsemielliptical,horseshoesewers
ACpipesdomesticsanitarydrainage
Castironpipelonglife
Stulpipe

Sewersuitableforcarryingoverpipesacrossbridgearecastiron
Suitablematerialforasewertocarrysewageunderpressuresteel
Jointusedforjoiningstonewarepipeisspigotandsocket.
Sewerappurtenances

38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
64.
65.
66.
67.

Manholesspacingpipediameter(mm)
Upto300
301500
501900
Beyond900

spacing(m)
45
75
90
asapprovedbyauthority

When a sewer connects with another sewer which is at a materially different level, drop manhole is
adopted
Anopeningthroughwhichstormwaterfromastreetisallowedtoenterastromseweroracombined
seweriscalledastreetinlet.
small chambers constructed to prevent the entry of grit, sand, debris into the sewer lines are catch
basinorpits
Whereitisnotpracticabletoobtainagradientinthesewertogiveaselfcleaningvelocityof0.75m/s,
flushingtankswillbeprovided
Portionofsewerconstructedlowerthantheadjacentstretch,topassbeneathavalley,watercourseor
otherobstructionisinvertedsiphon
Highstormwaterfromheavyrainfallisdisposedoffromthesewersbymeansofregulators.
Properlocationofflushingtankisleadofsewerline.
Anopeningthroughwhichstormwaterisadmittedandconveyedtothestormsewercalledintercepting
chamber.
Changeindirectionofsewersisgenerallymadeatmanholes.
Automaticflushingtanksworksontheprinciplesosiphon.
Theslopingconcreteonthesidesofthechannelinamanholeiscalledbunching.
Thespaceinthelowerpositionofmanholeprovidedforinspectionisworkingchamber.
Flushingtankisdividedtoflushwaterintoaseweronceinaday.
Deviceusedinapumpingstationtomeasurethequalityofflowofseweriscalledflowrecorder.
Sewagewhichisundergoingtreatmentiscalledsepticsewage.
Thefunctionsofgritchamberistoremoveinorganicsubstances.
Finegritinthesewageisremovedindetritustank.
Thefunctionofskinningtankistoremoveoilandfattysubstances
Settledpracticalsofsewageinthesedimentationtankaresludge.
chemicalsusedfordecomposingorganicwasteinthepresenceofairisflocculation
Processofdecomposingorganicwasteinthepresenceofairisoxidation.
Biologicaltreatmentofsewagetakesplaceintrickingfitter.
Functionofsedimentationtankinsewageworkistoremovesuspendedsolids.
%ofsludgemixedwithsewageinprimarysettingsis2040%
Largesizedfloatingobjectscanberemovedfromsewagebyscreening.
Liquidsewagecomingoutofsedimentationtankiseffluent.
Theconversationofwastewaterfromanindustrycanbedonebyrecycling.
Whensewageisdisposedofintowaterbodiesiscalleddilution.
Broadirrigationisanexampleoftreatingsewagebylandtreatment.
Theburningofsludgeisincineration.
Solidwastemanagement

1)
RefuseAlltheputrescribleandputresciblesoildwasteexceptbodywaste.
2)
Rubbishnonputresciblewasteincludespaper,pins,glass,wood.
3)Garbagerejectingfoodconstituents.
4)
Inlandfillingwasteisdepositedin0.94.5mthicklayers.
5)
Biologicalcompositionofaganicsubstancesiscomposing.
6)
Burningofrefuseundercontrolledmannerisincineration.
7)
Incinerationisgenerallyforrefuse.
8)
Theprocessofstackingrefuseinpiles,frequentlyturningandderating.
9)
Suitablygivesaproductknownascomposting.
Sanitaryfittingsandfixtures
1. DrainAnypipewhichconveysdischargesfromsanitaryappliances

2. buildingdrainpartofthelowesthorizontalpipingofdrainingsystemwhichreceivesthedischarge
fromsoil,wasteandotherpipesinsidethebuildingandconveysittothebuildingsewerwhichbeginsI
moutsidethebuildingwall.
3. Buildingsewerpartofhorizontalpipeofadrainagesystemwhichextendsfromtheendofthebuilding
drainreceivesdischargefromitandconveysittopublicsewer.
4. Soilwastedischarewaterclosets,urinals,slopsinks,andsimilarappliances.
5. Soilpipepipethatconveysthedischargeofwaterclosetsoffiatureshavingsimilarfunctions.
6. Wastewaterdischargefromwashbasinssinks.
7. Wastepipereceivesthedischargeofanyfixturesexceptwaterclosets
8. stackmainverticaldischargeorventilatingpipe
9. Trapfittingdeviceprovidealiquidsealtopreventthebackpassageofairwithoutaffectingtheflowof
sewageorwastewaterthroughit.
10. Gullytraptocollectwastewaterfromkitchen,sink,washbasins,baths,andrainwaterpipes.
11. Floortrapwastewaterfromfloorsofbathsandkitchensintodraing.
12. Interceptingtrapplacedwherethehousedrainjoinsthemainsewer
13. Inspectionchamberreceivesthewastesfromgullytrapsanddisposesitofftomanhide.
14. Pipesystems

15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.

Twopipesystemoneconveyssoildirectlytothedrainotherconveywastewatertothedrain
fromdiff.floor.
Onepipesystemwasteconnectionsfromsinks,baths,washbasinsandsoilpipebranches
arecollectedintomainpipe.
Singlestacksystemonepipesystemwithoutventilationpipework.

sanitaryfittingusedtoreceivethehumanexcretadirectlyfromuseriscalledwatercloset
Appliancesusedtoflushwaterclosets,urinalsareflushingcisterns.
Thepipethatconveysthedischargeofwaterclosetsorfisturesiscalledsoilpipe.
Thewatersealsinthetraparepreventedfrombrakingbymeansoftheventilatingpipe.
AlldrainagepipeshouldbecoveredwithaG.Iwiredome.
Minimumselfcleaningvelocityforhousedrains0.75m/sec.

Principlesofcityplanning
1. Urbanareaisprimarilytheseatofpolitical,religious,commercialandculturalleadersofthesociety.
2. Village Humansettlementnotexceeding5000population.
Principleoccupationisagriculture
3. Towns principlesoccupationisotherthanagriculture
5000<population>20000
Mediumtown2000050000
Largetown50000100000
4. Centralvillage Morethan2000population
Supplies,trade,institution.
5. Newtown
newlyestablishedforthepurposeofspecificeconomic
activities,for
deconcentrating the population of large urban
settlement and reconcentrating in a
separatelocation.
6. City population>100000
Newtowns
1. Townplanningisascienceconsistsincollecting,correlatingandanalyzingthefactsaboutatown.
2. Theartliesinarrangingthecomponentsofatowninsuchawaythatthefinalresultisintheformofa
beautiful,convenient,economicalandefficientunit.
3. Thetownplanningexpressthelifeofanareaandthearchitecturerevealsitsspirit.
4. Mohanjodarowasdiscoveredbybritisharchaeologistsirjohnmarshallin1922.
5. populationofmohanjodaro(2600BC)wasestimatedas4000060000
6. Objectsoftownplanning
Beauty
Convenience
Environment
Health
7. Principlesoftownplanning
Greenbelt
Housing

 Publicbuildings
Recreationcenters
Roadsystem
Transportfacilities
Zoning
8. topologicalfeaturescontributingtotheoriginoftownsare
Conditionsfavorableforindustrialunits.
Hillyareastoachievetheobjectofsecurity.
Plainareasusefulforbusinessactivities.
Riverbanks
Seaoroceanfronts.
9. functionalaspectsresponsiblefortheoriginandtownsare
education
healthresorts
political
religious
10. growthoftowns
1.
naturalwithoutanyfutureplanning
concentricspread
Ribbondevelopmentalongmainroads
Satellitegrowthindividual
scatteredgrowthirregular
2.
Plannedgrowthcontrolled
rulesandregulation
distribution
Siteplanning
x

Principles
1. Keepinginviewthepurposeofbuilding
2. Fastdeveloping,socialandfriendlyneighborhood
3. Wherecommunityservices,utilities,amenities,meansoftransportareavailable
4. Withinthelimitsofarea,buildingbyelaws
5. Withpossibilitiesoffutureextension
6. Situationonelevatedplace,withuniformslopes
7. Goodsoilsurfaceforfoundation
8. Naturallybeautifulandmanmadeenvironment
9. Goodlandscapeandawayfromquarries,kilns,factories
10. Considerlegal,financialaspects.(ownershiprights)

Siteplanshouldincludetheinformationof
1. Theboundaryoftheplot,shapeofthesiteandexteriorhousedimensions
2. Setbacklineatthefront,backandsites
3. Anypermanentboundariesormarks
4. Namesandwidthsofexistingstreets,gradeelevationatcentreline
5. Sizeandlocationofgarages
6. Numberofplot,block
7. Directionsofprevailingwindsandnorthline
8. Footpaths,widthsandkinds
9. Zoningandbuildingrestrictions
10. Sizeandlocationdetailsofgasline,undergrounddrainage,watermines,manholes,ventilating
pipes
11. Locationoffirehydrant
Planningregulationsandbuildingbyelaws

1. Linesofbuildingfrontages
Buildingline lineuptowhichtheplinthofabuildingadjoiningastreetoranextensionofstreet.

Control line extra margin from building line which attracts vehicle
parking.
Typeofroad
Nationalandstatehighways
Majordistrictroads
Otherdistrictroads
Villageroads

Actuallimitsinurbanareas
Buildingline
30m
15m
9m
9m

Controlline
45m
24m
25m
15m

2. Builtupareaofbuildings
Builtuporcoveredarea=plotareaopenspaces
Floorarearatio,FAR

coveredareaofallfloorsx100
Plotarea
Inabusinessarea,thecoveredareashallnotexceed75%ofplotarea
Inanindustrial,thecoveredareashallnotexceed60%
Inaresidentialarea,
Areaofplot
Lessthan200SQm
200500
5001000
Morethan1000

60%
50%
40%
33.33%
Arch.Developments

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.

Architectureisanartoforganizingspacenotonlyfunctionallybutalsobeautifully.
Theconstituentsofbeautyarestructure,utilityandaesthetics.
Egyptianarchitecturereflectstheabsolutepowerofthepharaohsandslaveryofthepeople.
GreekarchitecturewastheproductofthedemocraticbeliefofGreekcivilization.
Romanarchitectureromanimpericalpower.
basilicanchurchesreflectreligiousenthusiasm.
Gothicreflectstheconditionofpassionateenthusiasm.
Frenchrenaissanceshowsthepompouslifeofmonarchs.
Indianarchitectureshowsitsspiritualcontentandrepresents.
principlesofarchitecturegoodnessorconvenientarrangement.
beauty
truth
qualitiesofarchitecturestrength,vitality,restraint,response,grace,breadth,scale,goodpictoral
setting,expressionofpurpose.
factorinarchitecturemass,form,proportion,balance,symmetry,contrast.
alltheprehistoricremainshavereligiousrelationship.
thedevtofhistoricarchitectureisarecordofcontinuationofevolution,beginningwiththeEgyptian
architecture.
Influenceofmodernartonarchitecture

Sevenwondersoftheancientworld
1. ThepyramidofEgypt.
2. HanginggardensofBabylon.
3. ThetempleofartemisatEphesus.
4. Thetombofmansolusathalicarnassus.
5. TheColossusofRhodes.
6. ThestatueofzeusatOlympia.
7. ThepharosatAlexandria.

Basicprinciplesofarch.Acoustics
1. Def:Thescienceofsound.
2. Soundisproducedwhenpartofatmosphereiscompressedsuddenly.
3. Soundcanttravelinvacuumitrequiresamediumfortransmission.
4. Thespeedatwhichthesoundwavestravelorpassthroughanymediumistermedassoundvelocity.
5. soundwavesstrokedonthewallsofanenclosedroomwillbe
a. Someisreflectedback.
b. Someisabsorbedbythesurfaceandlisteners.
c. Somearetransmittedoutsidetheroomthroughvibration.
6. Concave surface leads to concentration of reflected sound waves and are provided to work as the
reflectors.
7. Convexsurfacetendstospreadthereflectedwaves.
8. Defectsdevelopedduetothereflectionofsoundare
a. echoes
therepetitionofsoundbyreflectionofsoundwaves
b. Reverberation thegradualprocessoftransformationoperatesoveracertainintervaloftime.
9. Absorbentmaterialsaresoftandporous
a. Workingprincipleisthesoundwavespenetrateintotheporesandinthisprocessthesound
wavesareconvertedintootherformofenergybyfriction.
b. Theabsorbingcapacitydependsonthickness,densityandfrequencyofthesound.
c. Thesuspendedabsorbersintheformofinvertedconesmakethehallacousticallygood.
d. Lowfrequencyabsorbentmaterialshouldbeusedtoachieveoptimumreverberationtimeovera
widerangeoffrequencyofsound.
10. typeofabsorbentmaterials
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
j.

hairfelt
0.60(25mm)
acousticplaster 0.150.30(20mm)
acousticaltiles
strawboard

0.30500(13mm)
pulpboards

0.17
compressedfiberboard 0.300.52
compressedwoodparticleboard
0.40(13mm)
perforatedplywood

0.950.20
woodwoolboard

0.20(25mm)
quiltsandmats

Airpollution,control
1. Airpollutionismainlycontributedbyindustry,fastmovingvehicles,andautomobiles.
2. factorsresponsibleforairpollution
dustfertilizerproducerindustries
Cementdust
Thermalpowerstations
Nucleicondensation
Industries
Aeroplanes
Gases
Hydrogensulphide
Nitrogen
Fluoride
Nitricacid
Ammoniahydrocarbons
Radioactivesources
Carbonmonoxide.
3. Airpollutantsenterhumanfoodandaggravaterespiratoryailmentssuchasbronchitis,asthama,lung
cancer.
4. Airpollutioneffectsstones,metals,mortar,woodetc.

Ammoniaeyes
Bestoslungcancer
Bariumheartmuscles
Ironsonintolungs
5. 40%ofairpollutioniscausedbyautomobiles(CO,hydrocarbons,andoxidesofnitrogen).
6. controltechniques
a. Gas absorption
effluent gasses are passed through the absorbers containing liquid
absorbentswhichtreattheoffendingconstituents.
b. Gas adsorption
passing effluent gas through solid absorbers contained in an
adsorptioncollectingdevice.
c. Combustion

d. Gascleaning
e. Sourcerelocation
f. Fuelsubstitution
g. Processchanges
h. Goodoperatingpractice
i. Sourceshutdownanddispension.
Noisepollution,control
1. Thepathsoftransmissionareairorsolidpartsofbuildingconstructionandaquipment.
2. Thegreatestqualitywillflowthroughthepathofleastresistance.
3. Noisesoriginatingwithinaroomwillbeairborne.
4. Noisesoriginatingwithoutaroomwillbeairandsolidborne.
5. Iftwopartitionsterminateattheceilingsoundwilleasilypass
6. Degree of noise reduction is achieved by the diff. in sound level produced at the source and the level
desiredatthelistenersposition.
7. Instrumentformeasuringthesoundissoundlevelmeter.
8. Itconsistsofmicroscopicphonewhichfeedsonelectricalsignalintoanamplifier.
9. Airoutletsandunitheatersusuallyhavesoundlevelsspecifiedfortheairconditionsofoperation.
10. Weshouldobtainthenoisereductionofdiff.betweenprobableorexistinglevelanddesirablelevel.
11. Abnormally highlevel are associated with industries where as speech interference is influenced by
durationanddistanceofcommunication.
12. Accordingtoinversesquarelaw,adoublingthedistancebetweensourceandlistnerwillcauseasound
pressurelevelreductionof6db.
13. Winddirectionandvelocity,temperatureandgradientsaffectssoundattenuationinair.
14. Soundtraveloutdoorswillbeinfluencedbyreflectivesurfacesofthegroundandbuildings.
15. Poor of adequate weight must close tightly against rubber gaskets on stops and be sealed at the
threshold.
16. Doubledoorsmaybeusedforadditionalinsulation.
17. Thetransmissionlossofthematerialwithwhichthedoorismadeandoftheinstalleddoorarenotsame.
18. Wegaininsulationbyassumingtightfitofsashandbyusingheavierglassindoubleoreventripleplans.
19. Mainintersuptionsinbuildingconstructionwhichcauseinsulationarepipesleeves,electricalraceways,
backtobackelectricaloutlerboxesinwalles,ductopeningsandrecessedpanelboards.
20. Maximumpossiblereductionofsoundwithadditionaltreatmentis6db.
21. Reflectivesurfaceswillsustainthenoise.
22. Noisereduction=estimatedorobservedleveldesiredlevel.
23. Comparedtoairbornesound,solidbornesoundisapttocontainmoreenergy.
24. Theenergymayberelatedbythevibratingstructureatsomedistancefromthesource.

10

25. Airbornebecomessolidborneifitsetsconstructioninmotion.
26. Thepathofsoundtravelingfromtheroom,abovetotheroom,belowthroughsidewallsiscalledflanking
transmission.
27. Residentfloorfinisherprovidesvaryingdegreeofimpactinsulation.
28. Thincompositiontilesonconcretefloorsreducetransmittedsoundto25db
29. Corktile,5/16inchesthickprovides10db.
30. Thickcarpet20db
31. Aflooronbatlens67db.
32. Resilient strips of one inch mineral wood or fiberglass under the battens will about double in insulation
value.
33. Semidiscontinuousconstructionsarealsogoodairbornesoundinsulations.
34. An excellent solution is the use of a foundation for equipment which rests on the ground and is
independentofthebuildingstructure.
35. Isolatorelementslikesprings,rubber,mayalsobeused.
36. Highvelocityandturbulentflowcontributetohighnoiselevels.
Principlesoflightingandillumination
1. artificiallightinginindependentoflocation,climateorevenofthebuildingfabric
2. whichitbrightsunshinetheilluminationisaround100klux
3. theintensityofthermalradiationislikelytobeabout1kw/msq
4. Whatweperceiveaslight,isanarrowwavelengthbandofelectromagneticradiationfromabout380to
780.
5. Itconsistsofenergyparticlesphotons.
6. Thewavelengthdeterminesitscolor.
7. Lightcontainingallvisiblewavesisperceivedaswhite.
8. thehumaneyessensitivityvarieswiththewavelength,itisgreatestaround550nm.(yellow)
9. Velocityoflight3*10pow8(air,vaccum)

2.25*10pow8(water)
1.98*10POW8(glass)
10. lightincidentonanobjectcanbedistributedas
Reflectancer
Absorbancea
Transmittancet
r+a+t=1
11. incaseofopaqueobjects,t=0,r+a=1
12. surfaceswithneutralreflectionpropertieswillbeseeninwhitelight
White,ifrisabove0.75
Greyifrisbetween0.05and0.75
Blackifrbelow0.05
13. inmixingcoloredpigments,theabsorptionsareadditiveandreflectionswillbesubtractive
Yellowpaint

absorbblue

reflectsred,yellow,green

Bluepaint

absorbred,yellow

reflectsblue,green

Mixtureoftwo absorbblue,red,yellow reflectsonlygreen

11

14. Amixtureofallkidsofpigmentwillbeblack,asitabsorbsallwavelengths.
15. Colorswhichaddupfromwhitelightaretermedcontemporarycolors.
E.g.redandgreen,yellowandblue
16. Hue the concept of color, using the common color terms: red, yellow, green, blue and purpose, but
furthersubdividingeachinto5categories.
17. Value the subjective measures of reflectance, light or dark appearance according to scale from
0(absoluteblack)to10(absolutewhite)convertibleintoreflectancer=v(v1)
18. Chromathedegreeofcolorfullnessorintensityofcolor,distinguishing14classes.Alowchromawould
bealmostgreythebrightestcolorshaveachormaof12to14.
19. Theintensityofalightsourceismeasuredinunitsofcandela(I).
20. Theflux(flow)oflightismeasuredinlumens(F).
21. Onlumenistheflowoflightemittedbyaunitintensitypointsource,withinaunitsolidangle.
22. Illuminationismeasuredastheamountoffluxfallingonunitarea,(E)Im/msqwhichisthelux,theunitof
illuminationinthesysteminternational.
23. Luminanceisthemeasureofbrightnessofasurface.(L)
24. Illuminationfromapointsourcereduceswiththesquareofthedistance.E=1/dsq
25. Illumination of a surface from several sources will be the simple sum of component illumination
E=E1+E2+..
26. Solarilluminationistheaverageilluminationreceivedonthesurfaceofasmallspherefromalldirections.
27. The purpose of lighting practical to facilitate the performance of a visual task and ensure visual
comfort

Artistictocreatecertainemotionaleffects

28. Visualacnity=1/visualangle(P)
Contrastsensitivity=leastperceptibleluminancedye.*100%/lowerofthetwo
(L2L1)*100/L1
29. visualperformanceisthetomerequiredforseeing
30. theeyerespondstoarangeofilluminationlevelsextendingoveramillionordersofmagnitudefrom0.1
lux(fullmoonlight)to100000lux(brightsunline)
31. WhendeltaE(max)/E(s)=4,wehaveacompletelymenodirectionallight.
32. Ebeta=E(n)*cos(beta)
Ebeta=illuminationonaplanefitledbybetadegree
E(n)=illuminationonanormalplane
Beta=angleofincidence
Roleofmicroclimateindesign
1. Microclimateimplylocaldeviationfromtheclimateofalargearea.
2. topographySlope,orientation,exposure,elevation,hillsorvalleys
3. Adifferentialof7to8minheightcancauseadifferentof5to6degCinairtemperature.
4. Stone, concrete, asphalt surface can reach a temperature up to 44 deg C than the surrounding air
temperature

12

5. By covering the ground with vegetation, the surface of contact is transferred to a higher layer and is
increased4to12times.
6. thefactorscausingdeviationsoftheurbanclimatefromtheregionalmacroclimateare
x

changedsurfacequalitiesincreasedabsorbanceofsolarradiationreducedevaporation.

Buildings

Energyseepage

Atmosphericpollution

Thermalcomfort
1. Theprocessinvolvedinconvertingfoodatsunlightintolivingmatterandusefulformofenergyareknown
asmetabolism.
2. Themetabolicheatproductioncanbedividedinto
x

Basalmetabolismproductionofvegetative,automaticprocess

Muscularmetabolismproductionofmuscles.

3. Ofalltheenergyproducedinthebody,onlyabout20%isutilized.
4. 80%issurplusheatandmustbedissipatedtotheenvironment
5. Thedeepbodytemperaturemustremainbalancedandconstantaround37degC
6. Body can release heart to its environment by convection, radiation and Evaporation, and to a lesser
extentbyconduction.
7. Convectionisduetoheattransmissionfromthebodytotheairincontactwiththeskinorclothing
8. Radiation heat loss depends on the temperature of the body surface and the temperature of opposing
surfaces.
9. Evaporationdependsonthehumidityofair(thedryertheair,thefastertheevaporation)
10. Conductiondependsonthetemperaturedifferencebetweenthebodysurfaceandtheobject,thebodyis
indirectcontactwith
11. MetEvap+orcond+orconv+orrad=0
12. Therateofsweatingmayvaryfromabout20g/hto3kg/n
13. In a temperature climate, indoors when the air temperature is around 18C when the air is clam i.e., air
velocity does not exceed 0.25 m/sec. when the humidity is bdt 40 and 60%, a person engaged in
sedentaryworkwilldissipatethesurplusheatwithoutanydifficultyasby
x

Radiation45%

Convection30%

Evaporation25%

14. Normalskintemperatureisbetween31degCand34degC.
15. Thermalpreferencesareinfluencedbyclothing,acclimatization,ageandsen,bodyshape,subcutaneous
fat,stateofheath,foodanddrink,skincolour.
16. NdegC=N+273.15kelvin
17. Thegreaterthetemperaturedifferentthefastertherateofheatflow

13

18. Thermalconductivitytherateatwhichmolecularmovementspreadsvarieswithdifferentmaterials.(k=
w/m.degC)
19. Itsvaluevariesbetween0.03w/mdegCforinsulatingmaterials,andupto400w/mdegCformetals
20. Thelowertheconductivity,thebetterinsulatoramaterialis
21. resistivity1/k
22. Betterinsulatorswillhavehigherresistivityvalues.
23. ResistanceofabodyisR=b/k(b=thicknessinm)
24. Lowthermalcapacitystructureswarnwpquicklybutalsocoolrapidly
25. Construction with a low U value (air to air transmittance) will reduce all forms of conduction heat
transfer.
EgyptianArchitecture(3000BC100AD)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.

Columnarandtrabeatedstyle(trab=beam)
Mainlytombsandtemples.
contrasttowestAsiaticarchitecture(palaces)
EgyptianMassivewalls,madeofsundriedmudbricks
HousingOneortwostoreyhigh,livinghallincentre.
Templesrectangularplan,frontedbymonolithicpillars,orientedtowordnile.
Columnsvegetableoriginlikethelotusstalk,tiedintervalsbybands.
Advancedinuseofcolors,blue,red,yellow
TombwasaneternalhometoEgyptians.
3typesoftombsmastabas,royalpyramids&rockcutcaves.
Mastabacentralspacesarcophagus
Pyramidsonlyforpharaohsmassive&impregnabletombs.
MaterialusedforcoreLimestone.
Graniteforkingschamber,passages.
Entrancefromnorth.
GreatpyramidofcheopsatGiza(230.5m*230.5m),146mheight.
BuiltinsolidstoneswithacasingoffinallydressedTuralimestones&theapexstonewasoncecoated
withgold.
Rockcuttombseg:TritAukhAmonatThebes.
temples2typesMortuary,Ministrationtopharaohs(cult)
MortuarySeriesofrooms,pillaredcourt,phypostylehallthedarkmysteriouschamber,chapel.
Onlytheroyal&privilegedpersonswereadmittedforstately
Religiousfunctions.
Inculttemples,theprocessionswereuniquefeatures.
Sphinxes&obelisksweresetupinpairstodignifythetempleentrances
egofculttemple,templeofkhonsatkonark.
Obelisksarelargesizesmonolithssquareinplan(sunworship)
Heightofobeliskis9or1timesitslowerdiameter.
4sidesofbasearecutwithfingersofhieroglyph.
Greekarchitecture(650BC30BC)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Greektemplesweresurroundedbyopencolonnadesinfullviewofcommonpeople
Orientedtowordseast(sun)
Civilizationspreadmainlyduringbronzeages.
Hellenic(650323BC)
Columnar&trabeatedstyleevolvedfromwoodenhutofuprightposts&supportingbeam&sloping
rafters.
twoperiodsHellenicperiod,Hellenisticperiod.
Arches,domes,vaultswerenotusedbytheGreeks.
Greekusedtimber&afterbuilt.
In600BCMasonryfromcoursedrubbletofineashlars.
nomortarwasused.

14


10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.

Minimizedthejointsbyusinglargesizedstones.

3ordersofarchitectureDoric,Ionic,Corinthian.
Hellenisticperiod(32330BC)
InfluencedbyMiddleEasternculture.
Religiouscharacterbutafter4thcenturyBC,publicbuildingsbegan
Archesstartedappearingonwallopenings.
3rdcenturyBCrooftrussescametocoverlargerspaces.
OrnateCorinthianorderwasmorepopularlyused.
Romanarchitecture(300BC365AC)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

FollowedcolumnarstyleandalsoEtruscansarch&vault.
Columnsweresuperimposesincaseofcolosseumofrome.
Useoflimeconcretewasstarted(cement)
Characterofromearchisthecapacitytospanoverlargespaces.
Romanbuildingswereofseveralstoried,ornamentedbyhalfattachedcolumnssuperimposedone
abovetheother.
6. arch.ofromeswasessentiallyanartofshapingspacearoundrituals.
7. Manystructureswereutilizationtypesuchasacqueducts&bridges.
Medievalperiod
1. EarlyChristianarchitecture(313800AD)
i. Fallowedromanstyle.
ii. Columnswereeithercloselyspacedtocarryentablatureorwidelyspacedtocarrysemicircular
arches.
iii. Thebasilicanchurcheswererenderedspacious,graceful,impressiveanddignifiedby
arrangingthecolumns&rows.
iv. Mainentrancewasprovidedinoneshorterside.
v. Biblicanscenesbecomeusualfeaturesofdecoration.
vi. Architecturerepresentstheirfantacism,passionsearchformysteryoftherealpresence.
2. Byzanticarchitecture()3301453AD)
i. Characterizedbythenoveldevtofdomecoversquareorpolygonplansofchurchesand
tombs.
ii. Varioustypeofdomesusedwere,simple,compound,melonshaped,onionshaped.
iii. Domeswereconstructedwithoutcenteringwiththinradiatingbricksorlightweightfumic
stones.
iv. Usedthecolumnsdecoratelyaswellasstructurallytosupportgalleriesandsemicircular
arches.
v. Wallswerefullycoveredwithmarblemosaicsandfrescodecoration
3. Muslimarchitecture7thcentury
i. Majorconstructionsmosque,tombs,palaces.
ii. ConstructionsJamamasjid

madrassah

rauza

dargah

khans

thepointedarchitecture

thedome

arabesque
4. Romanesquearchitecture(9to15thcentury)

15

i. IsdirectmodificationofromanarchitecturewhichgrewinItaly,France,Germany,central
Europe,Spain,andBritan.
ii. Usedlightermaterials.
iii.
Stainedglasswaslittleused.
5. Gothicarchitecture(12thcentury)
i. Introductionofpointedarchitecture,buttressandhighpinnacle.
ii. Inventedflyingbuttressinplaceofvaultstosupportwalls.
iii. Gothicstyleisasynthesisofaestheticandtechnicalqualities.
iv. Inventedstainedcoloredglass.
v. Designedtownhalls,royalplaces,courthouses,hospitals.
vi. Churcheswereconvenientratherthansymmetry.

renaissanceperiods
6. Renaissancearchitecture(15th19thcentury)
i. IstherevivalofclassicGreekandromanarchitecture.
ii. Largesizedstoneblackswereusedtodignity
iii.
Buildingswerearrangedwithspecialregardtosymmetry.
iv.
5orderofarchitecturewerestandardizedandusedbothconstructivelyand
decoratively.
v. Ornamentationwasbasedonclassicalmethodologyandpagansubject.
vi.
Statuswasneitherproportiontohumanscalenoranintegralpartofthebuildings.
vii.
Inplaceofstainedglass,frescopaintingswereused.
Buddhistarchitecture(300BC820BC)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.

Majorfeaturesstupasortopes,stambhasorlats,chaityas,viharasormonasteries.
stupamonumentpropagatestheDoctrine.
stupacircular,sectionandthetotalformofwhichwereallderivedfromcircle.
eg:stupas,sanch(250BC), Saronath(7th century), Amaravath(3rd c,AD), bar hut(2rd c,AD),budh
gaya(75BC)
Column2typespersepolitantype,graecoromantype.
Firstoctagonal,bellshapedcapital.
graecoromantypeisrectangularwithshallowflucts.
Eg:ashokapillars(274237BC)
chaityastempleaswellasassemblyhallscreatedoutofparticulardemandsofBuddhistregion.
Eg:Bhaja,kondane,karle,ajanta(2ndC,BC),tllora.
VihararesidentialplacesofBuddhistpriests.
Indusvalleycivilization(Harappan)(3000)
Indianarchitecture(500BCtopresent)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

5000yrsago,peoplefromSumerianorigincameandsettlednearestriverIndus.
IsacontemporaryofancientMesopotamia.
citiesweresystematicanddividedinto12blocks(365*244meach)
Englishbondsinwalls.
Streets9mwide.
Undergrounddrainagelineswithinspectionchambersatregularintervals.
housesconsistedofroomsaroundacourtyardandstaircase.(kilnburntbricks)
Oxdrivencartsoflargesolidwhetsfortransportation.
Toolsofstoneandcopperwereinuse.
Potsweremadeofclay,wood.
Vedic(15001000BC)

16

1. DravidiansThebuildersofthecitycivilizationofIndusvalley.
IndoAryan(1500BC)
1. Aryanvillagewasmadeoftimberandthatchhuts.
2. Protectedbytimberfenceconsistingofrectangularwoodenposts.
3. Gatewayatentrance.
4. AllIndianartisderivedfromtheAryanvillage.
Dravidianarchitecture(600AD1000AD)
1. Templeconsistsofgarbhagritha(wombhouse)withamandopeortheopenporch.
2. Mainlyadoptedtrabeatedsystemofconstruction.
3. Noarches,avoidmortar.
4. Templeswereexpandedwithcourtyardscalledprakarasenclosinggopurams.
5. Templesonhilltops,situatedamidstbeautifulsurroundings.
6. 5typespallava,chola,pandya,vijayanagar,latepandya/madhura
7. pallavarockcuttemple,structuraltemples(shoretemple)
8. chola: temple consists of usual compartment such as a pillared halls attached to the vimana or the
toweroverthesanctum.(brihadeshwartempleoftanjavur)
9. Pandyapracticeofconstructingthevimalaoverthecellaimportancetothetempleentrancegopuram.
10. Vijayanagarstyletempleofmodulatesizes,richinbeauty,form,proportion,
Inadditiontomaintempleincentre,therewereseparateshrines,
pillaredhalls,
andpavilions.
11.
Anotherimportantiskalianmantapa.
12.
Latepandyan/madhurastyle
Templeswithvastsizeandimpressiveappearance.

Pillaredhalls,parkaresoutside.

Eg:Ranganath,Madhura,Rameswaram,Tirupathi.
Conceptofshelter
1. AgglomerationAnurbanregionwhoseboundariesmayexceedthoseofone,usuallylargecity.
2. PrimarycityOneormoreofthelargestcitiesinacountrythatholdsarelativelyhighpercentageof
thetotalurbanpopulation.
3. Urbanpopulationgrowthreferstotheincreaseintheabsolutenumberofpeopleresidingincities.
4. Urbanizationreferstotheproportionoftheoverallpopulationthatresidesinurbanareas.
5. Decentralizationtheprocesswherebygrowthinurbanpopulationandemploymenttakesplacein
secondarycitiesthatmaybe150kmawayfromthemetropolitanareaandbeyond
6. Deconcentrationtheexpansionofemploymentandpopulationinperipheralareasaroundacity.
7. Housingisamediumforselfexpressionaswellasasanctuaryforoldage.
1.
2.
3.
4.

Concrete
Cementconcreteisamixtureofcement,water,fineaggregate,courseaggregate.
theproportionofcement,sandandaggregatesis1:2or3:4or6
Limeconcretemixtureofslakedlime,fineaggregate,courseaggregate.(1:2:4),water.
R.C.Ctheconcreteandreinforcingmetal.
Roleofgovernmentagencies

1. Cooperativehousingsocietiesarehelpedbythegovt.in
a. Acquiringlandatcheaprates
b. Providingfinancialhelpatreasonablerates
2. First1915SaraswatCoop.HousingSociety,Bombay.
3. HUDCO(1970)HousingandUrbandevelopmentcooperation:aimstohelpbackwardclasses,
SC,ST
Category

Costceiling

Rateofint.

Repaymentperiod

%ofloansfrom
HUDCO

EWS

8000

5%

20yrs

17

30

LIG

18000

15

MIG(I)

25000

9.5

12

MIG(II)

42000

10.5

12

HIG

100000

11.5

10

25
25
20

4. CIDCO(CityandIndustrialDevelopmentcooperation),Bombay.
a. MRT(massrapidtransit)throughcancroidsofresidentialandindustrialnodes
b. Eachnodehaving1lakhpopulation
Housingpoliciesanddesign
1. constraintsofhousingcommodity
a. immobility
b. initialinvestments
c.

finance,transport,landpolicy

2. housingpoliciesinIndiatwoapproachesare
a. demandledhousingapproachruraldevelopment
Bringdownthemigrations
Encouragingsmallandmediumtowns
b. supplyledapproach

maximizethenoofdwellingunits
Improvethequalityofenvironment
Promotelowcostalternatives
Useofvacantland
Taxationpolicies
Suitableamendmentsforrentcontrol

3. housingactivitydependson
a. availabilityoflabor
b. availabilityofcheapfinance
c.

availabletransportfacilities

d. methodsofconstruction
e. rateofinterestorinvestment
f.

predictionsoffuturedemands

g. developmentofpopulation
h. taxationpolicyonrealestates
i.

Tourplanningandenvironmentalconditions.

4. Generalrequirementsofresi.Buildings
a. Heightwrtroad,street.
b. Locationnearschools,amenities,awayfromnoise,smoke.
c.

Privacy

d. Orientationwrtsun,winds.
e. Securitysafeconstruction.

18

f.

Space4.56M2perperson.

g. Utilitieselectricity,water,drainage,atreasonablerates.
h. Ventilation.
5. classificationofresidentialbuildings
a. detachedhouses

wherelandvalueislow
Houseandlittlelandsurroundingit
Marginsonallsides
Highestformofhousing

b. Semidetachedhouses

plotdividedinto2byawall
Advantageslikesharingofcosts

c.

Rowhouses

minrequirementswithregardstospace
Singleordoublestrayed
Yieldmorenetresi.density
PreferredforLIG

d. Apartments

sharingthecostoflandandamenities

e. Skyscrappers

similarasapts.

6. Designofresi.areas
a. Aesthetics
b. Basicmaterials
c.

Housingunit

d. Layout

3001000people

showingparks,schools,comm.centers

e. Sizeandshape 300012000pop.Ofaresi.Unit
f.

Streetsystem

7. Nationalhousingpolicy
GovthaspassedtheUrbanlandact,1976forsecuringexcesslandfromprivatelandholders
fordevelopmentofhousingschemesfortheweakersections.
Objectives
1. forincreasinghousingsupplytoweakersections
2. tocheckthegrowthofpopulation
3. properlandusepolicytopreventhaphazarddevelopment
4. removalofslums
5. encouragehousingcooperatives
6. adequatefinancialprovisionsforhousing
7. Propagationanduseofnew,cheaplocallyavailablebuil.Material.
1. Principlesoflandscapedesignandsiteplanning
2. Landscapeisareflectionofdynamicnaturalandsocialsystems.
3. Landscapetheory

naturalprocess,socialprocesses,methodology,andtechnologyofvalues.

19

4. Goalsofartoflandscape

Surprise,variety,concealment,thedevelopmentofidyllicprospects,

lineofbeauty,manipulationofnatureundulatingcontours,eliminationofvisualbreakbetweengarden
andlandscape.
5. Landscape design deals with surfaces, edges and joints, steps and ramps, connecting specific
differencesinelevation,pavinganddrainage.
6. Treesactasscaletransitionfromthemultiplebuildingtotheindividual.
7. BEAUTYtheevidentharmoniousrelationshipofallsensedcomponents.
8. VIEW

Asceneobservedfromafinevantagepoint,
Isathemethatmaysuggestandgiveaddedmeaningtowill

relatedfunctions.
9. VISTA

Anunframedsegmentofview,
Isafunctionofaxis.

10. AXISalinearplanelementconnectingtwoormorepoints.
11. HEIGHTconnectsattainment,potential,expansion,exhilaration,inspiration,thesublimeandrelease.
12. DEPTHconnectsregression,concentration,confinement,shelter,theprofaneandweightofpressure.
13. SEQUENCEasuccessionofperceptionhavingcounting.
14. Thebestsourceofdesigncriteriaisfieldobservation.
15. Thebesttestofdesignisperformance.

16. stagesoflandscapeplanning
x

Surveyandanalysis:classificationoflandscapetypes

Evaluation

Policyordesignsolution

Implementation

17. Trees entrapment, scale induction, backdrop, ornamentation, noise abatement, and shade ground
space.
18. treesarethebasis
19. Grouptreestostimulatenaturalstand
20. Usecanopytreestounifythesite
21. Installintermediatetreesforunderstudyscreening,windbreak,andvisualinterest.
22. Shrubsforsupplementarylowlevelbafflesandscreens.
23. Treatvinesasnetsanddraperies.
24. Installgroundcoversonthebaseplanetoretainsoils.
25. Soilmoisture,definepaths,anduseareasandprovideturfwhererequired.
26. Choose as a dominant theme tree a type that indigenous, moderately fast growing and able to thrive
withlittlecare.
27. Exoticspeciestobelimitedtoareasofhighreinforcement.

20

28. Usetreestosheathetrafficways.
29. Giveemphasistotrafficwaysnode.
30. Keepthesightlessclearatroadwayintersections.
31. Arrangethetreegroupingstoprovideviewsandexpansiveopenspecies.
32. Useplantingstoreinforcethealignmentofpathsandroadways.
33. Concealingunwantedareas,unpleasantviews,eliminateglareandreducenoiselevels.
34. Provideevolvingsequencesofspacetoencloseandlinkthevarioussiteuseareas.
35. Strengthentheprotrudingpointsofmassplantingwithdominantplants.
36. Establishvegetationalongthemallsandwaterways.
37. Complementthetopographicalform.
38. Useplantsasspacedefines.
39. Createaharborlikeentranceportaltoeachneighborhood.
40. Siteplanningprocedure
o Definitionofintent
o Procurementoftopographicalsurvey
o Programdevelopment
o Datagatheringandanalysis
o Sitereconnaissance
o Organizationofreferenceplansetandfile
o Preparationofexploratorystudies
o Comparativeanalysisarevisionofstudiesleadingtoanapprovedconceptualplan
o Developmentofpreliminarydevelopmentplansandestimateofcosts
o Preparationofconstructionplans,specificationsandbiddingdocuments.
41. Methodsofplanting
x

TransplantingfromNurseries

Propagationbycutting

Grafting

Layering

42. roadsidetrees
x

suitedtoclimateandsoil

hardlyandrobust

shadingbutnotsendingoutlargebranches

evergreen/beinleafduringsummer

deeprooted

Specieshavinglargeandthicklavestobeavoidedaretheyrequiremovemoisture.

Inheavyclaysoilskeepfastgrowingtreesatleast15mawayfromtheroad.

Shouldbeplanted1.8to3mawayfromtheouteredgeofthesidewidth.

Suitablespacing9to15m

43. criteriaforplantationontheroadside

21

habitual

rootsystem

startofcanopy

densityoffoliage

form

periodofleaffall

nuisancefromfruit

lifespan

rateofgrowth

resistancetowind

spreadheightratio

soiltype

depthofgroundwater

44. CoinageoftermlandscapearchitectbyFrederickLawOlmsted.
45. CarlessofVersaillesbyAndreLeNorth(orderedlandscape)
46. PhiladelphiawaslandscapedbyWilliamPenn
47. BirkinheadParknearLiverpoolJosephPaxton.
48. Theprocessbywhichanindividualmaintainsitsinternalenvironmentinanapproximatelypermanent
stateiscalledhomeostasis.
49. ComfortZoneconceptbyVictorOlgag.
50. SiteplanningbookKevinLunch.
51. Turfingisartificiallyplantinggrassonoutsideslopesofembankmentsanderodiblesoils.
52. streetpolesshouldbekept0.6mbackfromthecurbsidewalksmin.width=1m
53. landscapearchitectureJ.O.Simonds
54. SomegardencitiesofAmericaReston,Columbia.
55. Drysoiltendstohighertemp,lowhumidity.
56. Gradientrateofslopebetweentwopointsexpressedasapercentage,orasratioofhorizontal
distancetoverticalchangeinelevation,orasanangle
57. Thevulnerableareaaroundatreeisequaltoitsspread+1/3rdtheareaaroundit.
58. Quantityofwaterarrivingatanypointinawatershedisderivedfrom
Q=Aci
A=areaofwatershedinacres
C=coefficientofrunoff
I=isaquantityderivedfromtheamountofrainthatcanbeexpectedfora

selectedstorm

frequencycombinedwiththefarthestdistance.
59. CLIMATEisthesensationproducedbythecombinationofradiation,ambienttemp.,relativehumidity,
andairmovement.

22

60. ALBEDOFractionofthetotalradiantenergyofagivenwavelengthincidentonasurfacethatis
reflectedbackinsteadofbeingabsorbedformirror1.0,formatteblacksurface0,watersurfaceusually
haslowalbedobutitsangleofincidenceisdecreasedafter.
61. Forinfraredradiationthealbedoofmostnaturalmaterialislow.
62. Conductivityofthematerialdecreasesastheyaredrierandlessdenseconvection.
63. INVERSIONisasituationwhenairiscoldestatthegroundandwarmerhigherup.
64. EDDYisthezoneoflowpressurewhentheairisrelativelyquietbutmovingerratically.
65. MICROCLIMATOLOGYscienceofsmallscaleweather.
x

Eliminatetheextremesofheat,cold,humidity,airenvironmentandexposure.

Providedirectstructuralprotectionagainstthediscomfortofsolarradiation,precipitation,
wind,stormandcold.

Respondtotheseasons.

Adjusttothemovementofthesun.

Considerthewindalsoasatimetestedsourceofenergy.

Utilizetheevaporationofmoistureasaprimarymethodofcooling.

Maximizethebeneficialeffectsofadjacentwaterbodies.

Preservetheexistingvegetativecover.

Considertheeffectofattitudeandlatitude.

Reducethehumidity.

Avoidundrainedcatchmentareasandfrostpockets.

Avoidwinterwinds,floodsandpathsofcripplingstorms.
Behavioralcharacteristicsofbuildingmaterials

Timber
1. TimberisderivedfromTimbrianmeansbuilt.
2. Timberisobtainedfromtreesnotlessthan600mmincircumference.
3. Threetypesoftimber
a. Convertedissawnandcutintosuitablesizes
b. Roughafterfellingoftrees
c. Standinglivingtree
4. Propertiesofgoodtimber
x

Lowheatconductivity

Amenability

Smallbulkdensity

Relativelyhighstrength

5. Drawbacksoftimber
x

Susceptibilitytodecay

Inflammability

Fluctuationsduetomoisturecontent

Variationsinstrength,length

23

6. Woodwastesawdust,shavingsareusedwithadmixtureoforganicgluestomakefiberslabs,fiber
boards.
7. Otherusesofwoodorganicacids,rosin,paper,cardboard,cellulose.
8. Ageofthewoodcapableofproducingqualitytimberwithadequategirthis50yrs.
9. Babul,Eucalyptus,poplar,sissioo(20yrs).
10. Asingletreecancoolthesummerheatforanentiredayandnightandisfoundbetterthan20ACs
runningfor20Hrs.
11. Ahectareoftreesproduceabout10timesofO2(for45personsfor1year)
Item

Softwood

Annualrings

Distinct

Hardwood

Color

Light

Fireresistance

Poor

Modularrays

Indistinct

Strength

Strongfordirectpullandweakforresisting
thrustorshear

Structure

Resinousandspliteasily

Weight

Light

Opposite

12. Defectsintimber
a. Conversion
b. Fungi
c. Insects
d. Naturalforces
e. Seasoning
13. Qualitiesofgoodtimber
a. Hardandshiningappearance
b. Colorisdark
c. Freefromknots,flaws,shakes
d. Shouldbedurable
e. Shouldbeelastic
f. Shouldhavestraightfibers
g. Fireresistance
h. Hardness
i. Shouldnotdeteriorateeasilyduetomechanicalwear
j. Capableofretainingitsshapewhileburning
k. Sweetsmell
l. Clearringingsoundwhenstruck
m. Soundinwoodis2to17timesgreaterthaninair.
n. Strongforworkingasstructuralmembersuchasjoint,beam,rafters.
o. Toughnesscapableofresistingshocks
p. Lowwaterpermeability
q. Standforweatheringeffect
r. Heavyweight
Bamboo
1. Flexible,verystronganddurable.

24

2. Usedforscaffolding,thatchedroofs,rafters,temporarybridges,fancygoods.
Bricks
1. Preparedbymouldingclayinrectangularblocksofuniformsize.
2. Bricksaredurableandhavingstrength,reliability,lowcost,easyavailability.
3. GreatWallofChina(210BC)byburntandsundriedbricks.
4. Indiahasproductioncapacitytomanufactureover10000crores.
5. Compositionsofgoodbrickearth
Use
2030%alumina
(plasticityformoulding)
5060%silica
(preventscracks,shrinks,wrapping)
5%lime
(preventsshrinkage)
56%oxideofiron
(aslimetofusesandandprovidesredcolor
Magnesia
(yellowtint,decreaseshrinkage)
6. Harmfulingredients
Effect
Excessoflime (lumps)
Ironpyrites
(crystallizedanddisintegrated)
Alkalies
(causebricksfuse,twists,wrap)
Pebbles
(unregulations)
Vegetation& (porous)
Organicmatter
7. Classificationofbrickearth
Ingredient

Loamy, mild
sandyclay

or Marls, chalky
calcareousclay

or Plastic, strong or
pureclay

Alumina

27%

10

34

Silica

66

35

50

Lime&magnesia

48

Oxideofiron

Organicmatter

8. Qualitiesofgoodbricks
a.
Tablemoulded,wellburnt,coppercolored,freefromcrackswithsharpandsquareedges.
b.
Uniforminshapeandstandardsize.
c.
Shouldgiveclearmetallicringingsound
d.
Whenbrokeshouldshowabrighthomogeneousanduniformcompactstructurefreefromvoids.
e.
Shouldnotabsorbwater>20%byweightwhensoakedincoldwaterfor24Hrs.
f.
Sufficientlyhard,noimpressionshouldbeleftwhenscratched.
g.
Shouldnotbreakintopieceswhendropfrom1Mtheight.
h.
Lowthermalconductivityandsoundproof.
i.
Shouldnotshowdepositsofwhitesaltswhenallowedtodryinshadeaftersoakedinwater.
j.
Shouldnothavecrushingstrength<5.5N/mm2.
Concrete

25

1. The tensile and shear strengths are about 8 to 12 % and 8 to 10 % of their compressive strengths
respectively.
2. Thecomprehensivestrengthofconcreteisinfluencedby

3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.

Qualityofmaterials

Water

Watercementratio

Ageofconcrete

Cementcontent

Methodsofmixingplacing,curing

generallythestrengthdecreasewithincreaseindegreeofworkability
Withtheage,theconcretegoesonhardening,therebyincreaseinstrength
nottrulyelasticitymodulusisinfluencedbystrength,age,moisturecontent
Concrete under goes extra strain on application of load is called creep of concrete which , not
recoveredonremovalofload
Concreteisagoodinsulator
WhenusedwithsteelinR.C.C,itcanwithstandbothcompressiveandtensilestresses
Freefromcorrosion
Concreteisprovedtoeconomicalthansteel
Othertypes
x

Vibratedconcreteforhighcompressivestrength

Lightweightconcreteforfireresistance,partitions

Vaccumconcreteformorestrength

Lime,surkhiconcreteforeconomy

12.
Proportion

Max.sizeofaggregate

Natureofconstruction

1:1:2

12to20mm

LoadedR.C.CcolumnsandR.C.C
arches

1:2:2

1220

Smallprecastmemberlike,fencing
poles,watertightconstructions

1:2:3/3:5:10

20

Watertanks,bridges,sewers

2:5:7

25

Footpath,concreteroads

1:2:4

40

R.C.Cwork,stairs,beams,columns,
sunshades,slabs,lintels

1:3:5

50

Massconcreteworksinculverts,
retainingwalls.

1:4:8/1:5:10/1:6:12

60

Heavywalls,foundationfootings

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Glass
Isamixtureofnumberofmetallicsilicates,oneofwhichisusuallythatofanalkalimetals
itisbasicallyahard,brittle,transparcutmaterial
Noteffectedbyordinarychemicalreagents,airorwater.
Possibletoweldpiecesofglassbyfusion
Affectedbyalkalisbutcantakeuphighpolish
Providesexcellentelectricinsulationduetouncertaincrystallinestructure
Absorbs,refractsortransmitslight

26

8. Availableincolors,nosharpmeltingpoints
Designofstructuralelementsinwood,steel,RCC
Wood
1. Artofcutting,framingandplacingofrawtimberinapositioniscalledcarpentryandjoinery
2. timberwhichisthusdressedandfinallyplacedinpositioniscalledwroughtandputup
3. Theartofcuttingofwoodbymeansofsawsiscalledsawing
4. Processofplanningofftheflatedgesofftimberpiecetoformanangle45degiscalledchamfering
5. Theprocessofchamfering,iftheangleformedisotherthan45degisknownasbevel
6. Takingtheshavingofwoodiscalledplanning
7. Processofshapingthevariousunitsofconstructionbyhandormachinetoproducemoldedsectionsis
calledmoulding.
8. TheprocessofjoiningtwoboardsorpiecesoftimberatanangleIcalledmitring.
9. This is the process of cutting away a rectangular portion from the edge of timber piece for sufficient
depthiscalledrebating
10. Dressing the edges of the boards so as to male them straight and square with the face is called
shooting
11. Thesinkingoftheedgeofonepieceoftimberintoanotheriscalledhousing
12. Thesemicircularobjectformedonedgesorsurfacesofwoodiscalledbead
13. Coveringtheentireorpartofsurfacewithveneersiscalledveneering
14. MethodofjoiningtwoboardsatrightangleiscalledDovetailing

Steel
1. Platsmaybeofanysizeorthicknessbuttgenerallytheyarenotrolledtothickness<5mmand>28
mm
2. Maximumareaofrolledplatesislimitedto30sq.m
3. plates<4mminthicknessaresheets
4. Flatsarerolledasinthecaseofplatebutaremuchlongerinlengthsandhaveshorterwidths
5. Widthsvaryfrom18mmto50mm,thickness3mmto8mm
6. Angles
x

Equallegs2cm*2cmto20cmto20cm,3mmto5mm

Unequallegs2cm*3cmto22cm*10cm,4mm20mm

7. Tsection4cm*4cmto15*15cm,6mmto8mm
8. Channels5*7pow(1/2)*3kgto42*10*30kg
9. Joists7*4to60*17cm]
10. Uses

27

Platsaswebsandflangesofdeepbeams,columnflanges,columnbases

Flatsconsiderableuse

Angleusedindiff.components

Tsectionforrooftrussesandforcertainbuiltupcolumns

Channelsbeams,columns

Joists/Isectionbeamscolumns

11. Rivetingthecommonpracticetoconnectthemembersbyrivets.
12. Rivetsusedinbuildingconstructionaremadeofsoftsteelwithatensilestrengthof3500to4000kg/cm
sq
13. Lapjointconnectionsconnectingplatesarelappedoneovertheotherandriveted
14. Buttjointconnectionconnectedwiththeaidofadditionalplants
15. Weldedconnectedthediameteroftheholesiskept1mmlargerthanexternaldiameterofthebolt
thread.
Structuralmembers
1. Steelbeamsincludegirders,lintelsetc
2. Simplestbeamconsistsofasinglerolledsteeljointsectionorananglesection
3. Totakegreaterloads,compoundsectionsareused
4. plategirdersareusedwhenverylargeloadshavetobecarried
5. Beams carrying light loads and where the shearing forces are not excessive, open web beams are
used.
6. Ifthebeamisaccommodatedbelowthetopflangeofthegirdertheconnectioniscalledundergirder
flange.
7. Ifthetopflangeofthebeamandportionofthewebiscutoffsoastoaccommodatethetopflangeof
theorderthatiscalledtopflush.
8. When a beam at a lower level is to be connected to a girder at a higher level that is called blocked
connection.
9. Beamsmeetingathigherlevelswiththegirderarecalledblockedandelevatedconnection.
10. Ifbeamsandgirdersareconnectedatdifferentlevels,iscalledhangerconnections.
Comprehensiveplanning
1. Theprocessofcomprehensiveplginvolvesconceptualizingacityfromthebroadtotheparticular.
2. Thedecisionmakermustseethecityinitsmainphysicaloutlinesandelementsasmuchaswecan
retaininonecoherent,unifiedimage.
3. To this core picturization is tied as much dynamic economic, social, political, quantitative abstract
informationofalltypesasmuchdetailasthemindcanhandleandrecall.
4. Althoughtimeandcontinuousapplicationpermitenlargementandintensificationofthecompletemental
image,thereislimittothetotalbreadthanddepthwhichisavailableorrecall.

28

5. Whenthisconsciouscapacityisreached,furtherdevelopmentshouldtakeplaceinthequalityofmental
approach,attitudes,analyticalsynthesisandconclusions.
6. Comprehensive plan is an official public document adopted by a local govt as a policy guide to
decisionsaboutthephysicaldevelopmentofthecommunity.
7. Naturecomprehensiveencompassesallgeographicalpartsofthecommunity&allfunctionalelements
whichhaveabearingonphysicaldevelopment.

Generalsummarizes policies and proposals doesnt indicate specific location or detailed

regulations.

Longrange2030yr

Focusonphysicaldevt.

Firstapolicyinstrumentandonlysecondatechnicaldocument

8. FunctionsPolicydetermination
effectuation
Communicationandeducation
9. Elementslanduse

communityfacilities

circulation

utilities

urbandesign

Multilevelplanning
1. Multilevelplanningprocedureisdeterminedlargelybythecountriessituation,itssociopoliticalclimate
anditsdevelopmentsalting.
2. Multilevelplgimpliesthatplgwouldbeundertakenateachlevelindependently.
3. M.L.Pistwowayapproaches,requiringalotofpreparatoryeffortsfrombothends.
4. Process
i. Determinationofapproachlevelsofdecisionmakingwithreferencetovariousactivities.
ii. Organizing interaction between different levels in terms of exchange of information and
interactiveconsultationstagesofplanformulationandplanappraisal.
iii. The nesting of plans at different levels and integrating them into an unified frame.(sectoral,
spatial,operational)

Preparationofurbanandreg.structureplans
10. Structure Social economic and physical systems of an area, so far as they are subject to planning
controlorinfluence.
11. Structureplanwillheedtoaccountregionalandnationalpolicies.

29

12. Structurehavetorelatetothewiderstrategicframeworkatnationalandregionallevel.
13. Subjectsofstructureplan
Population

education

Employmentandincomesourcesothersocialandcommunityservices
Industryandcommerceconversation,townscopelandscape
Transportation

utilities

Shopping

othersubjects

14. processIsawrittendocumentillustrateddiagramanaticallythelocalplgauthoritiespoliciesandmain
proposalsforchangeonalargescale.(notsitespecific)
involvespreparationofadraftplanbythecountryauthorityanditsapprovalafterconsiderationand
modificationbycentralgovt.
15. FunctionsTostateandjustifytopublicandgovt.
1. Tointerpretnationalandregionalpolicies.
2. Toprovideframeworkandstatutorybasisforlocalplan
16. Implementation
1. Throughlocalplans&actionplans.
Planningsurveys
1. Guideonprimarysurveysforsmallandmediumsizetowns,TCPorganization,GOVTofIndia,1972.
2. Guideonlanduseclassificationforplanningpurposes,TCPorganization,GOVTofIndia,1973.
3. theprocessofcollectionofdata
a. physical
b. socioeconomic
i. housing,
ii. transport,
iii.
industries,employment
iv.
socialservices
Iscalledplanningsurvey.
4. censusreportcontains
a. houselist
b. householdschedule
c. individualship*demography
5. preliminaryplanningsurvey
a. preparationofbasemap
i. allphysicalfeatures
b. existinglandusesurvey
i. groupingoflanduses
ii. classification
iii.
identification
iv.
partlybuiltplots
v. categorizationofindustry
vi.
varyingusesinthesamebuildings
vii.
permanentlandusesurveyrecord
c. utilitiesandservicessurvey

30

i. watersupply,electricity,drainage,gas
d. communityfacilitieslikeschools,clinics,hospitals,parksetc
i. locationofvariousfacilities
ii. interrelationships
e. problemidentificationandreconnaissancesurvey
i. problemsofcongestion
ii. slumareas
iii.
unplannedgrowth
f. householdandtransportsurvey
i. housing
ii. transport
iii.
education
iv.
recreation
v. shopping
6. landusescolors
Vacant
white
Residential
yellow
Commercial
blue
Industrial
violet
Transport,communication
grey
Publicutilities
brown
Publicandsemipublic
red
Openspaces
green
Agriculture
bluishgreen
7. Collectionofdata
1. Primary
2. Secondary
8. PrimarydataFirsthandinformation,gatheredfromoriginalsources,interviews,directobservations.
9. SecondarydataSecondhanddata,census,andlibrary.
10. BiasIswhatwealwaystryingtominimizeandavoid.
11. SelfsurveysQuestionnairesthroughmails,surveyformstomotorists,shoppers,inserterinthenews
papers.
12. InterviewsFacetoface,telephone.
13. DirectinspectionTrafficcounts,recreationareausesurveys,housingqualitystudies.
14. ParticipantobservationSurveyerbecomesaresidentofthecommunitytolearn.
15. Questionsofasurveyarealsocalledthevariables.
16. Nominalscale(yes/no)setsofnames
Eg:Sex,profession,industry.
17. OrdinalscaleRankingorder.Eg:Priorities,socialclass,housingconditionclimate.
18. IntervalscaleIntervalsbetweenorderedresponses.
Eg:Distence,age,weight,temperature.
19. SampleSomefractionofthewholeisusuallyadequatetoestimatetheinformationaccuratelyforthe
wholepopulation.
20. Asamplethatisnotrespectiveiscalledbiasedsample.
21. SimplerandomsamplingEverypersonmusthaveanequalchanceofbeingpickedforthesample.
22. Interviewtechniquecalledsnowballing.

31

23. SystematicsamplingPickingsystematically.(Every5th).
24. StratifiedsamplingToensuretherepresentativenessofasample.
25. Cluster sampling Alternating means for keeping the size small, thus keeping the costs down while
insuringrepresentativenessinthesample.
26. thepioneeringwithrespectivethecivilsurveywascarriedoutbyPatrickgeddes(18541932)
27. surveyscarriedouttocollectdata
x

functionalsurveymeansofcommunication
conditionsofindustries
implementationofplan
financialaspects
Socialsurveycommunitystructures
history
architecture
healthcondition
housing
services

territorialsurveyphysicalfeature
agriculturalsoil
forest
climate,soil

vitalsurveyactualpopulation
futurepopulation
growthoftown
density
occupation

28. typesofsurveys
a. preliminarysurveylanduse,industries,railways,services,amenities,highways
b. national survey administration, agriculture, communication, economy, geography, urban
settlements,naturalresources
c. regionalsurveyseconomic,physical,socialamenitiesofregions
d. civicsurveysattownlevel,amenities,contours,housing,industries
29. basicvillage400500pop,agriculture
30. ruraltown20003000pop,cultural,commercial,administrativecenter
31. servicetown50007000pop,smallscaleindustries.
Applicationofremotesensingtechniques
1. RemotesenseddataformsAerialphotographs,satellileimageries.
2. TostudyandmonitorIandfeature,naturalresourcesanddynamiceffectsofhumanactivities.
3. Utility of R.S.Techniques are in agriculture, land use, soil resources, forestry, oil and mineral,
exploration,geloryandhydrogeology,watermanagement,mapmaking.

32

4. Existingbasemapmaybeupdatedindicatingphysicalandculturalfeaturesincludingroadnetworkwith
thehelpoflatestsmallscaleaerialphotography.
5. SurveyofIndiaismakingtypeofareailphotographsforupdatingtoposheets.
6. Drainagemapswillbepreparedbytoposheetsandsatelliteimagenary.
7. NRSA prepares surface water body map of geological, geomorphological mapIIRS water potential
areasgroundwaterpotentialareassoilmaps,landusemap,forestandvegifatialmaps.
8. With the advent of computer digital image analysis much more details from the imageries could be
extracted.
9. SocioeconomicdatacouldbecombinedandanalysedusingGIS.
10. Digital image analysis and computer facilities and trained interdisciplinary term of specialists are
availableatNRSAHyd,ISROBangalore.
11. Urbanareamappingandhumansettlementanalysisusingvisualandmanualinterpretationfacilitiesare
thereinstateTCPdepts.
12. Based on the scale of areal photograph and imaginary, the data base may be aggregated or
disaggregatedatanylevel.
13. Databasefortwodifferentdatesmaybecomparedtodetectchangesusingrespectiveconverge.
14. Aerialphotographsurbanareas,imageriesregionallevel.
15. Areal photographs(23cm*23cm) are taken with the specially designed, sophisticated cameras with
distortionfreelenses.
16. 1:50000providecontoursof10m
1:250005cm
1:100002cm
17. Usefulscalesofmapsemployedforregionalplgare1:250000,1:50000.
18. Otheruses
Inventoryofvacantlands
Housecountanddwellingdensity
Estimationofpop
Urbanchangedetection
Parkingstudies
Studyofslums
Urbanrenewalandidentificationofconservationare
Siteanalysisandplanning
Trafficstudies
Envtstudies
Hierarchyofroadsandlevelsofservices
1. classificationofurbanroads
a. expressways
i. formotortrafficwithfullorpartialcontrolofaccess
ii. providedwithgradeseparationatintersections
iii.
toprovideformovementofheavyvolumesathighspeeds
iv.
freeflowconditions
v. connectmajorpointsoftrafficgeneration
vi.
toservetripsofmediumandlonglengthsbetweenres,ind,comm.,CBDareas
vii.
Parking,loading,unloadingpedestriansareprohibited.
b. arterialstreets
i. thoroughtrafficusuallyoncontinuousroute

33

ii. betweenCBDtoresi,suburbans
iii.
generallyspacedatlessthan1.5kmsinCBDs8kmsindevelopedurban
fringes
iv.
parking,loadingetcareregulated
v. pedestriansonlyatintersections
c. subarterialstreets
i. accesstoadjoiningareas
ii. parking,loadingetcareregulated
iii.
generallyspacedatlessthan05kmsinCBDs,35kmsindevelopedurban
fringes
d. collectorstreets
i. collectionanddistributionoftraffic
ii. inresi,ind,neighborhoods
iii.
fewparkingrestrictionsexceptduringpeakhours
e. localstreets
i. accesstoresi,business,etc
ii. Allowsloading,pedestrians,parkingetc.

2. classificationofruralroads
a. nationalhighways
i. connectsports,foreignhighways,capitalofstates
b. statehighways
i. connectsnationalheadquartersandimportantcities
ii. samestandardasnationalhighways
c. districtroads
i. servesareasofproductionandmarketing
ii. Capableoftakingtrafficintotheheartofruralareas.
d. villageroads
i. connectsvillageswithnearestnational,stateorrailways
Intersectionandparkingareas
1. intersectionthegeneralareawhere2ormorewaysjoinoracross
2. Halfofthefatalandseriousroadaccidentsinbuiltupareasoccuratjunctions.
3. principlesinagooddesign
a. Thenumberofintersectionsshouldbekeptaminimum.Ifnecessarysomeminorroadsmybe
connectedwitheachotherbeforejoiningthemajorroad.
b. Hazardous movements by drivers are eliminated by various techniques such as channelizing
andstaggering.
c. Thedesignshouldpermitthedrivertodiscernquicklyeitherfromthelayoutortrafficsigns
d. Layoutshouldfollownaturalvehiclepaths
e. Numberofconflictpointsshouldbeminimized.
f. Vehicles that are forced to wait in order to cross a traffic stream should be provided with
adequatespaceatthejunctions.
4. Atgradejunctionwhereallroadsjoinorcrossatthesamelevel.

34

5. Gradeseparatedjunctionscrossingmanoeuvresatdifferentlevels
6. Itisdesirablethattheintersectionroadsmeetatornearlyatrightangles.
7. Visibilityatintersectionsanyobstructionsshouldbeclearoftheminimumvisibilitytriangleforaheight
of1.2Mtsabovetheroadway.
8. forruralroads
Designspeedofmajorroad
InK.P.H
100
80
65
50
9. forurbanroads

min.visibilitydistancealongamajorroad

typeofroad
allpurposeprimarydistributor
districtorlocaldistributor
accessroad

visibilitydistancealongamajorroad
120150
90
60

220
180
145
110

Parking
Parkingspacerequirementstandards
S.NO.

Landuse

1.

Residential
1. Detached,semidatachedrowhouses:
Plotareaupto100sq.m
Plotareafrom101to200sq.m
Plotareafrom201to300sq.m
Plotareafrom301to500sq.m
Plotareafrom501to1000sq.m
Plotarea1001sq.mandabove
2. Flats
3. Special,costlydevelopedarea.
4. Multistoreyedgrouphousingschemes.

2.

Offices

3.

Industrialpremises

4.

Shopsandmarkets

5.

Restaurants

6.

Theatresandcinemas

7.

Hotelsandmotels
1.Fiveandfourstarhotels
2.Threestarhotels

35

3.Twostarhotels
4.Motels
8.

Hospitals
1. maxparkingarearequiredforacar3mx6m(individual)
2.5mx5m(community)
2. Spacereqt.forcommercialvehicle3.75mx7.5m
3. forbicycle1.4m1.8m
Onstreetparkingmethods
ParallelparkingN=L/5.9
L
X
y
30angleN=L1.25/5

1.25
5

45angleN=L1.25/3.54
60angleN=L2.16/2.89
RightangleN=L/2.5

N=numberofparkingspaces

4. offstreetparking
a. surfacecarparks
b. multistoreycarparks
c. roofparks
d. mechanicalcarparks
e. undergroundcarparks
Trafficsafetyandtrafficlaws
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Trafficregulationsdealswithcontrolofvehicles,driversandroadusers.
Controlofvehiclesdealswithregistration,weight,size,design,construction,andmaintenance.
Driverregulationsdealwithlicensing,operationofvehicles.
Roaduserregulationsdealwithrulesofpedestrians,cyclists,motorcyclists.
SpeedlimitsinurbanareasIndianconditions

Different categories of road and SpeedlimitsinKPH

streets
GroupI
Majorroadsofarterial/subarterialmostly
inopenandthinlybuiltupareas

GroupII

Lightandmed.Vehicles

Heavyvehicles

50

40

36

Roadswithmoderatetrafficsuitedin
semibuiltupareas

40

30

Congestedroadsinbuiltupareas

30

20

6. UniformvehiclecodeU.K
ActIuniformmotorvehicleadministration,registrationcertificateoftitleandantitheftact.
ActIIuniformmotorvehicleoperatorsandchauffeurslicenseact.
ActIIIuniformmotorvehiclecivilliabilityact.
ActIVuniformmotorvehiclesafetyresponsibilityact.
ActVuniformactregulatingtrafficonhighways.
7. U.Ktheroadtrafficact1972
PartIprincipleroadsafetyprovisions
PartIIconstructionanduseofvehiclesandequipment
PartIIIlicensingofdriversofvehicles
PartIVlicensingofdriversofheavygoodsvehicles
PartVdrivinginstructions
PartVIthirdpartyliabilities
PartVIImiscellaneousandgeneral.
8. India,motorvehiclesact1939.
ChapterIpreliminary
ChapterIIlicensingofdriversofmotorvehicles
ChapterIIIlicensingofconductorsofstagecarriages
ChapterIVcontroloftransportvehicles
ChapterVconstruction,equipmentandmaintenanceofmotorvehicles.
ChapterVIcontroloftraffic
ChapterVIImotorvehiclestemporaryleavingorvisitingIndia
ChapterVIIIinsurancefmotorvehiclesagainstthirdpartyriska
ChapterIXoffences,penaltiesandprocedures.
ChapterXmiscellaneous
Principlesoftrafficengineeringandtransportationplanning
1. Trafficengineering
Deals with the planning and geometric design of streets, highways and abutting lands, and
withtrafficoperationthereon,astheiruseisrelatedtothesafe,convenientandeconomictransportationof
personsandgoods.
2. functionsoftrafficengineering
a. collection,analysis,andinterpretationofdatapertainingtotraffic
i. ODsurvey
ii. Volumecounts
iii.
Speed,delayandtraveltimemeasurements
iv.
Accidentstatistics
v. Parkingcharacteristics
vi.
Pedestrianbehavioranduseofstreets
vii.
Capacitystudies
viii.
Economiclosscausedbyinferiortrafficfacilities

37

b. Trafficandtransportationplanning
i. Toensureasafe,orderlyandfullyintegratedtransportsystem.
ii. Relatedtolanduse
iii.
Selectionandimplementationofalternativesolutions
c. Trafficdesign
i. Geometricdesignofhighwaysandstreets
ii. Intersectiondesign
iii.
Schemesforgradeseparatedinterchanges
iv.
Designofoffstreetandonstreetparking
v. Designofterminals
d. Measuresforoperationoftraffic
i. Legislationandenforcementmeasuresdrivers,roadusers
ii. Managementmeasuresonewaystreets,turningsatjunctions,tidalflow,
iii.
Measuresforparking
iv.
Trafficcontroldevices
e. Administration
i. Programsintendedtosafeandefficienttraffic
ii. Education,legislationandenforcementmeasures
3. transportationplanning
Tounderstandthenatureoftheproblemsoftrafficandformulateproposalsforthesafeand
efficientmovementofgoodsandpeoplefromoneplacetoanother.
4. stagesoftransportplanning
a. surveyandanalysisofexistingconditions
b. forecast,analysisoffutureconditionsandplansynthesis
c. evaluation
d. programadaptationandimplementation
e. continuingstudy
Methodsofconductingsurveys
Speed,journeytimeanddelaysurveys
Vehiclevolumecounts,classificationandoccupancy
Originanddestinationsurvey
Parkingsurveys
Speed,journeytimeanddelaysurveys
Speedistherateofmovementoftraffic.
Spotspeedistheinstantaneousspeedofavehicleataspecifiedlocation.
Running sped is the average speed maintained by a vehicle over a given course while the vehicle is in the
motion.
Runningspeed=lengthofcourse
=
lengthofcourse
Runningtimejourneytimedelay
Journeyspeedisknownasoveralltravelspeedincludingalldelaysincurredenroute.
Journeyspeed=
distance
Totaljourneytime(includingdelays)
Methodsofmeasuringspotspeeds
a) Thosethatrequireobservationofthetimetakenbyavehicletocoveraknowndistance.

38

b) Radarspeedmeterwhichautomaticallyrecordstheinstantaneousspeed.
c) Photographicmethod.
Thelongbasemethodsusedare
i. Directtimingprocedure
ii. Enoscope
iii. Pressurecontacttubes
Methodsformeasuringrunningspeedandjourneyspeed
a) Movingobservermethod
b) Registrationnumbermethod
c) Elevatedobservermethod
Vehiclevolumecounts,classificationandoccupancy
If traffic flow data are available over the past number of years, the rate at which traffic flow has
increased in the past can be easily determined. Extrapolating the past trend into the future, a reasonable
indicationofthefuturerateofgrowthoftrafficismadepossible.Trafficforecastingisanimportantstepinthe
transportationplanningprocess.
Typesofcounts
i. Averageannualflow,expressedinvehiclesperyear.
ii. Annualaveragedailytraffic(AADT),expressedIvehiclesperday.
iii. Hourlyflow,expressedinvehiclesperhour.
Methodsfortrafficcounts
a) Manualmethods
b) Combinationofmanualandmechanicalmethods
c) Automaticdevices
d) Movingobservermethod
e) Photographicmethods
Vehicleoccupancysurveys
Vehicle occupancy surveys are easy to conduct for cars and motorized twowheelers. The observers
cannotethenumberofoccupantsofeveryoneofsuchvehiclesbystandingbytheroadside.
Forbuses,theoccupancycanbedeterminedbyexaminingtheticketsales.
Originanddestinationsurvey
In a transportation study, it is often necessary to know the exact origin and destination of the trips.
InformationyieldedbytheODsurveyincludeslanduseofthezonesoftheoriginanddestination,household
characteristicsofthetripmakingfamily,time,purposeofthetripandmodeoftravel.
Usesofthestudy
i. Todeterminetheamountofbypassabletrafficthatentersatown,andthusestablishestheneed
forabypass.
ii. Todeveloptripgenerationandtripdistributionmodelsintransportplanningprocess.
iii. To determine the extent to which the present road system is adequate and to plan for new
facilities.
iv. Toassesstheadequacyofparkingandtoplanforfuture.
Surveymethods
a) Homeinterviewsurvey
i. Fullinterviewtechnique

39

b)
c)
d)
e)

ii. Homequestionnairetechnique
Roadsideinterviewsurvey
Postcardquestionnairesurvey
Registrationnumberplatesurvey
Tagsonvehicles.

Parkingsurveys
Parkingisoneoftheseriousproblemsthatconfronttheurbanplannerandthetrafficengineer.Before
anymeasureforthebettermentoftheconditionscanbeformulated,basicdatapertainingtotheavailabilityof
parkingspace,extentofitsusageandparkingdemandareessential.
Parkingaccumulation:thetotalnumberofvehiclesparkedinanareaatspecifiedmoment.
Parkingvolume:thenumberofvehiclesparkedinaparticularareaoveragivenperiodoftime.
Parkingload:theareaundertheparkingaccumulationcurveduringaspecifiedperiod.
Parkingduration:thelengthoftimespentinaparkingspace.
Parkingindex:percentageofthetheoreticallyavailablenumberofparkingbaysactuallyoccupiedbyparked
vehicles.
Parkingindex =
noofbaysoccupied
x100
Theoreticalnumberofbaysavailable
Parkingturnover:rateoftheusageoftheavailableparkingspace.
Typesofparkingsurveys
i. Parkingspaceinventory
ii. Parkingusagesurveybypetrol
iii. Questionnairetypeparkingusagesurvey
iv. Cordonsurvey
v. Photographicmethod
Modesoftransportation
1. transportmodes
a. railways
x

surface

underground

elevated

b. roadtransport
c. airtransport
d. watertransport
x

coastalshipping

internationalshipping

inlandwatertransport

e. pipelines
f. ropeways
2. speed

Sno

mode

NormalspeedIndiakm/hr

remarks

railway

5080

Dependsonguageand
numberoftracks

Roadtransport

Dependsonpavement

40

Cara
Busesandtrucks
2wheelers
cycles
autorickshaw
bullockcart

5080
3060
2550
815
1530
35

Airtransport
Boeing747
Boeing707
Feederaircraft

1000
950
300400

Watertransport
Oceanliners
Coastalships
Inlandwaterbarges

3555
1535
1025

Pipelines

510

Ropeways

510

width,terrain

3. safety
Railtransport

Ifadequatemeasuresaretakenatsignals,itssafe.Ifaccidentstake
placelossisheavy

Roadtransport

Unsafe,whencrossing,overtaking

Airtransport

Safety,becauseohighstandards.Accidentsbecauseoffog,birds,
storms,etc

Watertransport

Safe,becauseofstrictstandardsandconstructionandmaintenance

Pipelines,ropeways

safe

4. Adequacy
Railtransport

Canmeetseasonalfluctuationsintraffic,

Roadtransport

Unsafe,whencrossing,overtaking

Airtransport

Safety,becauseohighstandards.Accidentsbecauseoffog,birds,
storms,etc

Watertransport

Safe,becauseofstrictstandardsandconstructionandmaintenance

Pipelines,ropeways

safe
Principlesofvisualcomposition

1. ImportantfactortobeconsideredinUrbanDesignArrangementofspaces
Goodcomposition
Orderlyandpleasing
Pleasurefollowsorder
2. principlesofcomposition
Unity
x

Onenessandbringsharmonywiththesurroundings.

Similarformsgivecoherencetothepartsandintegritytothewhole.

41

Anurbanformsoplannedandcreatedwillcreateasinglepictureofunity.

Dissimilarforms,texture,colorlackunity.
Segregation

Compositionshouldformanindependentunitbyseparatingfromothersbyenclosingmasses.

Itcanbemadeupneutralforms,averagetexturesorsubduedcolorsofbuildingmasses.
Coherence

Complicatedcompositionslackcoherence.

Toomanysortsofbuildings,elements,andaccessoriesresultinlackofcoherence.
Balance

SymmetricalbalanceBalancemeansequalityanditcanbeeasilyobtainedbysymmetricaltypeof
plants or features on either side of the central axis of composition. Balance should be
dynamic,vitalhenceitshouldberhythmic.

Asymmetrical or Occult balance Too unequal masses on either side of the central axis form
asymmetrical balance. Meticulously arranged occult balance adds softness and freedom to
thecomposition.
Scale

Thebuildingorgroupofbuildingsmustbeinscalewithitssurroundings.

Thepartsofthecompositioninrelationtoeachothershouldexhibittheirtruesize.
Rhythmandreputation

Itisadevisetogivecontinuitytothedesign.

Itdevelopsrhythmicsequenceproducingacoherenteffect.

Usedistinctiveelementsforarhythmicarrangement(columns,openingslikewindows),toholdtogether
andcarrytheeyefromparttotheother.
Color

Selectpaintsforlongcoloreffects.

Afeelingofcoherenceindesignisachievedbycoloraswellorbysimplerepetitionofthesamecolorat
regularintervals.
Texture

It is the surface quality which give a textile sensation when touched, such as soft cum hard, smooth,
roughetc.,

Sandstonecourse.

Marbletranslucentandsoft
LightandShade

OccasionalShadescastbylargeopeningsproduceapictorialeffect.

Columnsandarcadesthrowshadowsinthemorningandeveningproducingaconstantchangeoflight
andshade.

Qualityofcoloralsochangesaccordingtotheintensityoflight.

3. Visualaspectofplanarrangement

42

View:isasceneobservedfromagivenplace.

Vista: is a confined view to a dominant feature. Each vista has a viewing station. A well
conceivedvistahasthebalanceandrhythm.

Axis: is a linear element connecting two or more elements such as a drive, a street or a
parkway.Itisdirectional,orderly,dominating.

4. Colortheory
PrimaryhuesRED,YELLOW,BLUE,GREEN.
Harmonizingcolorshuesadjacentonthecolorwheel.
Hue(firstdimension),bydefinitionitispurecolor,containingnowhite,blackorgrey.
Value(2dimension),itisthedegreeofcolorsluminosity
Yellowthelightestcolorofspectrumwheelhighervalue
Violetthelowestvalue.
Intensity(3dimension),givesomemeasureofqualityofrelativecolorfulnessorgreyness.Alsoknown
aschroma,purityorsaturation.Asspectralhuesbecomegreyertheyarecalledastones.Redisthemost
advancingcolor.
5. VIBGYOR
cold
6. Effectsofhue
Effect

hue

Exciting

bright,red,orange

Stimulating

high

red,orange

Cheering

contrast
moderate

lightorangeyellow,lightgrey

Neutralizing

grey,white/offwhite

Retraining

coolgrey,lightgreen,lightblue low

moderate
low

Relaxing

blue,green

low

Subduing

purple

moderate

Depressing
7. color

black
time

low
size

weight

Warm overestimated thingsseem

heavier

Coolunderestimated thingsseem

lighter

volume
decreases
increases

8. Usecoolcolorsshorter&forareaswheresmallerroutineormonotonoustasksareperformed.
9. NaturalcolorsystemEdwardHeringstheory
10. SvenHasselpreparedacoloratlas.
11. Wecantseeanobjectifbeyondadistanceof3500timesitssize.
12. rangeofconventionaldistance30
13. tomakeoutfacialexpressions40
14. tomakerecognizeaface80
15. Max.Distancefordiscoveringaction450forseeingpeople4000.

43

16. 450(1:1)fullenclosure
17. 300(1:2)thresholdofenclosure
18. 180(1:3)minimumenclosure
19. 140(1:4)lossofenclosure
20. shapeis2dimensional
21. formis3D
22. colorhueorchroma
23. intensitygrayingeffect
24. valuetint(addingwhite)(highkey)
25. shading(addingblack)(lowkey)
26. tonerangeoftintsandshades
27. VariouscolorsystemsMunsell,Prangetc.

Senseofplaceandspace,divisionofspace
1. Inurbandesign,thereshouldbeskilleddeploymentofarchitecturalenergysothattheinfluenceoffine
buildingsradiatesoutward,articulatingthewholefabricofthecity.
2. Architectureisthearticulationofspacesoastoproduceintheparticipatoradefinitespaceexperience
inrelationtopreviousandanticipatedspaceexperience.
x

Involvement

Meetingthesky

Meetingtheground

Pointsinspace

Recessionplaces(Patios,entrancegatewaysetc)

Designindepth(asenseofmovementindepth)

Ascentanddescent(useofvaryinglevelsastheelements)

Convexityandconcavityindesign

Relationshiptoman

Designerasparticipator

Apprehension,representationandrealization.

3. Thenatureofdesignsimultaneousmovementsystems.
4. principlesofdesign
x

unityrepetitionofidenticalelements

Headofwellproportionedhumanfigure=1/7oftotalbodyheight.

Proportiongoldenmeanisaratio1:1.618standard.

44

Certainproportionsaremorepleasingthanothers.

Subliminaleffect.

CONTENTS:
Keywords
INTRODUCTION
ChapterI
I.EVOLUTIONOFBONDS:
1. Cityfinancingapproachandanalysis
2. Economicsofcityfinancing
3. Measurestooptimizerevenue
4. Pooledfinancingforcityinfrastructure
5. Cityrestructuring
6. BondmarketinIndia
II.NEEDOFMUNICIPALBONDS:
1. Resourcegap
2. Resourcemobilizationofeffort
3. Evidentofneweconomicpolicy
4. Municipalbonds
III.THEINNOVATIONSINTHEBONDMARKET
1. Municipalbonds
2. Infrastructurebonds
IV.TYPESOFMUNICIPALBONDS
1. GObonds(Generalobligatory)
2. RBbonds(revenuebonds)
V.CASESTUDYAMC(AhmedabadMunicipalCorporation)
REFERENCES.
KeyWords:
Propertytax:Propertytaxisimposedbyalllocalbodies.Thebasisisthegrossvalueofthepropertyinterms
ofrentalvalueortherentthepropertywouldnormallyfetchifletout.

45

Usercharges:Userchargesarethechargesonserviceslikewatersupply,transportation,andelectricity.
Octrio:Octrioisthemostimportantandelasticsourceofrevenue.Thesearecheckpostbasedtaxes.
Bonds:BondsaretheloansthatcanmaketotheGovernmentorstateorcentralandalsocanmaketothe
municipality.
Grants in aid: The local bodies receive grants in aid from the state government on the basis of some pre
determinedcriteria.Thesevaryfromstatetostate.

46

INTRODUCTION:
A bond is a loan that can make to an institution that can make the loan to the government, a state, and a local
municipality or to a company. Companies and government need this money to finance projects like new building and
roads.Whenyoulandmoneytoaninstitution,theIOU(Ioweyou)theygiveyouiscalledbond.ThisIOUistheirpromise
to repay both your principal (the amount you land) and a fixed amount of interest for allocating them to borrow your
money.
Asabondinvestorwehavemanychoices.Theyare
PUBLICSECTORBONDSbothstateandcentral)Bharatpetroleum,Hindustanpetroleum,AndhraPradeshpowerfinance
corporationetc..
PRIVATESECTORBONDS:Reliance,Citybank.
MUNICIPALBONDS:AMC(AhmedabadMunicipalCorporationBonds)
FINANCIALINSTITUTIONBONDS:HDFC,ICICI,IDBIetc..
RBI8%reliefbondsunityataleisureof5years.
INCOMEBONDS:TheyinvestonlyinGvtsecurityisthathasnosecurityrisk.Theyaresuitablefor1yeartimehorizon.
GILTFUNDS:Theyinvestonlyingovernmentsecuritiesthathavenopcreditrisk.theyaresuitableforoneyearhorizon.
SHORT TERM FUNDS:They invest with mix of Govt & corporate securities.short term maturities much as one to three
years.Theyaresuitableforperiodof6months.
FIXEDMATURITYFUNDS
LIQUIDFUNDS:TheyinvestinveryshorttermbondssuchasGovttreading,bills
BONDSAREKEYTOSAFETY
TheWellacceptedandacknowledgedbeliefamongstIndianInvestorswasthat"Theroutetoprosperityisonlythrough
equity",butBondshasslowlygivenwaytotheperceptionthat
Oneshouldgrowhiswealthwithminimumriskandatagradualpacewhichispossibleonlythroughsecuredinvestments
inbondsanddebentures".
BondsoccupythepredominantshareofthecapitalmarketsindevelopedeconomieslikeUSAandEuropeancountries.In
theseeconomiesthemajorproportionofthefinancialflowsarethroughthemediumofbondmarkets.However,inIndia,
Bondmarketswerelargelyrelegatedtothebackseatintheearly70swhentheequitycultwasdevelopinginIndia.Ittook
thecenterstageonlyduringthe80s.
Theinitiativewastakenduringtheearly80sbythepublicsectorutilitieslikeNHPC,PFC.MTNLetcbyissuingthebonds
tomeettheirfinancialrequirements.Asacheapersourceoffundingcomparedtoequity,thesebondsturnedouttobean
excellentmediumoffinancingduringthisperiod.However,from1987onwardstherewasalullinthebondmarketsfor
about5to6years.
BondmarketsinIndiareceivedashotinitsarmin1992whenIDBIbroughtanewconceptofDeepdiscount(DD)bonds.
TheDDbondissueofIDBIwasagreatrevolutionarystepandgotathumpingsuccess.IthadofferedareturnofRS.1
lack on an investment of Rest. 3600/ after a period of 25 years. The resounding success of this bond worked as a
springboardfortheBondmarketsinIndia.
Theotherinstitutions,whichwerecloselywatchingthesuccessofthisBondIssueofIDBI,wereIFCI,ICICI,andSCICI.
Boosted by the success of this IDBI, IFCI and ICICI also come out with similar Bond issues, which also got similar
responsesfromtheinvestorcommunity.
TherewasrallyofBondissuesbythesefinancialInstitutionsafterIcecapsDecember95publicissue.Eventhecorporate
likeL&T,TISCO,ArvinMillsandShookLeylandjoinedthebandwagonandcomeoutwiththeirBondoffers,evincing
enthusiasticresponsesfromtheinvestingcommunity.
47

Equitywithafewnotableexceptions,hasbeensheddingtheirvaluecontinuouslyforthelastfouryears.SinceApril1998,
equitymarketshavelostaboutonefifthoftheircapitalization,inflictingmassivelossestotheinvestors.Intheseturbulent
stockmarkettimes,itmakessensetoparkthefundsinthesaferheavensalongwithprospectsofgoodreturns.
Withcommercialbanksofferingmeaslyinterestonsavingaccounts,theprofitableinvestmentoptionavailabletoinvestor
isthefixedincomesecuritiesintheformofcompanyfixeddeposits,thedebenturesofthecorporateentitiesandbondsof
financialInstitutions.
ThephenomenonoffindingsuccorinbondsduringtheturbulentstockmarketisnotuniquetoIndia.Allovertheglobethe
crashofstockmarketsareforcingmajorityoftheinvestorstofindsolaceandprotectioninbondmarkets,especiallythe
bondmarketsofUnitedStates.Therefore,therehasbeenasuddenupsurgeinthedemandforUSBonds.Asaresult,a
largeproportionofAsianFundsaremovingtoUSBondMarketsandpushingupthebondprices.
I.EVOLUTIONMUNICIPALBONDS

1.Cityfinancingapproachandanalysis
The urban population of India is projected to grow from 217 million in 991 to around 350 million in 2001, and
furtherto658millionbytheyear2025.Thenumberofurbanagglomerationsandtownsarealsoexpectedtogrowfrom
3609in1991towellover4000bytheyear2001andmorebeyond.Theresourcesrequirementsfor70oddcitiesforwhich
bothlocalbodiesanddevelopmentauthoritiesexistandforthe30millionpluscitiesbytheyear2001havebeenworked
outandpresentedinanearlierchapter.Fromthesizeofresourcesrequiredonecanimaginethemagnitudeoftheefforts
needed for mobilizing, the resources. Unless the economic base of these cities is strengthened and the urban
infrastructures,municipalservicesandamenitiesareprovidedatlevelsthatmatchtheirstatus,thesecitieswillnotbeina
positiontoefficientlyfunctionLiedplaytheroleincontributingtotheeconomicdevelopmentandaugmentationofthelocal
financialresources.ItisimportanttonotethatthecontributionofurbansectortoGDPiscurrentlyexpectedtobeinthe
range of 5060 percent. National economic growth and poverty reduction efforts will be increasingly determined by the
productivityofthesecitiesandtowns.ForIndiancitiestobecomegrowthorientedandproductive,itisessentialtoachieve
aworldclassurbansystem.Thisinturndependsonattainingefficiencyandequityinthedeliveryandfinancingofurban
infrastructure.
2.EconomicsofCityFinancingSystem:
Thecityfinancingsystemformsthebasicstructureonwhichthephysicaldevelopmentofacityconsiderablydepends.As
such, the development of cities and other urban centers it involves investment of capital resources in the creation of'
urban/municipalandotherinfrastructure.Today,theredoesnotexistaprocessatJivenationallevel,whichcanprecisely
orindicatetheproportionofIndia'snationaloutputtobeutilizedforurbandevelopment
3.MeasurestoOptimizeRevenue
Thecitygovernmentsandvariouslocalauthoritiesresorttotheapplicationofseveralmeasuresforoptimizingrevenue,
they have not fully developed the potential of the revenue sources so as to be selfsufficient. Consequently, they face
acuteshortageoffinancialresourcesinbothmaintainingtheexistinglevelsandstandardsofurbaneconomicandcivic
services and to meet requirements of future additions to the population of the city. The resources are capable of being
usedforalternativepurposes.
4.PooledFinancingforMunicipalInfrastructure
Traditionally,municipalcorporationsandurbanlocalbodieshavereliedonsubsidizedfundsforprovidingurbanservices
whichconstraintstheconstraintstheintroductionofuserchargesandefficientprojectoperationandmaintenance.Inview
ofthehugeresourcegap,directaccesstocapitalmarketwouldnowbeanacceptedviableoption.However,accessto
capital market requires financial discipline and enhanced credit rating. It has been the experience that only bigger
municipalcorporationsareinapositiontotaketheadvantageoftheresourcesavailableincapitalmarket.Mediumand
smaller municipalities are unable to do so due to weak financial position and lack of capacity to prepare viable project
proposals. A State level pooled financing mechanism is being proposed for smaller and medium municipalities. The
objectiveofaStatelevelpooledfinancemechanismistoprovideacosteffectiveandefficientapproachforsmallerand
medium sized ULBs to access the domestic capital markets for urban infrastructure and to introduce new institutional
arrangementsformobilizingUrbanInfrastructureFinance.
48

5.CityRestructuring
Government of India is also encouraging citywide reforms and restructuring so as to ensure that cities are managed
efficiently and become creditworthy (to attract private finance ) which will enable them to prepare long term plans for
infrastructureinvestmentsandimplementpovertyalleviationprograms.Citywidereformsandrestructuringwill,however,
resultinsignificanttransactioncostsduringtheperiodoftransition.Leavingcitiestofinancethesecostsbythemselves
willdelayandmakeitdifficulttoimplementthesereforms.ItistopartlyoffsetthisdisadvantagethattheMinistryofUrban
DevelopmentisproposingtosetupaperformancebasedCityChallengeFundforcatalyzingcityleveleconomicreform
programmers.TheresourcesfromtheFundwouldbegivenasgrantsbutshouldideallybematchedbyequalallocations
eitherfromthecitiesthemselvesorfromtherespectiveStategovernments.Accesstothefundwouldbeonacompetitive
basis.
6.BondMarketinIndia.
The bond markets in India have grown to a fairly big size during the last few years. A major thrust to the bond
marketshastakenplaceduringthelastdecade,morespecificallyduringthelastfouryears.Whilenomoneyhadbeen
raised through the public debt issues in 9495, an amount of Rs2,940 crores was mobilized in 9596 which grew the a
highofRs.6977croresin9697.Theshareofthedebtinthetotalamountofferedtopublicincreasedfrom25%to60%
overthisperiod.Duringtheyear199798,63%ofthetotalfundmobilizationwasfromdebtissuesonly,clearlysignifyinga
shiftfromequitytobondmarkets
Along with the volume growth of the bond markets, there have been qualitative changes too during this period. Private
placementsofbondshavebecomeanimportantareaofbondmarketsnow.Forexample,duringthelasttwoyearseven
thepublicissuesofdebtshavebeenoutshinedbythePrivateplacementofBonds.During199798,therewereasmany
as251privateplacementamassiveamountofRs.30,944crores,ofwhichthelargestsizeoftheissuewasfromIDBI
mobilizing1200crores.ThemajorprivateplacementsofbondswerefromIDBI,ICICI,IFCI,IRFC,andSAILetc.
Aphenomenontobenoticedisthattheregularreturnbondswithfixedreturnarethe
A phenomenon to be noticed is that the regular return bonds with fixed return are the most preferred bonds amongst
investors.Ofthe351instrumentsputonmarketduringtheperiod,156instrumentsofferedregularreturn.
Thefirstbondisintroducedin1998inAMC(AhmedabadMunicipalCorporation)
II.NEEDOFBONDS:
1.RESOURCEGAP

TheIndiaInfrastructure,Report,1996,assessedthetotalannualinvestmentneedsofwatersupply,sanitationandroads
sectorsatRs.28,036croresperyearonanaverageduring19962006.Whereasfundstothatextentarenotavailable.
To overcome these constraints and challenges, the Ministry of Urban Development & Poverty Alleviation has initiated
institutional, fiscal and financial reforms. First generation urban sector reform known as the 74th Constitutional
Amendment Act of 1992, recognizes the principles of local selfgovernments and empowers urban local bodies with
financial resources through Central Finance Commission and State Finance Commissions. Subsequently, in order to
strengthentheselocalbodies,secondgenerationreformhavealsobeenstarted.Inthelastdecade,enormousprogress
hasbeenmadeinremovingimpedimentstoefficientinvestment.
2.ResourceMobilizationEffort
InAugust1996,theCentralGovernmentguidelinesentitled'UrbanDevelopmentPlansFormulationandImplementation'
were circulated to all State Governments for adoption. These guidelines, apart from other issues, suggest innovative
approaches for fiscal resource mobilization. In the backdrop of the New Economic Policy, it was suggested that the
traditionalsystemoffundingbasedonPlanandbudgetaryallocationsbereducedandultimatelywithdrawnduetofiscal
deficit.Subsidiesneedtoberationalizedandurbandevelopmentplansandprojectsneedtobeplacedonacommercial
format by designing commercially viable urban infrastructure services and area development projects. This can be
achievedbyrestoringapropermatchbetweenfunctionsandsourceofrevenuebygivingadditionaltaxmeasures.Other
innovativeresourcemobilizationmeasuresincludeusinglandasresource,increaseinthenonpropertytaxesandusing
PublicPrivatePartnershipinservicedelivery.
3.Evidentofneweconomicpolicy
Inconclusion,itisevidentthattheNewEconomicPolicylaunchedinIndiain199192,didseeseveralimportantinitiatives
in the urban sector designed to encourage private sector participation in urban infrastructure projects. These initiatives,
would need to be taken to their logical conclusion. A series of new Reform Measures are being put together for
49

implementation during 10th Plan Period. Through these, we hope to reverse the declining standards of urban
infrastructureinthecountry.
4.MunicipalBonds
Several Municipal Corporations like successfully issued Municipal Bonds, Bangalore, Ahmedabad, Lothian, Nagpur,
Nasik,andMaduraiforraisingresourcesforurbaninfrastructure.TheCentralGovernmenthadannouncedtaxexemption
in case of bonds issued by Municipal / Local Governments. Guidelines were issued by this Ministry on 8.2.2001 for
regulating issue of taxfree municipal bonds. Under the guidelines, such bonds will be issued for raising resources for
capitalinvestmentincreationofnewinfrastructureaswellasaugmentationofexistingsystems.TaxfreebondsworthRs.
100crorebyAhmedabadMunicipalCorporationhavebeenpermittedforimprovinginfrastructure.HyderabadMunicipal
Corporationhasalsobeenpermittedtoissuetaxfreemunicipalbond
forRs.82.50crore.
III.TYPESOFBONDS
Anewerahasrecentlyopenedforthesmallinvestor.Thissegmentisgovernmentbondsorgiltedgesecurities.Theyare
now available for public subscription. In the first serious thrust to create a retail base for gilts six primary dealers have
startedsellingthesegovernmentbonds.Giltsofferthehighestsafetyandgoodliquidity.
Newervarietiesofbondshavecomeuplike:
x

InflationIndexBonds

InCashBonds

SteppedUpBonds

DeepDiscountBonds

TaxsavingBondsCalllinkedBonds.

An investor has the option of investing in the bonds either directly by subscribing to these bonds or by choosing an
indirectrouteofbuyingtheunitsthroughMutualFundswhichinvestinthesebonds.SinceMutualFundsinvestonlyin
rateddebtinstrument,theriskisalsominimized.Theincomefromdebtfundsarethereforeconsideredtobe
morestableLiquidityisoneofthemostimportantrequirementofaninvestorandIndianstockmarketsarenotsatisfying
this demand because of its sporadic trading, Institutions have innovated new alternatives to create liquidity in the bond
markets,ICICIhasinitiatedinthisdirectionandcameoutwiththemarketmakingexerciseinthedebtsegmenttakenan
initiativestockmarkets.Duringtheearly90sinterestratesonbondswerearound13to14%.Itjumpedto16.5%in1996
to rapper off again to about 12.5% in 1997. The strengthening of the interest rate are clearly visible with ICICI offering
13.75%intheitslatestissueofsafetybonds.IDBIisalsoplanningtocomeoutwiththebondissueofferinganinterest
rateofaround14percent,whichistobefollowedbyPowerFinanceCorporation.Thesefluctuationsintheinterestrates
docreateopportunitiesforthecapitalgainsinthesecondarymarkets.Forexample,theearlierbondoffersfromIDBIand
ICICI, which offered high interest of around 16%, are now being sold at a price higher than their face value in the
secondarymarkets.Thus,thereexistsexcellentcapitalgainsopportunitytooforbondholderswheninterestratesgodown
inthegeneral.
IV.THEINNOVATIONSINTHEBONDMARKET
1.MUNICIPALBONDS
Thedevelopmentofthebondmarkethasbroughtaboutnewinnovationsandfeatures,whicharemeanttomeetthe
investorsdemand.Oneofthenewvarietiesofbonds,whichhavecomeuprecently,istheMunicipalofferinitiatedby
the Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation. The similar bond offers from Ban galore Municipal Corporation, Hyderabad
MunicipalCorporationandPuneMunicipalCorporationareexpectedtohitthemarketinthecomingmonths.
2.INFRASTRUCTUREBONDS
India requires huge investment in coming years to build muchrequired infrastructure. Indian Government has
accorded this sector high priority status. World over infrastructure sector is funded by bonds. Following the same
trend Indian Financial Institutions like HUDCO, ICICI, IDBI etc. have issued infrastructure sector specific bonds.
Investment in these bonds, besides supporting development of infrastructure projects, is also eligible for tax relief
undersections54EA,54EBand88ofIncomeTaxAct.
V.MUNICIPALBONDS:
50

CASESTUDY:AMC
INTRODUCTION:
Ahmedabad, the largest city of the state of Gujarat, is the seventh largest city in India. Known as the textile capital of
India,Headbandisthecommercialcapitalofthestateandisalsoamajorindustrialandfinancialcity.
PROFILE
AhmedabadmunicipalCorporation(AMC),India
Population:3,515,361(2001)
LandArea:191km2
MunicipalBudget:US$118million(2000)
Priorto1993,theAhmedabadMunicipalCorporation(AMC)hadaccumulatedacashlossofoverUS$9millionandtheir
financialsituationwasdeteriorating.In1994,thecorporationlaunchedamajorefforttostrengthenitscapacitytodevelop
commerciallyviableprojects.AMCintroducedaseriesofmeasurestoimprovepropertytaxcollection,whichaccountsfor
about30%oftaxrevenues.whileattentionwasfocusedonrecoveringmajoroutstandingtaxamounts.Annualproperty
taxcollectionincreasedby55%.
In 1996, AMC prepared a fiveyear capital investment plan worth US$150 million for water supply, sewerage, roads,
bridgesandsolidwastemanagementprojects.Itproposedtomeet30%ofthetotalinvestmentrequirementfrominternal
accruals,whilemobilizingtheremainingamountthroughmunicipalbondsandloansfromfinancialinstitutions.
As a result, AMC was able to turn around its financial position and achieve a closing cash surplus of US$50 million in
1999.
Inthemidstoftheoverallprosperityofthecity,alargepoorpopulationhassufferedfromdeprivationofbasicservices
andamenities.In2000,41%ofthepopulationlivedinslumsandlowincomehousing,withthebulkoftheslumresidents
sharingthewater
supplyandmanylivingwithouttoiletfacilities.
CHALLENGE
To provide basic services for an expanded urban area and growing population, and improve living conditions in slum
neighborhoodsinthefaceofcashlossesandadeterioratingfinancialsituation.
ACTION
IntroducefiscalandmanagementreformstoenabletheAMCtoimproveandexpandbasic
servicesandinitiateurbandevelopmentprojects.
Ahmedabad became the first city in India to request and receive a credit rating for a municipal bond issue. The US
AgencyforInternationalDevelopment'sFinancialInstitutionsReformandExpansion(FIRE)Projectplayedamultifaceted
roleinassistingAhmedabadindevelopingthebondissue.Thecitywasultimatelyassignedan"AA"rating.
Project Description and Components: To meet the need for improved urban services, AMC designed a major
investmentprogrammedforwatersupplyandsewerageservices.TheCorporationdevelopedaprojectthatwouldensure
awatersupplyof180literspercapitaperday(lpcd)fortheentirepopulationwithintheoldAMClimits.Theprojectwould
alsoenhancethesupplyofwaterintherecentlyextendedeasternareasofthecityto150lpcd.
SituationBefore
Before199394,AhmedabadMunicipalCorporationwasalossmakingurbanlocalbodywith
accumulatedcashlossesofRs.350million.
TheAhmedabadMunicipalCorporation(AMC)improveditsfiscalprofilefrom1993to1996byintroducingsignificantfiscal
andmanagementreforms,withtechnicalassistancefromUnitedStatesAgencyforInternationalDevelopment(USAID).
These reforms included improving tax collection (octroi and property tax), introducing a computerized double entry
accountingsystem,upgradingitsworkforceandfinancialmanagement,developingacomprehensivecapitalmanagement
program, and obtaining a credit rating from the Credit Rating Information Services of India, Ltd. (CRISIL). These
innovationslaidthegroundworkforissuingamunicipalbond.
TheabovemeasuresboughtaboutaturnaroundinAMC'sfinancialsituation.
Strategy
In1996,thecitytookadecisiontodevelopacapitalinvestmentplanforfiveyears(199697to200001)forinvestingRs.
5947 million in water supply, sewerage, roads, bridges, and solid waste management projects. AMC allocated a major
part,Rs.4890million,ofitscapitalinvestmentplantoaddresswatersupplyandsewerageneeds.
51

AMC proposed to meet 30 percent of the total investment requirement from internal accruals, while mobilizing the
remainingamountthroughmunicipalbondsandloansfromfinancialinstitutions.
DevelopmentProcess
Thefollowingstepsweretakeninordertoissuethebonds:
1.AMCgotthecorporationcreditratedbyaleadingfinancialinstitution.ItreceivedacreditratingofAA(SO)fromCRISIL.
2.OctroicollectionfromtendesignatedpointswereearmarkedforservicingthebondandkeptinanEscrowaccount.
3.ThecreditratingwasabletobuildconfidenceinfavourofAMC.Thiscoupledwiththegoodworkdonebythe
corporationsuccessivelyforthreeyearshelpedAMCinmarketingitsfinancialstrategytomopuppublicmoneythrough
thebondissueforinfrastructureprojects.TheUSAIDandHUDCOalsoparticipatedinpreparingdocumentsforraisingthe
bondissue.
4.Thecorporationverysuccessfullyheldroadshowsandcreatedamechanismtoensurethereturnsonthemoney
invested.Thiswasdonethroughan'Escrowaccount'.
5.TheAMCwenttoSEBIfortheregistrationofthecitybonds.AMChasthedistinctionofissuingfirstpublicmunicipal
bondinIndiawithoutastategovernmentguarantee.
AhmedabadMunicipalCorporationtookoutthepublicissueof10,00,000securedredeemablebondsin1998.Citybonds,
asitispopularlyknown,wereofafacevalueRs.1000each(forcashatpar)aggregatingtoatotalofRs.100crores.The
issueopenedon16thJanuary1998andclosedon27thJanuary1998.Theissuewasoversubscribedasapplications
werereceivedforRs.104.67crores,theallotmentwasmadeby24thJanuary1998.
Thebondswereprivatelyplaced,allottedtoadozenIndianfinancialinstitutions,includingtheStateBankofIndia,theUnit
TrustofIndia,HousingDevelopmentFinanceCorporation,commercialbanksandmutualfunds.
Inthefirstyear,thebondproceedswerenotusedsinceprojectdesignsandtenderswerenotready.Thesecondyear
sawthecommencementofconstructionandbyMarch31,2000AMCwasabletospendRs.915millionoftotalbond
proceeds.
Financing
The Ahmedabad water supply and sewerage project is being financed from number of sources, including the internal
accruals of AMC, debt from capital markets, a loan from USAID Urban Environmental (UE) program and loan from
financialinstitutionssuchasHousingandUrbanDevelopmentCorporations(HUDCO).
In1998,AMCpubliclyissuedsecuredredeemablebondsaggregatingtoatotalof1billionRupees.Citybonds,asthey
arepopularlyknown,hadafacevalue$1,000Rupees(US$25)each(forcashatpar).AMCsold25%ofthebondstothe
Indianpublicandtheremaining75%oftheissuetoinstitutionalinvestors
Underpressureofanimpendingwatercrisis,AMCwasabletorapidlyexpendbondproceedstosuccessfullyimplement
an emergency bulk water supply scheme known as the Raska Project in a record five months. Designed to supply 65
million gallons of water a day to the city, the Raska Water Project consisted of constructing a pump house and laying
pipelinestobringwaterto60%ofthecity'spopulation.
TheestimatedtotalcostoftheemergencyschemewasRs.1,131million:80percentwascoveredbytheHUDCOloanof
Rs.889millionand20percentbythebondproceeds.AMCfullyutilisedthebondproceedstocompletethisproject,as
planned,byMarch2000.
Implemented the Raska Water Supply project through many contracts. It worked in partnership with two private
contractorstocoordinate32subcontractorsfromallpartsofIndia.Theentireprojectwascompletedinrecordtime,130
days, starting in November 1999. The Raska project supplies water to 60 percent of the citys population. The AMC
providestreatedwatertoallresidentsfortwohoursinthemorningandhalfanhourintheevening.Timelycompletionof
the project saved Ahmedabad from severe water shortage in summer of 2000 and provided a permanent and reliable
sourceofsurfacewaterforyearstocome.
As well, the healthy state of municipal finances also enabled AMC to partner with the business community, non
governmentalorganizations(NGO)andotherorganizationstoundertakenewinitiatives,including:
x

apartnershipwithatextilecompanytoredevelopanimportantcommercialartery

a Slum Networking Project in which the corporation partnered with a textile company, an NGO and the slum
communitytoimprovebasicinfrastructureandprovidewaterandtoiletstohouseholds.

In March 2002, AMC went ahead with another bond issue of the same amount to complete its original water and
sewerageinfrastructurescheme.Thesecondbondistaxexempt.AhmedabadisthefirstmunicipalcorporationinIndiato
issuetaxfreemunicipalbonds.
52

RESULTS
Ahmedabadenjoysahighlevelofautonomyinrevenueuseinthatitdependsonthestategovernmentforonly10%ofits
totalrevenueintheformofgrantsforprimaryeducation.Inaddition,managementinnovationsintroducedbythemunicipal
commissionerandsupportedbystaffandelectedofficialshelpedAMCchangeitsimageamongthelocalcitizenry.
Because of the fiscal and management reforms, Ahmedabad built an extensive water project, developed mutual
partnershipstoimprovetrafficcongestionandimprovedconditions.
LESSONSLEARNED
Ahmedabad demonstrated that municipal bonds can work in India for raising finances for infrastructure projects.
However,beforeactualissuanceofbonds,localgovernmentsneedtoinstituteefficientprojectmanagementsystemsand
procedures to reduce time delays and cost overruns. The most critical factor for obtaining market finance is a healthy
municipalrevenuebase.
CurrentStatus:Withthesuccessofthefirstmunicipalbondissue,AMChasgoneaheadwithanotherbondissueofthe
same amount i.e. Rs. 1000 million. However, the second bond issue (issued in October 2001) is tax exempt. AMC is
again the first municipal corporation in India to issue tax free municipal bonds. This bond will be used to complete its
originalwater
andsewerageinfrastructurescheme.
Summary
In January 1998, the Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation issued municipal bonds for Rs. 1000 million. The issue was
designedtopartiallyfinanceaRs.4890millionwatersupplyandsewerageprogram.Thiswasaremarkableachievement
as it was the first municipal bond issue in India without a state government guarantee and it represented the first step
towardsfullymarketbasedsystemoflocalgovernmentfinance.A75percentprivateand25percentpublicissuerated
AA(SO) by Credit Rating Information Services of India Ltd. (CRISIL), indicating a high degree of certainty about timely
repayment, gave momentum to a growing national consensus that municipal bonds provide a promising alternative for
financingurbaninfrastructure.
1.MunicipalbondsmechanismcanworkinIndiaforraisingfinancesforinfrastructureprojects.
2.Formoppingupfundsthroughabondissue,thecorporationshouldhavecreditrating
3.Thelocalbodymusthavedetailedprojectproposalsreadyforimplementationtoensurequickutilizationoffunds.
Alltheurbanlocalbodies,whosefinancialpositionisgood,andwhohaveagoodcredibilityandasoundtrackrecord,can
goformunicipalbondstoraisemoneyforinfrastructuredevelopment.
MUNICIPALBONDS:
ABondhasgainedimportanceassourcesoffundsforurbanbodies.Municipalitiesraisefundsdirectlyfromthe
market by issue of bonds or trough a financial interme diary called special purpose vehicle (SPV). The main
difference between direct market borrowings or financial intermediary route is that in the case of former, it is the
municipalcorporation,whichwouldberated,andalsothefunctioningandappraisalcapabilitiesoftheintermediary
wouldbeevaluated.
Bondscanbroadlydividedintotwocategories:
1)Generalobligationbonds:GObondsaresecuredbytheunlimitedtaxingpowerofthemunicipalcorporationand
areservicedoutoftaxrevenuesandassetsofcorporation.GObondsaregenerallyprovidefacilityfortaxexemption
to the investor and have a lower cost of borrowing There also referred to as full faith and create obligation due to
diversity of security provided. The bonds issued by the AMC Ahmedabad Municipal Corporation are GO bonds of
creditratingwasbasedonthetotalrevenuecollectionbythemunicipality.
2)Revenuebonds:RBbondsaretiedtoaprojectisissuedforaspecifiedproject.Asaresultfeasibilityanalysisof
projectisessentialbeforetheissueofRB.Netrevenuefromtheprojectsaftermeetingprojectoperatingexpensesare
pledgedtobondholders.ThusRBcreateslocalrevenueawarenessregardingtheproject,itsserviceandenhance
the efficiency of the municipal corporation. RBs are not considered as public debt of the government, and are not
constrained as deficit financing. In short, bonds have a great potential considering the urgent need of urban
infrastructure projects, through it necessitates a developed bond market to provide liquidity to bonds: Legislative
changesempoweringlocalgovernmentstoraiseresources:financialprudenceamonggovernmentsandcertainfiscal
incentivesforinvestmentinbonds.

53

MUNICIPALITIESBONDISSUE
MUNICIPALITY

AMOUNTINRSCRORES

PURPOSE

BANGALORE

125

Roads,Flyovers

AHMEDABAD

100

Watersupply,sewerage

AURANGABAD

50

Watersupply,sewerage

HYDERABAD

100

Roads,Flyovers,sewerage

NASHIK

100

Watersupply,sewerage

PUNE

200

General

JALGON

200

Airport,housing

REFERENCES:

NAGARLOKJOURNELSOFINFRASTRUCTURE2000EDITION

WWW.GOOGLE.COM

WWW.OURMCH.COM

Ecologydealswithwiththeinterrelationshipsbetweenlivingorganisimsbetweenlivingorganismsandtheirenvironments.
Ecology,relativelyanewscience,dealswiththevariousprinciples,whichgovernsuchrelationshipsbetweenorganisms
andtheirenvironment.
The syudy of ecology is based on the recognisition of more or less independent units of nature technically called
ecosystem.
Ecologicalplanningmustbeginwithacoprehensiveecosystemanalysis.
Aconventionalsurvey,whichmerelycharacterisessoil,minerals,topography,plants,animalsetc.,isinadequateinstead,
thesesurveysmustbecomprehensive.Includinganunderstandingofenergyflow,nutrientcycling,populationdynamics,
carryingcapacityandotherspeciesrelationshipsetc.theultimateobjectivesofanecosystemsurveyshouldbetopredict
theimplicationofproposedactivities.
Thenextimportantconsiderationinecologicalplanningistoexaminethevariousalternativescarefullybeforetakingany
majordecision.
Aninterdiciplinaryteam,consistingofecologists,economists,socialscientistsandotherconcernedspecialistsincluding
decisionmakers,shouldconductsuchassessmentandprepareanenvironmentalimpactstatementfortakingnecessary
precautionarymeasures.
NationalenvironmentalEngineeringResearchInstitutreconductssurveys.
Ecologicalplanningatalllevelsofdecisionmakingmustberegardedasapriorityinviewofescalatinggrowthof
populationandourcommitmenttodevelopment.
Theimp.Ofecologyandenvironmentalqualityisfirstrecognisedinlongtermperspectiveofthefourthfiveyearplan.
Diversityisacombinationofthenumberofspeciesandthenumberofindividualsofeachspeciesinacommunity.
Anecosystemisthewholebioticcommunityinagivenareaplusitsabioticenvironment.
Thebioticcomponentsofanyecosystemarelinkedasfoodchains.Foodchainsareinterlinkedtoformcomplexfood
webs.Foodwebsarethebasicunitsofecosystemecology.
Apopulationisagroupofindividualorganismsofthesamespeciesinagivenarea.
Acommunityisagroupofpopulationsofdifferentspeciesinagivenarea.
Anyfeatureoftheorganismoritsparts,whichisofdefinitesignificanceinallowingthatorganismtoexitunderthe
cnditionsofitshabitat,isthuscalledadaptation.

54

Biologicalclocks.Plantspeciespossessphysiologicalmechanismsthatindicateparticularseasonsoftheyear,andplant
speciesareknownasbiologicalclocks.
ZoneoftransitionEcotone.
Alifeformisthesumoftheadaptationoftheplanttoclimate.
Thefinal,terminalcommunitythatcanmaintainitselfmoreorlessindifinitelyinequilibriumwiththeprevailingenvironment
isknownastheclimaxcommunityandthestageisclimax.

Advocacy planning: the preparations of plans or planning proposals and their advocacy by professionals planners on
behalfofanorganization,interestgroup,orcommunityasanalternativeorinoppositiontoplans,orplanningproposals
preparedbyanofficialagency.
Agora: the principal public space of a Greek city, which was the commercial and social center of the city. Meaning
assembly.EarliertheAcropolishadbeenthecenter.
Airconditioning:thecontrolofairinabuildingtoadesiredtemperatureandhumidity,anditscleaningandcirculation,
obtainedbymeansofplantsdesignedandinstalledforthepurpose.
Air pollution: pollution of the air by smoke is caused mainly by the incomplete combustion of fossil fuel, which emit
carbonmonoxide,finecarbonaceousparticles,andtarrydroplets.
Apartment: a building, generally of several stories, contains a number of separate dwellings with a common entrance
fromthestreetandoftenwithserviceslikeheatingandlightingincommon.
Activity analysis: activity analysis is studies concerned with patterned ways in which households, firms, and various
other institutional entities pursue their affairs in time and space. These studies classify entity systems into subsystems,
andtheyidentifypatternintheflowofactivitiesortransactionsofeachsystemasitevolvesintimeandspace.
Aqueduct:aductorconduitforconveyingwaterfromplacetoplacebutcommonlyregardedasanelevatedstructure
carryingtheduct.
Arcade: a series of arches as distinct from lintels supported on columns such as is seen in medieval cloisters, the
interiorsofbasilicasandchurchesandinRenaissancepiazzas.
BIOTECHNIC:Thisandothersimilarterms(paleotechnic)werecoinedbyPatricGeddes.Allthetermsapplytomodern
technologyanditseffectoneconomicandsociallife.
LewisMumfordtechniquesandcivilization.
Thecultureofcities.
BLIGHT: some times called PLANNING BLIGHT but among planner often referred to simply as blight. It stems from
depreciationinthevalueoflandandbuildingsastheresultofplanningproposalsorplanneddevelopment.Thishappens
when
Alternativeplanningproposalsforpublicdiscussion.
Whereaspecific,confirmedproposal.
Blightcanberegardedastheoppositeofbetterment.
Pavements:1:50minimumslopeofisdesirableformostpavedsurfaces.
Path=0.9m,twoabreast2.2m,threeabreast3.2m
Ramp:aninclinedplanefootwayorroadwayconnectingtwolevels.
Reclamation: in connection with land use, reclamation means in its widest sense, the recovery or conversion of land
mainlyagriculturalpurposedbutoccasionallyalsoforconstructionpurposes.
Recreation:istheprocesswherebyindividualsandcommunitiesrenewandrefreshthemselvesbypleasantoccupants,
amusementsandentertainsbothphysicalandmentalafterworkorstudy.
Ribbon development: urban spread along main roads, especially those leading to a city. The practice of building on
eithersideofamaintransportroutehasbeencommonsincetheMiddleAges,andmanyVillagesandtownshavearises
onthisway.
Buildingalongtransportroutesisrelatedtooneformofthelinearcity.
Radialplan:adevelopmentofradiatingroadsfromacitycentres,withurbanaccretionsalongtheroads.Itisaplanthat
results from natural uncontrolled haphazard growth. But it often forms the bias of good planning of combined with
concentricringroads,inwhichthespiderwebplanevolves.
Scale: the term scale as applied to the appearance of a building describes a quality of the relationship between
dimensionalofthebuilding.Anditscomponentsandthemodestrangeofdimensionsanddistancesimpliedbythesizeof
ahumanbeingandbyhisphysicallimitations,thatis,thehumanscale.
Buildingmustalsobeinscalewiththeirsurroundingsandotherbuildings.
At1200mheightshumanformisjustdetectable.
25mapersonarerecognizable.
55

15mhisfaceisfullydiscernable.
13m,directandsignificanthumanrelationship.
Whentheheight:distanceratiois

1:4,14qrelativelysmall

1:3withan18qconeofvisionobjectisvisible.
1:2,30qcomprehensible.
1:1,40qstrongexperience.
Sculpture: in addition to public monuments in appropriate places in cities and towns, sculpture is often introduced to
providedecorativeitemsofinterestso,ascanbeseeninsomeofthenewurbanareasinGermany
Semeiology:themodernscienceofSemeiologyisconcernedwiththemeaningofsignsandformsthatappearandare
employedinallsocialactivities.
Space:urbandesign,likearchitecture,ispartlyanartofenclosingspaceandtheproportionorareaofspaceinrelation
tobuilding,therelationshipofvoidstosolids,oftengreatlycontributestothesuccessorfailureofanurbandevelopment.
PiazzasanpetroRome.
Placedeconcorde
Paris
Champdemars
Paris.
They are kept, as valuable urban space because they have been traditionally used for various recreational civic and
religiouspurposes,becausetheaestheticresultispleasurableandbecomeitissatisfactorytokeepthemsodespitethe
factthattheirpracticalusefulnesshasdecreased.
Suburbsandsuburbangrowth:suburbsarethecompactlydevelopedanddevelopingareassurroundingthecentralcity
in a metropolitan area. These areas are distinguished from the central city by their more homogeneous socioeconomic
andphysicalcharacter,althoughtheyareseldomasunvariedastheyarepicturedinmuchcurrentliterature.
Twilight area: an area, commonly adjacent to or even surrounding a city center, which the need for redevelopment is
considerablewherebuildingsareinpoorconditionanddecrepitinappearanceandwherethewholeenvironmentisrun
downanddeteriorate.
Theseareasareareasoftransition.
Ziggurat:anancientBabylonianandAssyrianstructurelikeasteppedpyramid,withatempleatthetopandapproached
byaprocessionalway.
MOGHALARCHITECTURE:
BuildingstylethatflourishedinnorthernandcentralIndiaunderthepatronageoftheMughalemperorsfromthemid16th
tothelate17thcentury.TheMughalperiodmarkedastrikingrevivalofIslamicarchitectureinnorthernIndia.Underthe
patronageoftheMughalemperors,Persian,Indian,andvariousprovincialstyleswerefusedtoproduceworksofunusual
qualityandrefinement.
The tomb of the emperor Humayun (begun 1564) at Delhi inaugurated the new style, though it shows strong Persian
influences.ThefirstgreatperiodofbuildingactivityoccurredundertheemperorAkbar(reigned15561605)atAgraand
atthenewcapitalcityofFatehpurSikri,whichwasfoundedin1569.Thelattercity'sGreatMosque(1571JamaMasjid,
withitsmonumentalVictoryGate(BulandDarwaza),isoneofthefinestmosquesoftheMughalperiod.Thegreatfortat
Agra(156574)andthetombofAkbaratSikandar,nearAgra,areothernotablestructuresdatingfromhisreign.Mostof
theseearlyMughalbuildingsusearchesonlysparingly,relyinginsteadonpostandlintelconstruction.Theyarebuiltof
redsandstoneorwhitemarble.
Mughal architecture reached its zenith during the reign of emperor Shah Jahan (162858), its crowning achievement
beingthemagnificentTajMahal.ThisperiodismarkedbyafreshemergenceinIndiaofPersianfeaturesthathadbeen
seenearlierinthetombofHumayun.Theuseofthedoubledome,arecessedarchwayinsidearectangularfronton,and
park like surroundings are all typical of Shah Jahan period buildings. Symmetry and balance between the parts of a
buildingwerealwaysstressed,whilethedelicacyofdetailinShahJahandecorativeworkhasseldombeensurpassed.
Whitemarblewasafavoredbuildingmaterial.AftertheTajMahal,thesecondmajorundertakingofShahJahan'sreign
wasthepalacefortressatDelhi,begunin1638.AmongitsnotablebuildingsaretheredsandstonepillaredDivaneKha
(HallofPublicAudience)andthesocalledDivaneKha(HallofPrivateAudience),whichhousedthefamousPeacock
Throne. Outside the citadel is the Great Mosque (165056 Jama Masjid). The impressive mosque sits on a raised
foundationandisapproachedbyamajesticflightofsteps,withanimmensecourtyardinfront.

56

ThearchitecturalmonumentsofShahJahan'ssuccessor,Aurangazeb(reigned16581707),representadistinctdecline,
though some notable mosques were built before the beginning of the 18th century. Subsequent works lost the balance
andcoherencecharacteristicofmatureMughalarchitecture.
Tombarchitecture
MortuaryarchitectureinEgyptwashighlydevelopedandoftengrandiose.Thetombwasnotsimplyaplaceinwhicha
corpsemightbeprotectedfromdesecration.Itwasthehomeofthedeceased,providedwithmaterialobjectstoensure
continuedexistenceafterdeath.Partofthetombmightreproducesymbolicallytheearthlydwellingofthedeadpersonit
mightbedecoratedwithscenesthatwouldenabletheindividualtopursuemagicallyanafterlifesuitableandsimilartohis
worldlyexistence.Forakingtheexpectationswerequitedifferentforhimthetombbecamethevehiclewherebyhemight
achievehisexclusivedestinywiththegodsinacelestialafterlife.
Mosttombscomprisedtwoprincipalparts,theburialchamber(thetombproper)andthechapel,inwhichofferingsforthe
deceasedcouldbemade.Inroyalburialsthechapelrapidlydevelopedintoatemple,whichinlatertimeswasusuallybuilt
separately and at some distance from the tomb. In the following discussion, funerary temples built separately will be
discussedwithtemplesingeneralandnotaspartofthefunerarycomplex.
Royaltombs
Intheearliestdynastiesthetombsofkingsandhighofficialsweremadeofmudbrickandofsuchsimilarsizethatitis
difficulttodistinguishbetweenthem.ItisnowgenerallythoughtthatthetombsatAbydoswereroyal,whereasthoseat
arahwerenoble.Thelatter,betterpreservedthantheformer,revealrectangularsuperstructures,calledMastabas(see
below), with sides constructed in the form of paneled niches painted white and decorated with elaborate matting
designs.
Thesegreatsuperstructurescontainedmanystoragechambersstockedwithfoodandequipmentforthedeceased,who
layinarectangularburialchamberbelowground.Alsowithinthesuperstructure,butnotalwaysclearlyevident,wasalow
moundofearth,possiblyrepresentingtheprimitivegraveofearliertimes.Sometimesthisconcealedmoundwasalow,
steppedstructure,perhapstheprecursorofthefirstgreatbuildingconstructedofstoneinEgypt.
TheStepPyramidofDjoser,secondkingofthe3rddynasty,wasbuiltwithinavastenclosureonacommandingsiteat
aqq(rahoverlookingthecityofMemphis.Ahighroyalofficial,Imhotep,hastraditionallybeencreditedwiththedesignand
withthedecisiontousequarriedstone.Thisfirstessayinstoneisremarkableforitsdesignofsixsuperposedstagesof
diminishingsize,andalsoforitshugeenclosure(1,784909feet[544277metre])surroundedbyapaneledwallfaced
with fine limestone and containing a series of mock buildings that probably represent structures associated with the
palace in Memphis. There the Egyptian stonemasons made their earliest architectural innovations, using stone to
reproducetheformsofprimitivewoodandbrickbuildings.Finereliefofthekingandelaboratewallhangingsinglazed
tilesinpartsofthesubterraneancomplexesareamongtheinnovationsfoundinthisremarkablemonument.
NORTHINDIAN
StyleofarchitectureproducedthroughoutnorthernIndiaandasfarsouthasBijapurdistrict,characterizedbyitsdistinctive
ikhara,asuperstructure,tower,orspire.ThestyleissometimesreferredtoasN(gara,atypeoftemplementionedinthe
ilpa(stras (traditional canons of architecture), but exact correlation of the ilpa(stra terms with extant architecture
hasnotyetbeenestablished.
ThetypicalHindutempleinnorthernIndia,onplan,consistsofasmallsquareshapedsanctuary(calledthegarbageha,
orwombroom)housingthemainimage,precededbyoneormoreadjoiningpillaredmapapas(porchesorhalls),which
areconnectedtothesanctumbyanopenorclosedvestibule(antar(la).Theentrancedoorwayofthesanctumisusually
richlydecoratedwithfiguresofrivergoddessesandbandsoffloral,figural,andgeometricornamentation.Anambulatory
issometimesprovidedaroundthesanctum.Abovethemainsanctuaryrisesaspire(ikhara),whichisusuallycurvilinear
inoutline,andsmallerrectilinearikharasoftheph(msan(typefrequentlytopthemapapasaswell.Thewholemaybe
raisedonaterrace(jagati)withattendantshrinesatthecorners.Ifatempleisdedicatedtothegodiva,thefigureofthe
bull Nandi, the god's mount, invariably faces the sanctum, and, if dedicated to the god Vishnu, standards (dhvaja
stambha)maybesetupinfrontofthetemple.
Thecentreofeachsideofthesquaresanctumissubjectedtoagradatedseriesofprojections,creatingacharacteristic
cruciformplan.Theexteriorwallsareusuallydecoratedwithsculpturesofmythologicalandsemidivinefigures,withthe
mainimagesofthedeitiesplacedinnichescarvedonthemainprojections.Theinteriorisalsofrequentlyrichlycarved,
particularlythecofferedceilings,whicharesupportedbypillarsofvaryingdesign.
57

ThattheprototypeoftheNorthIndiantemplealreadyexistedinthe6thcenturycanbeseeninsurvivingtemplessuchas
thetempleatDeogarh,Bih(rstate,whichhasasmallstuntedikharaoverthesanctuary.Thestylefullyemergedinthe
8thcenturyanddevelopeddistinctregionalvariationsinOrissa,centralIndia,Rajasthan,andGujarat.Aclassificationof
NorthIndiantemplesisgenerallymadeonthebasisofikharatypes,suchastherectilinearph(msan(andthecurvilinear
latina,withitstwovariations,theekharYandthebhmija(seeikhara).
One typical form of the North Indian style is seen in the early temples at Orissa, such as the graceful 8thcentury
Paraur(mevaraTempleatBhubaneswar,acitythatwasagreatcentreoftemplebuildingactivity.Fromthe10thcentury
a characteristic Oriya style developed that exhibited a greater elevation of the wall and a more elaborate spire. The
Lingar(jaTempleatBhubaneswar,ofthe11thcentury,isanexampleoftheOriyastyleinitsfullestdevelopment.TheSun
TempleatKon(rak,thesanctumofwhichisbadlydamaged,isthelargestandperhapsthemostfamousOriyatemple.
AdevelopmentfromthesimplertoamoreelevatedandelaboratestyleisevidentincentralIndia,exceptthattheekharY
typeofsuperstructure,withmultipletenets,ismorefavoredfromthe10thcenturyonward.Interiorsandpillarsaremore
richly carved than in Orissa. The Central Indian style in its most developed form appears at Khajuraho, as seen in the
Kap(ryaMah(devaTemple(c.11thcentury).There,anoveralleffectofharmonyandmajestyismaintaineddespitethe
exuberance of sculpture on the outer walls the rich profusion of miniature shrines on the ekharY spire reinforces the
ascendingmovementconsiderably.
LargenumbersoftemplesarepreservedinGujarat,butmostofthemhavebeenbadlydamaged.Theearly11thcentury
SunTempleatModheraisoneofthefinest.
AlsocalledDravidianStyle,architectureinvariablyemployedforHindutemplesinmodernTamilNadufromthe7thtothe
18thcentury,characterizedbyitspyramidal,orkinatype,tower.VariantformsarefoundinKarnataka(formerlyMysore)
andAndhraPradeshstates.TheSouthIndiantempleconsistsessentiallyofasquarechamberedsanctuarytoppedbya
superstructure,tower,orspireandanattachedpillaredporchorhall(mapapa,ormapapam),enclosedbyaperistyleof
cells within a rectangular court. The external walls of the temple are segmented by pilasters and carry niches housing
sculpture. The superstructure or tower above the sanctuary is of the kina type and consists of an arrangement of
graduallyrecedingstoriesinapyramidalshape.Eachstoryisdelineatedbyaparapetofminiatureshrines,squareatthe
corners and rectangular with barrelvault roofs at the centre. The tower is topped by a domeshaped cupola and a
crowningpotandfinial.
TheoriginsoftheDr(viastylecanbeobservedintheGuptaperiod.Theearliestextantexamplesofthedevelopedstyle
arethe7thcenturyrockcutshrinesatMah(balipuramandadevelopedstructuraltemple,theShoreTemple(c.700),at
thesamesite.
The South Indian style is most fully realized in the splendid BhadYvara temple at Thanj(vr, built about 100310 by
R(jar(ja the Great, and the greattemple at Gangaikopacxdapuram, built about 1025 by his son R(jendra Cxla.
Subsequently,thestylebecameincreasinglyelaboratethecomplexoftemplebuildingsenclosedbythecourtbecame
larger, and a number of successive enclosures, each with its own gateway (gopura), were added. By the Vijayanagar
period (13361565) the gopuras had increased in size so that they dominated the much smaller temples inside the
enclosures.
**************
AlsocalledorderofarchitectureinanyofseveralstylesofclassicalorNeoclassicalarchitecturethataredefinedbythe
particulartypeofcolumnandentablaturetheyuseasabasicunit.Acolumnconsistsofashafttogetherwithitsbaseand
its capital. The column supports a section of an entablature, which constitutes the upper horizontal part of a classical
building and is itself composed of (from bottom to top) an architrave, frieze, and cornice. The form of the capital is the
mostdistinguishingcharacteristicofaparticularorder.Therearefivemajororders:Doric,Ionic,Corinthian,Tuscan,and
Composite.
Therearemanyseparateelementsthatmakeupacompletecolumnandentablature.(SeetheFigure.)Atthebottomof
thecolumnisthestylobatethisisacontinuousflatpavementonwhicharowofcolumnsissupported.Risingoutofthe
stylobate is the plinth, a square or circular block that is the lowest part of the base. Atop the plinth and forming the
remainderofthebaseareoneormorecircularmoldingsthathavevaryingprofilesthesemayincludeatorus(aconvex
moldingthatissemicircularinprofile),ascotia(withaconcaveprofile),andoneormorefillets,ornarrowbands.
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The shaft, which rests upon the base, is a long, narrow, vertical cylinder that in some orders is articulated with fluting
(verticalgrooves).Theshaftmayalsotaperinwardslightlysothatitiswideratthebottomthanatthetop.
Atoptheshaftisthecapital,whichservestoconcentratetheweightoftheentablatureontheshaftandalsoactsasan
aesthetictransitionbetweenthosetwoelements.Initssimplestform(theDoric),thecapitalconsists(inascendingorder)
ofthreepartsthenecking,whichisacontinuationoftheshaftbutwhichissetofffromitvisuallybyoneormorenarrow
groovestheechinus,acircularblockthatbulgesoutwardatitsuppermostportioninordertobettersupporttheabacus
andtheabacusitself,asquareblockthatdirectlysupportstheentablatureaboveandtransmitsitsweighttotherestofthe
columnbelow.
The entablature is composed of three horizontal sections that are visually separated from each other by moldings and
bands.Thethreepartsoftheentablature(inascendingorder)arecalledthearchitrave,frieze,andcornice.
Theunitusedinthemeasurementofcolumnsisthediameteroftheshaftatthebasethus,acolumnmaybedescribed
asbeingeight(lower)diametershigh.
AncientGreekarchitecturedevelopedtwodistinctorders,theDoricandtheIonic,togetherwithathird(Corinthian)capital,
which,withmodifications,wereadoptedbytheRomansinthe1stcenturyBCandhavebeenusedeversinceinWestern
architecture.
TheDoricorderischaracterizedbyaslightlytaperedcolumnthatisthemostsquatofalltheorders,measuringinheight
(including the capital) only about four to eight lower diameters. The Greek forms of the Doric order have no individual
baseandinsteadrestdirectlyonthestylobate,althoughsubsequentformsofDoricfrequentlyweregivenaconventional
plinthandtorus base. The Doric shaft is channeled with 20 shallow flutes. The capital, as stated before, consists of a
simple necking a spreading, convex echinus and a square abacus. The frieze section of the Doric entablature is
distinctive.Itiscomposedofprojectingtriglyphs(unitseachconsistingofthreeverticalbandsseparatedbygrooves)that
alternate with receding square panels, called metopes, that may be either plain or carved with sculptured reliefs. The
Roman forms of the Doric order have smaller proportions and appear lighter and more graceful than their Greek
counterparts.
TheIonicorderdiffersfromtheDoricinhavingmoreflutesonitsshaftandinthescrolls,orvolutes,thatdroopoverthe
frontandrearportionsoftheechinusinthecapital.Theechinusitselfiscarvedwithanegganddartmotif.Theheightof
theentireIonicordercolumn,base,capital,andentablatureisninelowerdiameters.Thebaseofthecolumnhastwo
tori (convex moldings) separated by a scotia. The shaft, which is eight lower diameters high, has 24 flutes. On the
entablature, the architrave is usually made up of three stepped fasciae (bands). The frieze lacks the Doric triglyph and
metope,andhencethisareacanholdacontinuousbandofcarvedornament,suchasfiguralgroups.
TheCorinthianorderisthemostelegantofthefiveorders.Itsdistinguishingcharacteristicisthestrikingcapital,whichis
carvedwithtwostaggeredrowsofsylizedacanthusleavesandfourscrolls.Theshafthas24sharpedgedflutes,while
thecolumnis10diametershigh.
TheTuscanorderisaRomanadaptationoftheDoric.TheTuscanhasanunflutedshaftandasimpleechinusabacus
capital.ItissimilarinproportionandprofiletotheRomanDoricbutismuchplainer.Thecolumnissevendiametershigh.
Thisorderisthemostsolidinappearanceofalltheorders.
TheCompositeorder,whichwasnotrankedasaseparateorderuntiltheRenaissance,isalateRomandevelopmentof
the Corinthian. It is called Composite because its capital is composed of Ionic volutes and Corinthian acanthusleaf
decoration.Thecolumnis10diametershigh.
The Doric and Ionic orders originated nearly simultaneously on opposite shores of the Aegean Sea the Doric on the
Greek mainland and the Ionic in the Greek cities of Asia Minor. (The volutes of the Ionic capital were adapted from
PhoenicianandEgyptiancapitaldesigns.)TheDoricmaybeconsideredtheearlierorderofthetwoonlyinitsdeveloped
form.Bothordersoriginatedintemplesconstructedoutofwood.TheearliestwellpreservedexampleofDoricarchitecture
istheTempleofHeraatOlympia,builtsoonafter600BC.Fromthesebeginnings,theevolutionofthestoneDoriccolumn
canbetracedinarchitecturalremainsinGreece,Sicily,andsouthernItaly,wheretheDoricwastoremainthechieforder
formonumentalbuildingsforthenexteightcenturies.
TheGreeksaswellastheRomansregardedtheCorinthianasonlyavariantcapitaltobesubstitutedfortheIonic.The
firstknownuseofaCorinthiancapitalontheoutsideofabuildingisthatofthechoragicMonumentofLysicrates(Athens,
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335/334 BC). The Corinthian was raised to the rank of an order by the 1stcenturyBC Roman writer and architect
Vitruvius.
TheRomansadoptedtheDoric,Ionic,andCorinthianordersandmodifiedthemtoproducetheTuscanorder,whichisa
simplifiedformoftheDoric,andtheCompositeorder,whichisacombinationoftheIonicandCorinthianorders.Another
Romaninnovationwasthesuperposedorderwhencolumnsadornedseveralsuccessivestoriesofabuilding,theywere
normallyofdifferentorders,inanascendingsequencefromheaviesttomostslender.ThuscolumnsoftheDoricorder
wereassignedtothegroundfloorofabuilding,Ioniconestothemiddlestory,andCorinthianorCompositeonestothe
top story. To avoid the complications of separate orders for each story, the architects of the Renaissance invented the
Colossalorder,whichiscomposedofcolumnsextendingtheheightoftwoormorestoriesofabuilding.
VitruviuswastheonlyancientGreekorRomanwriteronarchitecturewhoseworkssurvivedtheMiddleAges.Whenhis
handbookforRomanarchitects,Dearchitectura,wasrediscoveredintheearly15thcentury,Vitruviuswasatoncehailed
astheauthorityonclassicalarchitecture.Basedonhiswritings,ItalianarchitectsoftheRenaissanceandBaroqueperiods
developedanaestheticcanonthatestablishedrulesforsuperposingtheclassicalorders.Thearchitectsalsolaiddown
rules for the proportions of the orders and their parts down to the most minute members. The exact proportional
dimensionsofeveryelementofanorderwasspecified,sothat,giventhediameterofthecolumnoranyotherdimension,
theentireorderandallofitsseparateelementscouldbereconstructedthroughroutinecalculations.Theruleswerethus
carriedtoextravagantlengthsthatwereundreamedofbytheGreeksandrarelyobservedbytheRomans.
Succeedingartisticperiodswitnessedrevivalsofthearcheologicallycorrectuseoftheorders,thoughmanyarchitects
continued to use the various orders with the utmost freedom. In Modernist architecture of the 20th century, the orders
havetendedtopassfromusealtogetherassuperfluousornament,theirstructuralfunctionshavingbeentakenoverby
columnsandpiersmadeofsteelorreinforcedconcrete.
The concept of the Renaissance, whose goal was the rebirth or recreation of ancient classical culture, originated in
Florence in the early 15th century and thence spread throughout most of the Italian peninsula by the end of the 16th
century the new style pervaded almost all of Europe, gradually replacing the Gothic style of the late Middle Ages. It
encouraged a revival of naturalism, seen in Italian 15thcentury painting and sculpture, and of classical forms and
ornamentinarchitecture,suchasthecolumnandroundarch,thetunnelvault,andthedome.
KnowledgeoftheclassicalstyleinarchitecturewasderivedduringtheRenaissancefromtwosources:theruinsofancient
classical buildings, particularly in Italy but also in France and Spain, and the treatise De architectura by the Roman
architect Vitruvius. For classical antiquity and, therefore, for the Renaissance, the basic element of architectural design
wastheorder,whichwasasystemoftraditionalarchitecturalunits.DuringtheRenaissancefiveorderswereused,the
Tuscan,Doric,Ionic,Corinthian,andComposite,withvariousonesprevalentindifferentperiods.Forexample,theornate,
decorativequalityoftheCorinthianorderwasembracedduringtheearlyRenaissance,whilethemasculinesimplicityand
strength of the Doric was preferred during the Italian High Renaissance. Following ancient Roman practice (e.g., the
ColosseumortheTheatreofMarcellus),Renaissancearchitectsoftensuperimposedtheorderthatis,usedadifferent
order for each of the several stories ofa buildingcommencing with the heavier, stronger Tuscan or Doric order below
andthenrisingthroughthelighter,moredecorativeIonic,Corinthian,andComposite.
FortheRenaissance,proportionwasthemostimportantpredeterminingfactorofbeauty.ThegreatItalianhumanistand
architectLeonBattistaAlbertidefinedbeautyinarchitectureas
Introductiontotheplanning
TownPlanningisconcerned,inpart,withharmony,delightandefficiency..Butbyfaritsmostimportantaspectifnotits
verypurposeisthestudyofthewaysofarrangingbuildingspacesandactivitiessothatweallcanmoreeasilyenjoywork
andplaytothefullestpossibleextent.Todayplanningisataskformanypeoplewhoworkasateamcomprisingexperts
andordinarycitizens,adaytodaycivicresponsibilityrequiringavarietyofsocialandprofessionalskillsbroughttogetherto
suittheneedsoftheproblemathand.
Inourlivesweareallplannersinthatweattempttoorganizeouractivitiesinameaningfulandpurposefulway.
Similarly,wetrytoarrangeourpersonalpossessionsalso.
Modernurbanplanningissues

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Modemurbanplanningthereforeembracesalltheintricaterelationshipswhichexistbetweenvariouslevelsof
government.Itmustcomprehendinsomeorderlywaythephysicalresultsofdecisionswhichsometimeshavebeen
madewithoutregardto,thewidersocialandenvironmentalproblems.
All such planning questions have one very significant factor in common. The solutions to the problems they raise
dependonadministrativecooperationandjointaction.Weareonlyjustbeginningtorecognizethetruthofthisproposition.
The major task lying ahead of today's governmental and administrative leaders is to devise new strategies and
procedureswhichwillensurecollaborationnotonlybetweenpublicandprivateagencies,butbetweenthepublicagencies
themselves,ateverylevelofoperation.
Challengebeforeplanning
The urban planner will play a major part in the working out of these new strategies, and in helping to define the
community objectives on which they must be based. In short, urban planning is an activity whose frontiers are being
constantly extended to include most of the physical and social determinants of contemporary urban life. At its heart,
planning is concerned with people with enhancing their comfort, convenience, and spiritual valuesand with devising the
mostacceptablephysicalframeworkforhumanactivityinourmetropolitancivilization.
Urbanplanningembracesavarietyofactivities,whichhavealloriginatedinandareconcernedwiththephysical
andsocialfabricofurbanlife.)Theprimefunctionsofplanningaretoimprovethephysicalsettingsofourpublic
andprivatelives,andtoenrichtherelationshipbetweenmanandhisnaturalenvironment
AKEYTOSUCCESS
Theplannertodaymustgiveincreasingattentiontothesocialandeconomicaspectsofurbangrowth.asmall
planningproblemwillusuallyrequiremorethanoneopinion,whilstalargeprojectwillalmostcertainlyrequirethe
effortsofoneormoreplanningteamsgroupsofexpertseachofwhomcontributeshisownspecialistknowledge
towardsasolutionofthecommonproblem.
Increasinglyplanningisbecomingataskaimedatachievingcoordinationofeffortnotonlybetweenprivateandpublic
developersbutbetweenthevariouspublicagenciesthemselves.Itissurelyoneofthegreatchallengesofurbangovtto
producethemeanswherebycocoordinated.
Significanceofpublicparticipation
Thuswereachtotheconclusionthatplanningisnolongeraonemanjob.asmallproblemwillusuallyrequiremorethan
one opinion, whilst a large project will almost certainly require the efforts of one or more planning teams groups of
experts each of whom contributes his own specialist knowledge towards a solution of the common problem.today no
plannerpretendstobefullyconversantwithallthedetailsandcomplexitiesofhisjob.sotheplannerwhetherhebeinthe
government or private practice calls on experts to join the what we call influencing people in that region what we call
peoplesparticipation.
Increasingly planning is becoming a task aimed at the co ordination of effort not only between private and public
developers but also between the various public agencies themselves. It is surely one of the greatest challenges of the
urbangovernmenttoproducethemeanswherebycoordinated.
PEOPLESROLEINPUBLICPARTICIPATION
weshallbelookinginparticularatpeopleandthedifferentrolestheycanplayintheplanningprocess.Itwillbeseenthat
anindividualoragroupcanplaymorethanonerole,andthattheroleatanyonetimewillbeconditionedbythekindof
problem which is facing them and by the resources which they may be able to offer in meeting that problem. Each
problemwillhaveitsownparticularcombinationofpolitical,financial,socialandgeographicalconditionswhichmakeitin
some degree different from other problems. But if the problems are all unique, the people behind them can be roughly
classifiedintooneorotherofseveralprimarycategories.
THECITIZEN
Weareallcitizens.Weliveinourparticularcommunity,helpelectourleadersandpayratesandtaxeswhichfinancethe
community

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Progress.wheatherwearealsocitizensofthestateinwhichwehappentoliveandthenation.Furthermore,mostofus
owealoyaltytoafourthunitourlocalgovernmentcouncilwhichleviesratesandprovidesuswithveryrealneedssuchas
localroads,parksandlibraries
ThusOurcivicloyaltiesarestourways.Ourinterestsandparticipationincivicaffairswilldependagreatdealonhowwe
viewourrelationshipwitheachlevelofgovernment,andonwhatwestandtogainorlosefromsuchgovtasaresultof
participationortheirinterventionintheiractivities.
Whatever its form, citizenship implies responsibilities and obligations it offers to those so inclined the opportunity to
participateincivicleadershipandtheirbytoplayapartinshapingtheaffairsofthecommunityincludingurbanplanning.
At the state, regional and local levels there are a growing number of Opportunities for citizens to play their part in the
makingofplansandinthedevelopmentofbettercommunities.Thisisespeciallysoatthelocallevel
Wheretownplanninghasforalongtimebeenamatterofpopularconcernaswellasastatutoryoperationunder
thecontrolofthelocalshireormunicipalcouncil.
CITIZENASCLIENT
Thecitizenisthemainstayofourdemocraticsociety,andrespectforhisrightsiscentraltoourconstitutionaloutlookand
toanlegislativeprocedures.Asamemberofcommunity,heisentitledtoaddhisvoicetothevoiceofthecommunity.
Furthermore,thecommunity,isthe'ultimateclient'ofallourplanningendeavorsatlocalornationallevelsnomatterwho
actuallydrawstheplans,ownstheland,findsthemoney,orreapstherewards,ifanythecommunityistheultimate
beneficiaryofgoodplanninganthevictimofbadApoorlyplannedhousingestatemaynotleaditsbuildertobankruptcy
butitwillconstitutealiabilitywhichthecommunity
asawholemustcarryformanydecades.
Planningimpliesthethoughtfuluseofresources,andsowecansaythatawellruncouncilwillasamatterofcoursesee
thatpublicmoneyiswiselyspentinobtainingsoundprofessionalhelpandgivingthecommunitythebenefitsofcareful
planningthroughtheavoidanceofpoordevelopment,disturbancetoamenity,andsoon

THECITIZENASBUILDER
The total urban environment at a particular point of time is very much the sum of its parts, and most of these parts
consistofthecountlessminorchangesandadditionswhicharebeingcarriedoutbyindividualsactingintheirtemporary
capacityofbuilderorlandscapegardenerorwhatyouwinGenerallyspeaking,nomatterhowsmall,thereareveryfew
developmentprojectswhichareentirelyaprivatematter.
THECITIZENASPLANNER
Ourthirdviewofthecitizenseeshiminhisroleasaplanner.Forthemajorityofpeoplelivingandworkinginthetypical
urbansituation,thisroleisapotentialratherthananactualonebecauseaneffectivemechanismbywhichcitizenscan
playareallyfruitfulandcreativepartinourvariousofficialplanningsystemshasnotyetbeendevised.Anhonestourand
hisinvolvementinplanningwouldshowthatinthegreatmajorityofcaseshewillbefoundobjectinginthelegalsenseof
theword
.
Thisleadsustotheobservationthatourplanninglawstendtoreflectthequestionablephilosophythatplanningisthe
soleprerogativeoftheprofessional,andthatcitizenparticipationislimitedtothechancetoobjectatcertainwelldefined
stagesintheprocess.Today,wecanseeaworldwidetrendawayfromthisnegativeapproachtoone,whichrecognize
thatmanyintelligentcitizensnotonlyarecapableofmakingusefulcontributionstoaplanbutareactuallyeagertodoso.
Whenthisenlightenedviewisacknowledgedinourplanninglegislationwewillatlastbeabletospeakofthecitizenas
plannerandnotmerelyasastatutoryobjector
THECIVICGROUP
Sofarwehavelookedattheindividualcitizenasclientorbuilderorplannerparticipatinginsomewayinplanning
process.butcitizensalsoactingroupswhichplayavarietyofrolesinplanning.Whatexactlyisacitizensgroupwhatcan
suchagroupachieveinthefieldsofurbanplanning.

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Typically,thecitizens'group,whichbecomesinvolvedinplanning,usuallyhas'anaxetogrind'.Theoldmaxim~unityis
strength'is the motto of hundreds of civic committees, progress and protest associations, amenity societies, action
committees, ratepayers' associations and the like, that are constituted either to oppose or object to a particular
developmentprojectortoactasacommunitywatchdogoveraperiodoftime.Itisperhapsunfortunatethatalthoughthese
bodiesareessentialtodemocraticprocesses,theirlivesareoftenshortandtheiractivitiestendtobeeitherdefensiveand
negativeinoutlook,orelseconcernedwithminorimprovementsoflimitedifcosmeticvalue.
This is not to suggest that such citizens' groups have no positive role in urban affairs. In fact, when they are well
organizedwithgoodleadershiptheyprovideaneffectivechecktohastyorirresponsiblebureaucraticdecisions.Forthis
reason alone we shall always need such groups. However, there is a more creative and constructive role awaiting the
civic association which sets itself the aim not only of exposing the weaknesses in official policymaking but of actively
contributingtowardstheformulationofbetterpoliciesandplans.
Here again we come face to face with the statutory planning system. Not one of our state planning systems
contemplatesusingtheresourcesofcivicgroupsduringtheearlystagesofsurvey,goaldefinitionandplanpreparation.
Aswiththeindividualcitizen,provisionismadefornegativeobjectionsratherthanforpositivecontributions.Thuswecan
see that for the, citizen, whether he acts as an individual or as a member of a group, the opportunities for active
participationinplanningarefew.Atpresenttheyarenotonlylimitedinscopebutarefrustratingtothosemoreinterested
inprogressthaninprotests.
THEADMMSTRATORANDTHEPLANNER
Theabovesituationposesproblemsfortheurbanplanner.Ontheonehandheisinagoodpositiontoestablishafruitful
relationshipwiththelocaladministratorbecausetheyarebothconcernedwiththebroadspectrumof
Localaffairs.Ontheother,heislikelytobeaccusedoftrespassingwhenheconcernshimselfwiththespecialistactivities
ofaMainRoadsBoardoraHousingCommissionoraHarbourTrust.Wearebacktotheoftrepeateddilemma:howdo
weachieveacooperativerelationshipbetweenthespecialistagenciesofhighergovernmentandthegeneralistplanners
atthelocallevel?
Atthispointitwouldbeeasytodespairbutinseveralstatestherearehopefulsignsaspoliticiansandadministrators
begin to take urban planning seriously. Each state is evolving its own system for bringing about a more effective
coordinationofstatutorybodies,governmentdepartments,andlocalgovernmentunits.Butwehavealongwaytogo.
Debateonpublicprivateaffairs
THEDEVELOPERPRIVATEANDPUBLIC
Ifaplanistobebroughttorealitylandandmoneyareobviousrequirements.Infact,iftheplan.isagoodoneitwillhave
beenbasedonathroughknowledgeofthelandtowhichrefers,anditwillhaveincorporatedintoitsprovisionsallthe
financialinformationnecessarytoshowhowthebenefitsofimplementationwilloutweighthecosts.
Today,wearebetterabletomakepropercomparativeassessmentsofthesebenefitsandcosts.Aswecontinueour
discussionofpeopleinplanningwewilldescribetheroleoftheprivateandpublicdevelopersastheyseekthebest
economicanswerstoparticulardevelopmentandinvestmentproblems.
Muchofwhatwehavetosayappliesequallytopublicandprivatedevelopers.Bothhavetoassemblemoneyandland
bothhavetounderstandthevariouslegalandfinancialrestrictionsandlimitationsontheiractivitiesbothhavetoaccount
for their operations in some formal way. But there are also significant differences between the aims and methods of
privateandpublicdevelopers.Weshouldknowsomethingaboutthesedifferences,andaboutthewaytheyinfluencethe
characterofourplansandourplanningpolicies.
DEVELOPMENTLAND,MONEY,PEOPLE,PLANS
The actual construction is only one aspect of the total developmental process. Development, like planning, may begin
longbeforeworkonthesitecommences,andcontinuebeyondtheconstructionperiodtillthelandandbuildingsarefully
inuseaccordingtotheintentionsoftheplan.Tobeginwithlandandmoneyhavetobeassembledattherighttimeandin
the right place ideas examined and worked out on paper and legal aspects dealt with. The views, and perhaps the
approval,ofmanydifferentgovernmentbodiesmaybeinvolvedaswell.Afterallthisacontractorhastobeselectedand
hisworksupervisedduringthetermofthecontract.Loans,feesandcoststhenhavetobepaidandaccountedfor.
in working out a project several different parties may be involved: the owners of the land the planning agencies the
actual developer the technical and legal advisers the public authorities the moneylending agencies and so on.
Sometimes we find that two or more of these parties may be combined or associated in some way. Many modem
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developershavethesupportofdesigners,planners,financiersandotherexpertswithintheirownorganization.Inthecase
ofalocalplanningprojectsponsoredbyacouncil,thedevelopmentmaytaketheformofapartnershipwherebythelocal
authoritybuysthelandandpreparesanoutlineplanwhilsttheactualdevelopmentandmanagementoftheprojectwillbe
carriedoutbyaprivatedeveloperwhoentersintoaspecialfinancialarrangementwiththesponsoringcounciiI
PUBLICANDPRIVATE
Basically developers may be classified in two groupspublic and private. Public development agencies include the
departments of state and federal government, local councils, statutory bodies, universities and hospitals. Private
developersincludeprivateindividualsorprivatelyowneddevelopmentcompanies,insurancecompanies,administrators
oftrustfunds,andthebigpubliccompanieswhosesharesarefistedonthestockexchangesofourcapitalcities.
Withinthesetwogroupsthereareotherinterestingsubgroups.Forexampletheprivatedeveloperusuallyoperateswith
oneofthreeintentions.Hemaybeaspeculator,inwhichcasehebuildsforsaleandaquickprofit.Hemaybeaninvestor
where he builds for letting or leasing. He may simply be concerned with building for his own use and occupation. By
contrast,publicdeveloperscanbedistinguishedbyconsideringwhetherornottheiroperationis'remunerative'.Whena
councildecidestoredevelopitslandinthetowncentreitwillcertainlybeconcernedwithobtainingacashreturnifitis
buildingroadsoranewsewageplanttherewillbenocashreturnbutthebenefitswillaccrueinotherways.
Towardsasolution
KeyTerm
Thekeyterminthisrespectis"publicparticipation".Thisconceptintroducesavarietyofproblems,especiallyofalegal
andconstitutionalnature.Theseproblemsnotonlyconcernthegovernmentinmanycasesthepopulationalsohasmany
questionsaboutthisrole.However,severalcountrieshavelearnedbyexperiencethattheinteractionbetween
governmentandcitizenscanbefruitfulandthatthereisstrongsocialsupportforjointresponsibilityintacklingandsolving
theproblemswithrespecttotheenvironment.Inmanycasesthisparticipationisconsideredanimportantelementin
democraticdevelopment,basedonmutualrespectandconfidence.
Thelasthundredyearshaveseentremendousgrowthinworldpopulation,andintheconcentrationofpopulationinhuge
cities
The modem city is not only physically big. With its intricate web of complex mechanical, hydraulic and electrical
services, it is also a very sophisticated technological phenomenon. It is highly dependent on these services if they are
inadequateorfaulty,disastermayresult.Forexample,ablackoutandpowerfailureinacitycanbringtheentirecitytoa
haltandcausewidespreadconfusionandsuffering.
Inlargecities,man'seffortsatsuccessfullyorderinghisenvironmentarebesetwithdifficulties.Asgrowthcontinues,it
becomes less easy to attain order, efficiency, and convenience. We come to accept as normal the unhealthy
characteristicsofthemoderncitytheslums,smog,pollution,congestion.Andalongsidethesephysicaldisordersarethe
grave social disorders of loneliness, distrust of authority, alienation, poverty, and the dangers of civil disturbance and
administrativebreakdown.
Properlydirectedurbangrowthcanleadtosocial,physicalandeconomicimprovement.Thiskindofprogressisimplicit
inthephilosophyofmodernsituationonlythroughthehealthypeoplesparticipation
CITIZENS'PARTICIPATION(adetailedstudy)
AnindividualcitizenismoredirectlyaffectedbylocalgovernmentadministrationthanbythepoliciesoftheUnionand
StateGovernments.Itisatthislevelthatserviceslikeroadmaintenance,streetlighting,trafficcontrol,firefighting,water
supply,transportandbuildingregulationsstrikehome0everyone.Theattitudestowardspublicadministrationaregeneral
innatureandtheyareusuallyshapedbypersonalcontacts.Sincethecitizen'sdealingwiththelocalgovernmentiscloser
andmorefrequent,publicadministrationatthelocallevelassumesacriticalimportance.Notonlythis,whileworkingfor
the improvement of city government, a local authority must endeavour also to secure greater and better understanding
fromthecitizens.Itisonlyfromsuchanunderstandingthatwecanexpectgreaterresponsivenessandenthusiasmfrom
them.Thereismuchthatthecitizenmustlearnandbetold.Acitizenisgenerallyignorantofwhatconstitutesamunicipal
offence so far as sanitation is concerned. Similarly, he is ignorant of other offences mentioned in the Act. So, there is
great need for educating the citizen of his rights under the municipal law. The need is really great in growing urban
centreswherehomogeneityandbackgroundarelackingandthetaskofachievingreasonableuniformityofconditionsis
renderedmoredifficult.
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TheunderstandingthatWemusttrytosecure,shouldcovertheprerequisitesoforderlycommunityliving.Acitizen's
attitudemustreflectawarenessandappreciateofone'srightsandobligationsasamembertoalargecommunityand
mustevokeappropriateaction.
Rightsrelatetothebasicneedsofdecentliving.
tothesumtotalofcivicfunctions.
(2)"Citizenshipisanobligation,notaprivilege.112Heisobligedtoimposea(1)Thecitizenisobligedtoacceptthat
he is duty bound to contribute code of conduct that reflects the interdependence of the citizens in Matters of a civic
nature. Such a code of conduct is all the more essential in a thickly populated and somewhat heterogeneous urban
community.Ononehand,thephysicalscenemustbeimprovedandontheother,aneducationcampaignundertaken,
with the object that the local community is enthused and mobilised with regard to the negative and positive aspects of
civic behaviour. Among the instruments to be used, the most important is local leadership of both individuals and
institutions.Thismustgiverisetothebirthofanurbancommunitydevelopmentprogrammeandeverycityadministration
mustendeavourtoprovideasuitablemachineryforundertakingsuchaprogramme.Theproblemistodevisewaysof
giving.theindividualanopportunitytoplayamoremeaningfulroleinshapingthepoliciesandprogrammeswhichaffect
hisphysical,aestheticoccupational,recreationalandhumanenvironment.
(3) It has been suggested that citizens' forums should be organised for stimulating and ensuring maximum
participationofthecitizenincivicaffairs.InUnitedStatesofAmerica,suchgroupshaveconductedstudiesofvariouscity
problems and worked in the direction of promoting the desired change. In India, a beginning had been made with the
citizen'schestidea.Thewardcommitteecanbeorganized,representingelectedcouncillorsaswellasotherstomakea
valuable contribution for improving the standard of civic amenities in a town. This will reduce the distance between the
rulersandtheruled.Itisobservedthatagoodcitizenis"onewhoiswillingatalltimestomakesomesacrifices,histime,
means And convenience to advance the common welfare and has such an abiding interest in this that he is always
watchfulandneedstheurgencytodohisduty".3itisrealizedbyallthatwhereasenseofintimateattachmenttotheir
municipalgovernmentislacking,municipalgovernmentwillbeamockeryandafarceandiftherelationsbetween
themunicipalgovernmentanditscitizensareremoteandimpersonaltheverypurposeofmunicipalgovernmentwillbe
defeated. The report of the RuralUrban Relationship Committee observed, "The efficiency and effective functioning of
local bodies and the standard of services provided by them depend not only on the organizational procedure, financial
capabilities, tax administration and technical and administrative competence of the municipal personnel but also on the
interest,understandingandcooperationofthecitizens.Wellinformedcitizensconsciousoftheirresponsibilitycanrespond
quicklytothestepstakenforimprovingtheservicesandpromotingsocialandeconomicdevelopmentandcooperatewith
theadministrationinitstasks.Goodleadershipandenlightenedparticipationofthepeople,civicprideandconsciousness
aretheprerequisitesforbuildingupasoundandresponsiblelocaladministration".4
Asoundandresponsibleadministrationmustdeviseoutamechanismforinformingitselfaboutitsactsofomission
andcommission.Bruereremarked,"However,muchacommunitymaydesiregoodgovernmentand,however,sensitive
it may be to bad government, it cannot act wisely day in and day out on governmental matters without information on
governmentactsandresultS.5Decisionsnotfertilizedbythoughtsandideasofoutsideexpertsorofcitizensthemselves
will remain futile. The more the bureaucracy or the responsitories of power turn their backs on life, the more will their
creationsufferfromthebacklashoflife.
Itisafactthatoncethepeopleareinvolvedintheircitygovernment,thequalityoftheservicesrenderedbythelocal
bodyimproveconsiderably.TheCommitteeonRuralUrbanRelationshipreported,"Involvementofcitizensintheaffairsof
the local body makes officers and elected councillors responsible to the needs and aspirations of the people. It makes
themactiveandencouragesthemtogivetheirbestintheserviceofthepeople.Decisionsmeanttobenefitahandfulof
peopleortwoserveindividualinterestsareminimized.Ultimately,itensuresproperrenderingofmunicipalservicesand
preventsmalingeringonthepartofthestaff.Itidentifiesparticularinterestswiththoseofthe.community,thus,bringing
aboutafeelingofnolongerbeingregardedasaliensbutasinstrumentsfortheserviceofthecommunity".Thisschoolof
thoughcontends,"thatcitizenparticipationinbureaucraticactivitieshasbeen(orispotentially)animportantstimulusfor
developingmoreeffectivemanagementforenhancingdemocraticnormsandevenfortransferringeffectivepowertothe
powerless.$Whenwebelievethatthepeoplearethesourceofallgovernmentpowerthattheauthorityofthepeopleisto
beextended,notrestricted.Thiscanbedoneonlybyprovidingeachcitizenwitheveryopportunitytoparticipateinthe
managementofthegovernment,andtheymustit.Certainpeopleareallergictopeople'sparticipationbuttheirnumberis
fewandthismicroscopicminoritycomprisesonlythosewhohaveanegativeapproachinlife.Stevenconcludesthatthis
study has determined that certain individual attributes and attitudinal variables are significantly related to citizens
participation norms. As hypothesized, professional, organizational and personal factors are important determinants of
suchvalues.However,otherincludingrespondents,sexandlengthofservice,donotaffectthesevalues.
Nevertheless, the lesson here for the practitioner and scholar is clear. Successful efforts to develop citizens
participationactivitiesdepend,inpartonunderstandingthehumanfactorintheworkplace.Professional,organizational
andpersonalnormsandvaluesmustbetakenintoaccountbeforeinitiatingcitizensinvolvementstrategies.
65

INVOLVINGCITIZENSINCIVICAMENITIES
Beforeproceedingtodesignthestrategiesforsecuringcitizens'involvementinvariouscivicamenities,letusbeclear
astowhatdowemeanbythewordcitizewinvolvernent.Citizensinvolvementisnotlimitedtothesimpleactofvotingin
theMunicipal.'~elections,whenevertheseareheld.Itisalsonotlimitedtoattendanceatpublicmeetingsorparticipation
inadvisorycommittees,specialboardsandcommissionsandpublicauthorities,althoughallofthesearepartofeffective
involvement.thenreferstotheprocessofprovidingallresidentsof.&,Iocalgovernmentafullandequalopportunityto
influencethosegovernmentdecisionsthateffectthequalityoftheirlives.TheWord'residents?means,allthose
citizen&whoarenotgenerallyrepresentedbyestablishedinterestgroupsorprivatinstitutions.Theword'decision'means
thefinalpoliciesandprogrammesadoptedbythelocalauthorities

66

Thewords'fullandequalopportunity'aremeanttoconveythatallresidentsshouldhavethesame
opportunitytoinfluencegovernmentdecisionsregardlessoftheirsocial,economicandpoliticalstatus
underthisdefinition:
Citizensidentifywhatdotheywantthelocalgovernmenttodo
Theyhaveanopportunitytocommunicatetheirviews
Theycanparticipateinthedecisionmakingprocess
Theycanevaluatetheactionoftheirrepresentatives.
"The efficiency and success of a democratic Government depends very largely upon the public
understanding of its machinery and the interest the people takes in and the support it gives to its
activities".Asaresultoftheirinvolvement,thefollowinggainsmayaccruetothelocalbody:
I . Citizens involvement may also affect the quality of public decision by ensuring that such
decisionsarebasedoncompleteandaccurateinformation.Obtainingcitizens'viewsbeforefinal
decisions are arrived at, will enable the local authorities to know the potential alternatives.
Citizens motivated by their opposition to the tentative decision or proposed decisions, may
identifymorerealisticalternativesthanthosealreadyunderconsideration.
2. Citizensinvolvementwillprovidetothelocalauthoritiesinformationwhichwillalertthemtothe
potential problems and pitfalls that could inhibit the progress of implementation. Another
advantage would be that if the employees know that citizens are monitoring the quality and
quantityofservices,theirmotivation~obetterservicedeliverywillimprove,
Citizen'simprovementwillalsohelpinimprovingtheAnancesofthelocalbody,totheextentthat
greater involvement in the making of government decisions creates a positive' incentive for
citizenstowork,for
Betteringtheciviccommunity'sfinancialbase.Thiswillincreasecitizens'willingnesstopayfor
the progress and projects, which they know, are going to cater to the basic needs of the
community.
4. The increased citizens' involvement in the resolution of neighborhood problems will motivate
otherstosolvetheirownproblems.If,forexample,citizensbecomeinvolvedinthedevelopment
andoperationofprogramsdesignedtomeetpeople'sneedforurbanshelter,theymay,inthe
process,identifyadditionalwaysofsolvinghousingproblemswhichdonotrequiregovernment
involvement.
In the long run, neighborhood development depends primarily on the willingness and ability of
citizenstodevelopsolutionoftheirproblems.Raohadalsocometotheconclusion,"itisinevitableforthe
effective functioning of municipal government to seek measures to foster civic sense and political
consciousnessintheciviccommunity".
Therearetheadvantageswhichcitizens'involvementmayresultin,provideditisnotstretchedtoo
far.Citizens'involvementdoesnotmeanthatoneveryissueandwitheverycitizentheconsultationisto
precede every decision. The idea is to give an opportunity to the affected citizens of expressing their
views on critical issues before such decisions are "looked in concrete". Having decided, that citizens'
involvementistodevisewaysofgivingtheindividualstheopportunitytoplayamoremeaningfulpartin
shaping the governmental policies and programs which affect their physical, aesthetic, occupational,
recreational and human environment. The easiest thing, which a local body can do, is to make
informationavailabletothecitizensandcitizengroups.
Thecouncilagendaandthemeetingtimesofthecouncilandcommitteescouldbepublishedinthe
newspapers. Detailed minutes of all council meetings should be mailed to any citizen or citizen group
requestingforthesame.
Detailed analysis or any decision vitally affecting the community, should be made available, on
request,toarecognizedgroupofcitizens.
PublicSectorRole
PrivateSectorRole

67

1.BasicRole
Promotionofdevelopment
Protectionofcommunityinterests
2.ProfessionalPlanningRole
Settlementplanningpolicies
Andguidelines
Regionalplanning&interregional
Coordination
Preparationof
Perspectiveplans:(2025yrs)
Developmentplans(every5yrs)
Monitoring&review
Promotionofprivatesector's
professionalplanningrole

1.BasicRole
Detailed&specializedplanning,and
Developmentwithareasonable
Balancebetweentheclient'sand
Communitysinterests.
2.ProfessionalPlanningRole
Detailedareaplanning
(Plansofprojectsandschemes)
Specializedinputsasexpert
consultantspertainingtothe
followingpublicsectorplanning
efforts
transportsystem
urbandesign

urbanservices
fiscalresourceplanning
projectformulationandestimation
legalsupport
3.DevelopmentRoles
3.DevelopmentRoles
Assemblyoflandfortrunkservicesand

Assemblyoflandfordevelopment
majorpublicandsemipublicusesand
throughoutrightpurchaseatmarket
EWS/LIGhousing
pricesorlandpooling
EWS/LIGhousing Landdevelopment
DevelopmentofsettlementlevelandDeveloped
landdistribution
offsiteinfrastructure
Building&distribution,saleof
Urbanrenewalprogrammebuiltupspaces
LanddistributiontousersUrbanrenewalthrough
cooperativeaction
4.NonLegalRoles
4.NonLegalRoles
Advicetoandpersuationofpeople
Introductionofawareness
tofollowdevelopmentplans
aboutplanninganddevelopment
effortsamongthepeople
IntrapublicsectorcoordinationPersuationof
peopletosupport
andcooperation
publicsectordevelopment/renewal
programmesbysocialgroups
198

CRDT,ITPI
UDPF1Guidelines
Publicandprivatesectorscoordination
andcooperation

Introductionofincentivesand
inducementstoinculcate
developmentbyprivatesector
withcommunityinterest
5.ManagerialRole
Officeadministration/management
Capitalimprovement
Managementandmaintenanceof
settlementlevelandoffsite

Participationinsettlementplanning
processwithdedicationwhencalled
for

5.ManagerialRoles
Developmentmanagement
Capitalimprovement
Managementandmaintenance
ofonsiteurbanspaces

68

infrastructure,urbanspacesand
builtupspaces.
6.Education,Training&Research
Education,trainingandresearch
byinstitutions
Inservicetrainingbyother
organisations
Researchbyresearchinstitutions
7.LegalRoles
Zoningregulations
Subdivisionregulations

Legalcontrolspertainingtoprivate
sectorparticipationinplanning
anddevelopmentprocess(including
informalsector)
Plansanctionandotherrelatedroles

Sno
1.BasicRole

andinfrastructures
6.Training
Organisationofprofessional
trainingprogramme
Inputsineducation,training
andresearchprogrammes

Publicrole
Promotionofdevelopmentand
Protectionofcommunity
interests

Privaterole
Detailed&specialized
planning,and
Developmentwitha
reasonableBalance
betweentheclient'sand
communityinterests
Communitysinterests.
Balance
betweenthe
client'sand
Communitys
interests.

ProfessionalPlanningRole

Settlementplanning
policiesDetailedarea
planningAndguidelines
(Plansofprojects
andschemes)
Regionalplanning&
interregional Specialized
inputsasexpertCoordination
consultants
pertainingtothe
following
publicsector
planning
Preparationof
efforts
Perspectiveplans:(2025yrs)
Developmentplans(every5yrs)

69

transportsystem
Monitoring&reviewurban
design
Promotionofprivatesector's
urbanservicesprofessional
planningrole
fiscal
resourceplanning
project
formulationand
estimation

legalsupport
Airconditioning:asystemgivingautomaticcontrol,withinpredeterminedlimitsoftheenvironmental
conditionsbyheating,cooling,humidification,dehumidification,cleaningandmovementofairin
buildings.
Advantages:
x Workingefficiencyisincreased.
x Enjoygratercomfort
x Reductioninclaminganddecorating
x Betterpatronage
x Sealedwindowsreducetheentryofnoisefromaircraftandtraffic.
x Lessriskoffireduetostaticelectricity,causedbydryair.
Relativehumidity:=comfortwhenRHisbetween3070%.
Airconditionmaintains4050%.
Requirementsmaybedividedtwotypes
1. Thoseparticularlyrelevanttolisteningtomusicorformalspeech,asinfluencedbytheproperties
oftheroomitself.
2. thoseconcernedwiththeeffectsofnoise,internallyorexternallygenerated,onparticular
activities.
Roomacoustics.Listeningconditionarelargelyinfluencedbyreverberationtime(RT),whichisdefined
asthetimetakenforasoundtodecayto1million
CLASSICCITY
Humblecityunpavedlaneslackingdrainageandsanitation.
Egacropolis,Athens,Helleniccitytempledominated,meetingplaceswerecalledpnyx
Hippodamus:(Greek)heoriginatedthegridrationalarrangementironstreetsystem.
EgOlynthus(city)bouleuterian(assembly)prytanum(councilchamber)
Thehearthwassituatedcalledatrium.
HimmodamusPiraeus,thepartcityofAthens,aswellasthuriiandRhodes,prince,Miletus.
HELLENISTICCITY
PRIENCErebuiltduringthe4thcenturyBC.ThephysicalimprovementinGreekcitiesreflectedthedeep
rootsofHellenicculture.
TheopenairmeetingplacethepraysoftheagoraandassemblyhallreplacedtheearlyGreektours.
POMPEII

70

Theforumliesinthecenterofanirregularstreetsystemsuggestionstheproblemthatthemoreregular
patternwasestablishedasthetowngrewinpopulationanextendeditsarea.
TheearlyromandwellingadoptedtheatriumfromGreecehousesofthemoreaffluentaddendthefeature
knownastheperistyle.
Charcoalbraziersfromroomtoroomcalledhypocaust,providedheatinggenerally
Whilethepublicbaths(thermae)occupiedanimportantplaceinthesociallifeofRomans
Rome:banksoftheTiber.
OstiaOstia,theseaportforRome,waslikewisecrowdedandcontainedmanyapartments.Thehouseof
Dianaisanexample.
TIMGAD:thepatternofaromancity.
Theforumromanwastheoriginalcenterofbusinessandpoliticallifeintheearlyrepublic.
TheMedievaltown:
Irregularstreetpatternsandheavywalls.
MONTPAZIER:
Thechurchofmonasteryandthecastleofthelorddominatedtheearlymedievaltown.
Thechurchplazabecamethemarketplaceandwithcitizenshipbestoweduponthepeopleandmerchant
guildsestablished.
The entire town was treated with structural logic that characterized the architectural treatment of the
Romanesqueandearlygothicbuildings.
NAARDENchurchdominated.
Historicaldevelopmentofcities:
Therearetwobasicformsofthecity:
1. Walledcity
2. Opencity
Thecitymeansthewholepeoplewhoinhabitit,theentirecollectionofthehousesthepeoplelivein,the
shopsinwhichtheyworkthestreetstheytraverse,andtheplacesinwhichtheytrade.
Early civilizations spread along the fertile valleys of the Nile, TigrisEuphrates, and Indus Rivers where
food,water,andtransportationwereathand.
In Egypt the lives of the people were dedicated to the pharaoh. The towns they built in the third
millenniumB.Cwerereacteduponhisorder.Narrowlanesservedasopendrainagesewersaswellas
passagewaystothedwellings.Wallssurroundedthetowns.

Cityofkahun,Egypt,datingfromabout3000BC
Mohanjadaro,Indusvalley.
BabylonwasalargecityspanningtheEuphratesRiver.Surroundedbythegreatwallsandamoat,itwas
amonumentalcityofkings.
Thewallsdid,notsurroundancientcitieslikeKnossus.ButfortifiedcitiesareTirynsandMycenae.
Thehumblecity:Greece:fortheGreekcitizenthetemplewasthesymbolofhisdemocraticwayoflife.
AncientcityAegeansmallroomscalledMegaron.
Someexamples:
KAHUN:Egypt(3000BC).
Aventilatingdeviceknownasmulgufisprovidedonroofforcoolingforinteriorrooms.
MOHANJADARO:Indusvalley(3000BC).
Theprincipalbuildingsexcavatedareapublicbathandamonastery.

71

BABYLON:6THCENTURYBC.
It was a large city spreader Euphrates River. Surrounded by great walls, it was a monumental
city.
Isthtar gate, stemphal, Hanging Gardens of nebuchadnezzars palace. Herodotus (explains the
roadsystem).
Firstregionalplanning:Jerusalem(surroundedbymediteriansea,deadsea)
CLASSICCITY
Humblecityunpavedlaneslackingdrainageandsanitation.
Egacropolis,Athens,Helleniccitytempledominated,meetingplaceswerecalledpnyx
Hippodamus:(Greek)heoriginatedthegridrationalarrangementironstreetsystem.
Eg.Olynthus(city)bouleuterian(assembly)prytanum(councilchamber)
Thehearthwassituatedcalledatrium.
HimmodamusPiraeus,thepartcityofAthens,aswellasthuriiandRhodes,prince,Miletus.
HELLENISTICCITY
PRIENCErebuiltduringthe4thcenturyBC.ThephysicalimprovementinGreekcitiesreflectedthedeep
rootsofHellenicculture.
TheopenairmeetingplacethepraysoftheagoraandassemblyhallreplacedtheearlyGreektours.
POMPEII
Theforumliesinthecenterofanirregularstreetsystemsuggestionstheproblemthatthemoreregular
patternwasestablishedasthetowngrewinpopulationanextendeditsarea.
TheearlyromandwellingadoptedtheatriumfromGreecehousesofthemoreaffluentaddendthefeature
knownastheperistyle.
Charcoalbraziersfromroomtoroomcalledhypocaust,providedheatinggenerally
Whilethepublicbaths(thermae)occupiedanimportantplaceinthesociallifeofRomans
Rome:banksoftheTiber.
OstiaOstia,theseaportforRome,waslikewisecrowdedandcontainedmanyapartments.Thehouseof
Dianaisanexample.
TIMGAD:thepatternofaromancity.
Theforumromanwastheoriginalcenterofbusinessandpoliticallifeintheearlyrepublic.
Hippodamus.Itwasnaturalthatanatmosphereofphilosophyshouldimpelasearchfororderinthecity.
In the latter part of the forth century an architect from Miletus, by the name of Hippodamus, advanced
positivetheroesabouttheartandscienceofcityplanning.Hehasbeencreditedwiththeoriginationof
thegridironstreetsystem,althoughthisisnotentirelyaccurate.
Thecityplanwasconceivedasadesigntoserveallthepeople.Theindividualdwellingwasthecommon
denominator.Blockswereshapedtoprovideappropriateorientationforthedwellingswithinthem.
SuperimposingtherigidgeometricalformoftheHippodamianstreetsystemupontheruggedtopography
ofthesitesoccupiedbymostGreekcitiescreatednumerousstreetssosteeptheycouldnegotiatedonly
withsteps.
OlynthusGreekcity
Public space: the expanding affairs of government required appropriate facilities. The agora, or market
place,wasthecenterofbusinessandpoliticallife,andaboutitwerelinedtheshopsandmarketbooths.
Accessible from the Agora Square, but not facing upon it, were the assembly hall, counsel hall, and
councilchamber.
CommonopenspaceinGreekcitieswaslargelyconfinedtoenclosureforpublicbuildings.
BuildingregulationsinGreekcitieswerethere.
It was in the colonial founded by the citystates on the shores of the Mediterranean that the planning
theoriesofHippodamusfoundtheirfullestexpression.

72

It is recorded that Hippodamus himself planned Piraeus, the port city of Athens, as well as Thurii, and
Rhodes.
Sizeofcities:40,000andtotalpopulation100,000150,000.
Hellenictownsreliedprimarilyonlocalwatercourses,wellsandsprings.
Chroniclesoftheperiodreferredtotheimportanceofproperorientation.
Thehouses,thatlooktowardthesouth,thewintersunshinesdownintothepaestadeswhileinsummer,
passinghighaboveourheadsandoverourroofs,itthrowstheminshadow.
Theeffectofthesecriteriawasaplanningsystemthatsprungfromtheelementsoftheindividualunit.
Themedievaltown:
Barbaricrulersestablishedcitystatesandformedthenucleusoffuturenations.Theeconomyrootedin
agriculture,andtherulersparceledtheirdomainsamongvassallordswhopledgedmilitarysupportforthe
kingdom.
Thefeudalsystemwastheneworder.
Medievalcitiesofthe12and13thcenturiesusuallyhadirregularstreetpatternsandheavywalls.Initwe
seethecastlewithitsownmoatandwalls,themarketplace(A),andthechurchofSt.Nazaire(c).
Theradialandlateralpatternofirregularroadwayswiththechurchplazaastheprincipalfocalpointofthe
town.Thecityofthemiddleagesgrewwithintheconfinesofthewalls.Whilethepopulationwassmall,
there was space in the town, but when it increased the buildings were packed more closely and open
spaces. Sanitation and water supply remained same. The result was intolerable congestion, lack of
hygiene,andpestilence.
During the 13th and 14th centuries young empires to protect their trade and provide military security
foundedcolonialcities.Theywereplattedforallocationofsitestosettlersandtheregularplanisadistinct
totheinformaldevelopmentofthenormalmedievaltown.
It was the church rather than the palace that dominated the medieval town. Encircled by its protective
walls,thetownwassmall.Inlaterdaysthebattlementswereelaboratelyengineered,asinNaarden,and
populacewasfurtherseparatedfromtheopenspacesaboutthetown.
The entire town was treated with a structural logic that characterized the architectural treatment of the
Romanesque and early Gothic buildings. Open spaces the streets and plazas developed as integral
partsofthesitesuponwhichthebuildingswereerected.Withtheexceptionofafewpartsbetweenthe
gatesandthemarketplace,streetswereusedaspedestriancirculationaboutthetownratherthantraffic
arteriesasweknowthemtoday.
Dwellings: conservation of heat in the cold climates and the restrictive area of the town caused the
houses to be built in connected rows along the narrow streets. Behind these rows of dwellings open
spacewasreservedandinthemthedomesticanimalswerekeptandgardenscultivated.
LifeinmedievalcitieshadColour,aColourvisibletoallthepeople.Thechurchprovidedpageantryand
gavedramatothelifeofeveryman.
Averageheighttwostorey.
Masonrywastheusualconstruction.
Briefpoints:
Irregularstreetpatternsandheavywalls.
MONTPAZIER:
Thechurchofmonasteryandthecastleofthelorddominatedtheearlymedievaltown.
Thechurchplazabecamethemarketplaceandwithcitizenshipbestoweduponthepeopleandmerchant
guildsestablished.
The entire town was treated with structural logic that characterized the architectural treatment of the
Romanesqueandearlygothicbuildings.
NAARDENchurchdominated.

73

Neoclassiccity:
Thetraditionalheightofbuildingincreasesfromtwostoreyto3and4storey.
Populationdensityincreaseswithoutincreaseinwatersupplyandsanitation.
Wheeltrafficincreases.
ThefirstsewerinstalledinLondonaftertheBlackDeath.
Theimportantaspectconcernsthehousestypesenvisagedfordifferentsocioeconomic
groups.Thebasicdistinctionismadebetweenplottedandgrouphousing.Thedecisionregardinghouse
types for different income groups is essentially based on two considerationhousing preferences and
affordability.Indistinguishingbetweenplottedandgrouphousinginrelationtofinancialaspects.
Originoftowns

Prehistoricperiodtheorigintownswerenosocialconceptandthevariousgroupsand
tribeslivedtogetheronlyforcollectivesecurityfromtheearlystoneagetheslowprocessofdevelopment
extendingoveraperiodofnearlyhalfamillionyears.
Medievaltowns
Townsofthisperiodhadwallsaroundthemforprotectionanddefenseandwerevery
crowdedasresult.Someofthesetownsbecamecentersofwiderandwider.
Renaissancetowns
Thebasicconceptsofthisperiodwerevistaformingstraightstreets.EuropeandJaipurin
Indiacouldbecitedasexamplesofthistypeoftownsduringthisperiod.
Townsoftoday
Duetoindustrialrevolution,thetownsoftodayhavetheirrootsintheindustrialrevolutionof
the nineteenth century. The phenomenally increased populations were in need of shelter in the form of
housing.
DefinitionsofRenaissance,industrialrevolution
Definition of the age of Renaissance: in the year 1453 A.D Turkish sultan Mohammed invaded
Constantinople a city that was an abode of Greek culture. The Greek scholar fled to other European
nations along with their ancient Greek literature. The se scholars established schools and monasteries
and taught Greek literature all over Europe and inculcated interest among the people in the revival of
ancientliteratureandculture.Thiswasknownasrenaissanceperiod.
IndustrialRevolution:revolutionisasuddenchangeinanyfield.Inventionofmachinesthatwereusedin
industriesandthroughwhichproductionofgoodsincreasedwascalledindustrialrevolution.
Renaissance style: literal meaning of this renaissance is 're birth'. The term is used to designate the
periodbetween1350and1600A.Dindevelopmentsofthe15thcenturyinEurope.Theprincipalfeatures
ofthisrenaissanceareasfollows:
1. Theeffectofrediscoveryoftheartofantiquities.
2. The development of the technique of perspective where the artist could represent depth and
recessionandsoproducerealisticspatialrelationships.
3. Theachievementofgreater'naturalism'.
DescriptionofRenaissance

74

 The age of renaissance was actually started with revival of art and letters and the
transitionfromtheMiddleAgestothemodernworld.Themaincauseforrenaissancewastheevolution
ofstrongandprosperouscitystatesandmerchantprinces.Thewordrenaissancewasnotoriginallyused
toindicateastylisticperiodbutwasusedonlyapartofsuchphrasesastherenaissanceoftheartsof
antiquity, it is really became a popular source of inspiration partly because of the newly awakened
historicalinterestintheperiod.
During15th19thcenturytheformationanddevelopmentofrenaissancearchitecturebased
onfiveconditionswhichisasfollows:
1. Geographical condition: renaissance architecture first started in Italy in the early period of 15th
centuryandlateronspreadoverthecountrieslikeRome,VeniceandFlorence.
2. Geological condition: the countries coming under this style covered vast part of Europe and were
availabilitiesofdifferentmaterialsthatdecidedthecharacterofarchitecture.
3. Socialcondition:theintellectualmovement.ItcreatedabreakofcontinuousevolutionofEuropean
styles.
4. Historical condition: in the early 16th century, small countries united together and formed one
kingdomthatnewcountrieswerediscoveredsuchasAmericabyColumbusandnewmaterialswere
invented.
Characteristics
x

The mode of living changed too and brought new buildings in common use. People realized the
beautyofclassicstyle.
x Therenaissancedividedbroadlyintothreemainperiodslike,
Earlyrenaissance15thcentury
Highrenaissance16thcentury
Baroque17th,18thcentury.
x Intheearlyrenaissance,regionalcharactermainlysurvived.
x In the high renaissance, it was partially eradicated owing to a widening dissemination of ideas
fosteredbytravelandtheconvergenceonRomeofsomanyarchitectsfortheirtrainingwhilewith
thebaroque,italmostwhollydisappeared.
Therenaissanceworkpriortotheclassicalrevivalmeantgenerallyareturnbymany
architectstovariousperiodsfromtheinceptionoftherenaissanceintheircountrytotheendofthe18th
century.Asrenaissancewasinfluencedinitsdevelopmentsbytheearliertraditionsofeachcountryand
by the work of individual architects which means partially a return to native of traditions. E.g.: in
England, some architects sought for models in the transition from late renaissance during the 16th
century.
Inaboutthe15thcenturymanwastryingtofindsomechangesandthendiscoveryofthe
NewWorldinthefieldofarchitecturetookplacebecauseasourceofinterestandinspirationtoclassical
buildersbutinspiteofmarkedchangesofstyleofartandarchitecture.
Componentsofrenaissance
Thecomponentsoftherenaissanceareasfollows:
1. Theprimarystraightstreets.
2. Fortification
3. Gardendesign
4. Theplace
5. Thegridiron.
Housingcondition
Prenineteenthcenturyplanningofresidentialareasgoesforbackintohistorytothegrid
layoutsofGreekandromancities.Totheagaintownsofmiddleagesandtotheandtotheradialand
circularplansofEuropeancitiesintherenaissanceperiodexinBritaintheearlierremainingexamplesof

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largescalegroupedhousingaretobefoundinthestreetsandsquaresthatwerebuiltintownsandcities
ineighteenthandearlynineteenthcentury
19thcenturyhousingforthemasses
It was not until the start of the nineteenth century that man housing began to be
constructed as the industrial revolution drew people into the towns and cities where the houses were
broadly constructed with in sufficient floor space and facilities inadequate sanitary provision and poor
ventilation. The houses were crammed to gather in close proximity to each other with little or no
communalspace.

Industrialrevolution
Thetownsofindustrialrevolutionhavetheirrootsinthenineteenthcentury.The
phenomenallyincreasedpopulationwasinneedofshelterintheformofhousingthisnewhousingwas
devoidofadequatelightingandventilationfacilitiesandwasagreatsocialevilandultimatelyresultedin
thecreationofslums.
Thepartialidentityofthemiddleclasswithitsconnotationofurbanplacehintsata
fundamentalrelationshipbetweenurbanizationandthemiddleclass.Thestructureofeconomicactivityin
eachurbancenterwasamajorinfluence.Theseeconomicstructureseachhaddifferentimplicationsfor
theconflictofthemiddleclasseswithothersocialgroups.
Itwasspecifictothenatureofthetownsoftheperiod.Townsdominatedbythe
economic relationships of trading, financing, wage labor and retailing. These needs led to the creation
and development of many institutions and social forms, which were identified with being 'a town' in 19th
century.Forexample,overthepasthundredyears,therapidindustrializationinthecountryhasbrought
aboutdrasticchangesinandaroundHyderabad.EspeciallyintheoldcityCharminaranditssurrounding
resulting in congestion, pollution, increase in population density etc. The huge demand for the housing
stockandcommercializationoftheareahasbeencauseforthechangingpatternofskylineofthearea.
Increaseinthebuiltup,multistoriedthusdisturbingthehistoricalandheritageconstructions.
Recenthousing

Theindustrializedhousingsystemgivesthebasicobjective.Thebuilthousingshould
offer higher degree of integration with the natural environment. Most important in the industrialization
housing is They are using some types of materials in housing like concrete panel construction, plugin
living units, box units, moulded units, mobile housing, modular panel housing, plastic panel systems,
precut housing packages, hybrid systems have been developed during this period. The housing
conditionsaredependingupontheirsocioeconomicandinfrastructurelevels.
Housingconditions

Theindustrialrevolutionischaracterizedbycertainbasicchangeswhichoccurredfirst
in England from the middle of the 18th century onwards .The population was increase in industrial
production and the mechanization of productive systems because of the increasing population,
urbanizationandmigration,overcrowding,poorlivingconditionsarehappening.
Problems

Duringthe(15th19th)centuryperiodmanyoftheproblems,socioandeconomic
segregationcameduringtheindustrialrevolution.Theincapacityofurbangovernmentstoenlargetheir
traditional responsibilities at a time when cities were developing rapidly led to the proliferation of
substandardbuildingstheinterminglingofnoisomeindustriesandhousing.Andadensityofdevelopment
thatovertaxedprimitivewatersuppliesandseweragesystems.

City planning is the attempt to exert a wellconsidered control on behalf of the people of a city
overthedevelopmentoftheirphysicalenvironmentasawhole.

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City planning stands not only for a longer look ahead in planning municipal improvements than
hasbeencustomaryinthepast,butespeciallyforabroaderandmorepenetratingvisionofthe
interrelations between apparently distinct lines of planning in cities and regions, and of the
profoundinfluencewhichactivitiescarriedoninonepartofthefieldandwithaviewtoonesetof
purposesmayhaveuponconditionsinanotherpartofthefield.

Ittakesaccountoftheinfluenceofstreetplansanddepthsofblocksupontheprevailingtypeof
building and thus upon the amount of light and air and privacy in the people's dwellings of the
effectofrailroadlocationsonthedistributionoffactoriesandonthecongestionofpopulationand
characterofhousingoftheeconomicinterrelationbetweenwatersupplylandsandparklandsof
thesocialandeconomicvaluestobesecuredbygroupingeducationalandrecreationalfunctions
whichhaveordinarilybeenseparatedandofothercombinationsinnumerable.

Thecommonsenseapplicationofthecityplanningidealmaybephrasedthus:Whethertheylike
itornot,whethertheyknowitornot,acollectiveresponsibilityrestsuponcitizensofthepresent
generationformakingormarringtheircity'sfutureincountlessways.
Cityplanningmayconvenientlybeconsideredunderthreemaindivisions:Thefirstconcernsthe
means of circulationthe distribution and treatment of the spaces devoted to streets, railways,
waterways, and all means of transportation and communication. The second concerns the
distributionandtreatmentofthespacesdevotedtoallotherpublicpurposes.Thethirdconcerns
the remaining or private lands and the character of development thereon, in so far as it is
practicableforthecommunitytocontrolsuchdevelopment.
Facility of communication is the very basis for the existence of cities improved methods of
general transportation are at the root of the modern phenomenon of rapid city growth and the
successofacityismoredependentupongoodmeansofcirculationthanuponanyotherphysical
factorunderitscontrol.
The methods of taxation and assessment greatly influence the actions of landowners, and of
those having money to invest in land, buildings, or building mortgages. These methods have a
directinfluenceuponthespeculativeholdingofunproductivepropertyupontheextenttowhich
development is carried on in a scattered, sporadic manner, so as to involve relatively large
expense to the community for streets, transportation, sewerage, etc., in proportion to the
inhabitantsserveduponthequalityanddurabilityofbuildingand,inthosestateswhereproperty
isclassifiedandtaxedatvaryingrates,upontheclassofimprovementsfavored.Exemptionfrom
taxation for a certain period, or other similar bonus, is a familiar device in some cities to
encourageadesiredclassofdevelopments,suchasnewfactories.
But the most direct and conspicuous means of controlling developments on private property is
throughtheexerciseofthepolicepower,asinthecaseofbuildingcodes,tenementhouselaws,
andspecialdistrictregulations.
o Thefirstobjectofbuildingcodes,andofthesystemofbuildingpermitsandinspections
throughwhichtheyareenforced,istoensureproperstructuralstability.
o Asecondobjectistoreducethedangeroffiretoareasonablepoint.
o A third object is to guard against conditions unreasonably dangerous to health.
Tenementhouselaws,factorylaws,andotherspecialprovisionsoperatinginadditionto
the general building code of a city, are directed mainly toward the protection of people
usingspecialkindsofbuildingsagainstunhealthfulconditionsandagainstpersonalrisk
fromfireandaccident.

Buildings are classified according to the purposes for which they are used, according to their
locationwithrespecttoboundaries(suchasfirelimits),accordingtothematerialsofwhichthey
are built, and in dozens of other ways and for each class minute and varied prescriptions and
prohibitions are made which, in the aggregate, play an important part in determining the size,
height, purposes, plan, general appearance, and cost of the structures which a lot owner can
erectandthosewhichhecanexpecthisneighbortoerect.

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Theamountoflightenteringanygivenwindowinacity,and,inageneralway,theamountofair,
isdependentmainlyuponthedistancetothenextoppositebuildingwall,andtheheighttowhich
thatwallrisesabovethelevelofthewindow.

An examination of the building codes and tenementhouse laws of American cities shows a
confusing diversity in the regulations limiting building heights and horizontal spaces to be left
open, and there are some cities in which there is practically no effective regulation at all. The
more modern zoning ordinances are based on studies has light and air requirements, and
promisemuchfortheimprovementofcommunityhealth.

Wehaveconsideredthethreemaindivisionsofcityplanning,dealingrespectivelywiththelands
devotedtothemeansofcirculation,thelandsdevotedtootherpublicpurposes,andthelandsto
private ownership. Within all of these divisions, the actual work of city planning comprises the
followingsteps:
o Thefirststepisastudyofconditionsandtendencies,asurveyofthepertinentfactsand
anestimateofthemostprobablefuturechangesinthosefacts.
o Thesecondstepisadefinitionofpurposestobeattained.
o Thethirdstepistheplanningofphysicalresultssuitabletothesepurposes.
o Thefourthandlaststepisthebringingofthoseplanstoexecutionthroughsuitablelegal
andadministrativemachinery.
o Everyoneofthosestepsofprogressionisvitaleverypartofthethreemaindivisionsof
the field is important. The following chapters of this book, written by as many different
men, illustrate typical parts of the field considered from the point of view sometimes of
onestepofprogression,sometimesofanother.

Every element in their physical environment affects the people in some degree both on the
economic side, as determining their efficiency, and on the aesthetic side, as determining their
enjoymentoflife.Thereforeinthedesignofeverythingwhichentersintothecity,bothofthese
aspectsmustbegivenweight

Site planning: site planning is the art of arranging an external physical environment in complete detail.
Siteplannersareallthosewhodealwithstructuresandtheland.
It is a design problem that lies on the boundaries between architecture, engineering, city planning, and
landscapearchitecture,andispracticedbyprofessionalsofallthesegroups.
Sitehasanimpactthatisbiological,social,andpsychological.
Siteplanninglocatesstructuresandactivitiesinthreedimensionalspace,andthedifferencesthatarise
fromspatialarrangementarethemeatofthematter:differencesinproportion,volume,density,shape,
grain,pattern,orlinkage.

Thedesignermustandthegroupforwhomheisthatwhateverhedoeswillsoonundergothefirstofa
seriesofcontinuousmodifications.
Itistheorganizationoftheexternalphysicalenvironmentuptothelargestscaleatwhichitcanstillbe
subjecttounifiedandcompletecontrolitdealswithstructures,land,andtheentirecomplexofphysical
formsabove,below,andonthesurfaceithasatitsheartthedispositionofobjectsandactivitiesinthree
dimensionalspace
Typicalgoals

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9
9
9
9
9
9
9

FunctionalHierarchy
Optimumcommunication
Choice
Cost
HealthandComfort
Adaptability
Imagequality

Siteanalysis:
Theanalysisofasitedependsontheusetowhichitistobeput.Aquarryman,afortifications
engineer, or a building contractor will see the same piece of ground quite differently, and each
viewwillbecorrectforthegivenpurpose.

Every site, however disturbed, had some time to experience the mutual adjustment of its
elements. Surface flow has created a drainage pattern, plant and animal life has achieved an
ecological balance, neighboring structures lean against each other, shops have arranged
themselvesinrelationtotheresidentpopulation,climatehasweatheredallalike.
Anysiteiscomposedofthesefactorsabove,below,andatthegroundbutallofmanyfactors
are interrelated, and have achieved some sort of balance, whether it be static or one that is
movingtowardanotherequilibrium.

Surfaceconditions:tobeginwith,itisusefultocanvasthesitefactors,whicharetypicallymost
significantinthedesignofbuildinggroups.Theseincludethesubsurfacefactors,thetopography,
thecover,theclimate,andthepatternofexistinglanduse.

Thetopographicsurface,theboundarybetweenearthandair,hasparticularimplicationsforsite
development.Sometimesitdeterminestheorganizationoftheplan.Thegradientofpaths,the
flowofutilities,theuseofareas,thedispositionofbuilding,thevisualaspect,areallaffectedby
it.

Inmostcasestheexistingtopographyalreadyhasanunderlyingorderbroughtaboutbytheflow
ofsurfacewater.
If human beings are to be comfortable, there are certain optimum ranges of daylight, of air
movementandpurity,andoftemperatureandhumidity.
Theplanmodifiestheexistingclimatetoapproximationthisoptimumcondition.
Finally,therearemanymanmadecharacteristicstobestudiedinanalyzingasite.Theessential
elements almost always include the accessibility to external facilities or personsschools or
pupils,shopsorcustomers,plustherelationofthesitetothegeneralcirculationsystem.
The more accessible, urbanized, and developed a site becomes, the more these man made
features of use, structure, circulation, and utilities become predominant over the factors of soil,
topography,andover.
Most often the survey include the preparation of a base map showing the legal lines such as
boundaries and assents the location of utilities, roads, paths, buildings, and walls the local
activities and circulations the presence of swamps, streams, and water bodies the general
vegetativecoverincludingpreciselocationsoflargetreesanotationofrockoutcropsandother
visiblegeologicfeaturescontoursandthespotelevationsofkeypointscompassdirectionsand
thecharacterofthesiteenvirons.

The site plan locates two things: physical objects and human activities. Land use refers to activity
locations,butitalsoimpliesthegeneralphysicalformsthatpermitthoseactivities,suchasanopenpiece
ofgroundatarecreationlocation,oradetachedhouseinalowdensityresidentialarea.
Zoningregulationsandbuildingbyelaws.
x

Zoningisthedivisionofacommunityintozonesordistrictsaccordingtopresentandpotentialuseof
propertiesforthecontrollinganddirectingtheuseanddevelopmentofthoseproperties.

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x
x
x
x
x
x

x
x
x
x

Itisprimarilyconcernedwiththeuseoflandandbuildings.
Zoning ordinances typically subdivide the city or town into districts, in each of which specified uses
areauthorizesandbuildingheight,bulk,andsetbackrequirementsareimposed.
The division of the community into zones is necessary in order to provide special regulations for
different sections of the community in accordance with the planned development of each particular
section.
Althoughzoningregulationsvaryaccordingtotheusesestablishedforeachtypeofzone,regulations
withinagivenzoneorthesamekindsofzonemustbeuniform.
Thus,zoningcontemplatesdifferentregulationstoeffectuatedifferentlandusesindifferentzones.
Zoningattemptstogrouptogetherthoseuses,whicharemostcompatible.Ithasamongitspurpose
x Conservingthevalueofitsproperty.
x Assuringorderlycommunitygrowth.
x Safeguardingthegeneralpublicwelfare.
It seeks to preserve the planned character of the neighborhood by excluding uses and structures,
whichareprejudicialtotherestrictedpurposesoftheareaandtoachive,thegradualeliminationof
existingnonconforminguses.
By gilding community growth along orderly lines, zoning helps to minimize the demands for school
facilities,utilities,streets,policing,fireprotection,andotherfacilitiesandservices,inparticularbefore
thecityispreparedtoprovidethese.
Theobjectiveofzoninglegislationistoestablishregulations,whichprovidelocationsforallessential
usesoflandandbuldings,andtoensurethateachuseislocatedinthemostappropriateplace.
Legitimatebusinessoperations,whichmaybeundesirableinonelocation,mayrepresentappropriate
landuseinsomeotherarea.

ZONINGANDTHELANDUSEREGULATIONS:
i Zoningwasoriginallycreatedinordertocontrolthedevelopmentoflanduses.Itsprojectedgoalwas
thecityintwentyyearsormore,anditthuslaidoutlargeenoughCommercial,residential,industrial,
public and semipublic areas, often on undeveloped land, to accommodate and channel this
estimatedgrowth.
i Super speculative skyscraper development and over building, often landuse changes by the
pressureofpoliticsgivesrisetotheincentivezoning.
i Thezonesarefurthersubdividedintowardsandstudiedintensivelywithrespectivetopopulation,
economic,culturalmilieu,thearchitecturalcharacter,administrativelimits,andurbanform.
i Henceward/sectorareaplansandregulationsshouldsupportthelanduseregulation.Thehistorical
area and CBD preservation takes prime role in this concept as the danger of money invading the
culturepersists.
Thezoningregulationsarebroadlydividedas:
i LanduseplanwithZoning
i PermissiblebuiltopareaandFAR,builtformregulations.
i UseindexofpermittedandpermissibleLanduses.
i Observingtheexistinglanduseandplanneddirectionandtrendofgrowthofthecitymakesthebroad
landuseplanofthecity.Undereachlandusezonethemultiplelanduseareasaregiven.Theland
useplanstates:
1. Maximumpermissiblefloorarea.
2. MaximumpermissibleCoverage.
3. MaximumpermissibleHeight.
4. Minimumgreeneryandsetbacks.
5. MinimumParkingspaces.
i

Theparkingandgreenerywithintheplotareashouldbetakenintooutmostcareasthepressureof
landvalueswallowsthecareforlivingenvironment.

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i
i

Thereisspecialneedtolookafterthehistoricandconservationareas,asthepurposeandfunction
changesfromitsoriginalform.
Theproperimplementationisonlypossibleiftheuseriswellinformedofwhathecando.Hencethe
availability of well published reports (Newspaperbest medium) and clear broad sets of plan are
necessary.

Buildingbyelaws
A byelaw is a local law framed by a subordinate authority. Building codes or byelaws are defined as
standardsandspecificationsdesignedtograntminimumsafeguardstotheworkersduringconstruction
tothehealthandcomfortofusersandtoprovideenoughsafetytothepublicingeneral.
Objectsofbyelaws:
1. Guidelinestothedesigningarchitectorengineer.
2. Preventhaphazarddevelopment.
Applicabilityofbuildingbyelaws:
1. Additionsandalterationstoabuilding:
2. Newconstruction
3. Requirementofopenspace.
Floorspaceindex:theratioofthetotalbuiltupareainclusiveofwallsofallthefloorstotheareaofthe
landonwhichthebuildingthebuildingstandsisknownasfloorspaceindexorF.S.I.
ThelocalauthoritydeterminesthevalueofFSIanditmaybedifferentfordifferentareasandfordifferent
buildingsofthetown.
Historicaldevelopmentofcities:
Therearetwobasicformsofthecity:
3. Walledcity
4. Opencity
Thecitymeansthewholepeoplewhoinhabitit,theentirecollectionofthehousesthepeoplelivein,the
shopsinwhichtheyworkthestreetstheytraverse,andtheplacesinwhichtheytrade.
Early civilizations spread along the fertile valleys of the Nile, TigrisEuphrates, and Indus Rivers where
food,water,andtransportationwereathand.
In Egypt the lives of the people were dedicated to the pharaoh. The towns they built in the third
millenniumB.Cwerereacteduponhisorder.Narrowlanesservedasopendrainagesewersaswellas
passagewaystothedwellings.Wallssurroundedthetowns.

Cityofkahun,Egypt,datingfromabout3000BC
Mohanjadaro,Indusvalley.
BabylonwasalargecityspanningtheEuphratesRiver.Surroundedbythegreatwallsandamoat,itwas
amonumentalcityofkings.
Thewallsdid,notsurroundancientcitieslikeKnossus.ButfortifiedcitiesareTirynsandMycenae.
Thehumblecity:Greece:fortheGreekcitizenthetemplewasthesymbolofhisdemocraticwayoflife.
AncientcityAegeansmallroomscalledMegaron.
Someexamples:
KAHUN:Egypt(3000BC).
Aventilatingdeviceknownasmulgufisprovidedonroofforcoolingforinteriorrooms.
MOHANJADARO:Indusvalley(3000BC).

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Theprincipalbuildingsexcavatedareapublicbathandamonastery.
BABYLON:6THCENTURYBC.
It was a large city spreader Euphrates River. Surrounded by great walls, it was a monumental
city.
Isthtar gate, stemphal, Hanging Gardens of nebuchadnezzars palace. Herodotus (explains the
roadsystem).
Firstregionalplanning:Jerusalem(surroundedbymediteriansea,deadsea)
CLASSICCITY
Humblecityunpavedlaneslackingdrainageandsanitation.
Egacropolis,Athens,Helleniccitytempledominated,meetingplaceswerecalledpnyx
Hippodamus:(Greek)heoriginatedthegridrationalarrangementironstreetsystem.
Eg.Olynthus(city)bouleuterian(assembly)prytanum(councilchamber)
Thehearthwassituatedcalledatrium.
HimmodamusPiraeus,thepartcityofAthens,aswellasthuriiandRhodes,prince,Miletus.
HELLENISTICCITY
PRIENCErebuiltduringthe4thcenturyBC.ThephysicalimprovementinGreekcitiesreflectedthedeep
rootsofHellenicculture.
TheopenairmeetingplacethepraysoftheagoraandassemblyhallreplacedtheearlyGreektours.
POMPEII
Theforumliesinthecenterofanirregularstreetsystemsuggestionstheproblemthatthemoreregular
patternwasestablishedasthetowngrewinpopulationanextendeditsarea.
TheearlyromandwellingadoptedtheatriumfromGreecehousesofthemoreaffluentaddendthefeature
knownastheperistyle.
Charcoalbraziersfromroomtoroomcalledhypocaust,providedheatinggenerally
Whilethepublicbaths(thermae)occupiedanimportantplaceinthesociallifeofRomans
Rome:banksoftheTiber.
OstiaOstia,theseaportforRome,waslikewisecrowdedandcontainedmanyapartments.Thehouseof
Dianaisanexample.
TIMGAD:thepatternofaromancity.
Theforumromanwastheoriginalcenterofbusinessandpoliticallifeintheearlyrepublic.
Hippodamus.Itwasnaturalthatanatmosphereofphilosophyshouldimpelasearchfororderinthecity.
In the latter part of the forth century an architect from Miletus, by the name of Hippodamus, advanced
positivetheroesabouttheartandscienceofcityplanning.Hehasbeencreditedwiththeoriginationof
thegridironstreetsystem,althoughthisisnotentirelyaccurate.
Thecityplanwasconceivedasadesigntoserveallthepeople.Theindividualdwellingwasthecommon
denominator.Blockswereshapedtoprovideappropriateorientationforthedwellingswithinthem.
SuperimposingtherigidgeometricalformoftheHippodamianstreetsystemupontheruggedtopography
ofthesitesoccupiedbymostGreekcitiescreatednumerousstreetssosteeptheycouldnegotiatedonly
withsteps.
OlynthusGreekcity
Public space: the expanding affairs of government required appropriate facilities. The agora, or market
place,wasthecenterofbusinessandpoliticallife,andaboutitwerelinedtheshopsandmarketbooths.
Accessible from the Agora Square, but not facing upon it, were the assembly hall, counsel hall, and
councilchamber.
CommonopenspaceinGreekcitieswaslargelyconfinedtoenclosureforpublicbuildings.
BuildingregulationsinGreekcitieswerethere.
It was in the colonial founded by the citystates on the shores of the Mediterranean that the planning
theoriesofHippodamusfoundtheirfullestexpression.

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It is recorded that Hippodamus himself planned Piraeus, the port city of Athens, as well as Thurii, and
Rhodes.
Sizeofcities:40,000andtotalpopulation100,000150,000.
Hellenictownsreliedprimarilyonlocalwatercourses,wellsandsprings.
Chroniclesoftheperiodreferredtotheimportanceofproperorientation.
Thehouses,thatlooktowardthesouth,thewintersunshinesdownintothepaestadeswhileinsummer,
passinghighaboveourheadsandoverourroofs,itthrowstheminshadow.
Theeffectofthesecriteriawasaplanningsystemthatsprungfromtheelementsoftheindividualunit.
Themedievaltown:
Barbaricrulersestablishedcitystatesandformedthenucleusoffuturenations.Theeconomyrootedin
agriculture,andtherulersparceledtheirdomainsamongvassallordswhopledgedmilitarysupportforthe
kingdom.
Thefeudalsystemwastheneworder.
Medievalcitiesofthe12and13thcenturiesusuallyhadirregularstreetpatternsandheavywalls.Initwe
seethecastlewithitsownmoatandwalls,themarketplace(A),andthechurchofSt.Nazaire(c).
Theradialandlateralpatternofirregularroadwayswiththechurchplazaastheprincipalfocalpointofthe
town.Thecityofthemiddleagesgrewwithintheconfinesofthewalls.Whilethepopulationwassmall,
there was space in the town, but when it increased the buildings were packed more closely and open
spaces. Sanitation and water supply remained same. The result was intolerable congestion, lack of
hygiene,andpestilence.
During the 13th and 14th centuries young empires to protect their trade and provide military security
foundedcolonialcities.Theywereplattedforallocationofsitestosettlersandtheregularplanisadistinct
totheinformaldevelopmentofthenormalmedievaltown.
It was the church rather than the palace that dominated the medieval town. Encircled by its protective
walls,thetownwassmall.Inlaterdaysthebattlementswereelaboratelyengineered,asinNaarden,and
populacewasfurtherseparatedfromtheopenspacesaboutthetown.
The entire town was treated with a structural logic that characterized the architectural treatment of the
Romanesque and early Gothic buildings. Open spaces the streets and plazas developed as integral
partsofthesitesuponwhichthebuildingswereerected.Withtheexceptionofafewpartsbetweenthe
gatesandthemarketplace,streetswereusedaspedestriancirculationaboutthetownratherthantraffic
arteriesasweknowthemtoday.
Dwellings: conservation of heat in the cold climates and the restrictive area of the town caused the
houses to be built in connected rows along the narrow streets. Behind these rows of dwellings open
spacewasreservedandinthemthedomesticanimalswerekeptandgardenscultivated.
LifeinmedievalcitieshadColour,aColourvisibletoallthepeople.Thechurchprovidedpageantryand
gavedramatothelifeofeveryman.
Averageheighttwostorey.
Masonrywastheusualconstruction.
Briefpoints:
Irregularstreetpatternsandheavywalls.
MONTPAZIER:
Thechurchofmonasteryandthecastleofthelorddominatedtheearlymedievaltown.
Thechurchplazabecamethemarketplaceandwithcitizenshipbestoweduponthepeopleandmerchant
guildsestablished.
The entire town was treated with structural logic that characterized the architectural treatment of the
Romanesqueandearlygothicbuildings.
NAARDENchurchdominated.

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Neoclassiccity:
Thetraditionalheightofbuildingincreasesfromtwostoreyto3and4storey.
Populationdensityincreaseswithoutincreaseinwatersupplyandsanitation.
Wheeltrafficincreases.
ThefirstsewerinstalledinLondonaftertheBlackDeath.
Theimportantaspectconcernsthehousestypesenvisagedfordifferentsocioeconomic
groups.Thebasicdistinctionismadebetweenplottedandgrouphousing.Thedecisionregardinghouse
types for different income groups is essentially based on two considerationhousing preferences and
affordability.Indistinguishingbetweenplottedandgrouphousinginrelationtofinancialaspects.
Originoftowns

Prehistoricperiodtheorigintownswerenosocialconceptandthevariousgroupsand
tribeslivedtogetheronlyforcollectivesecurityfromtheearlystoneagetheslowprocessofdevelopment
extendingoveraperiodofnearlyhalfamillionyears.
Medievaltowns
Townsofthisperiodhadwallsaroundthemforprotectionanddefenseandwerevery
crowdedasresult.Someofthesetownsbecamecentersofwiderandwider.
Renaissancetowns
Thebasicconceptsofthisperiodwerevistaformingstraightstreets.EuropeandJaipurin
Indiacouldbecitedasexamplesofthistypeoftownsduringthisperiod.
Townsoftoday
Duetoindustrialrevolution,thetownsoftodayhavetheirrootsintheindustrialrevolutionof
the nineteenth century. The phenomenally increased populations were in need of shelter in the form of
housing.
DefinitionsofRenaissance,industrialrevolution
Definition of the age of Renaissance: in the year 1453 A.D Turkish sultan Mohammed invaded
Constantinople a city that was an abode of Greek culture. The Greek scholar fled to other European
nations along with their ancient Greek literature. The se scholars established schools and monasteries
and taught Greek literature all over Europe and inculcated interest among the people in the revival of
ancientliteratureandculture.Thiswasknownasrenaissanceperiod.
IndustrialRevolution:revolutionisasuddenchangeinanyfield.Inventionofmachinesthatwereusedin
industriesandthroughwhichproductionofgoodsincreasedwascalledindustrialrevolution.
Renaissance style: literal meaning of this renaissance is 're birth'. The term is used to designate the
periodbetween1350and1600A.Dindevelopmentsofthe15thcenturyinEurope.Theprincipalfeatures
ofthisrenaissanceareasfollows:
4. Theeffectofrediscoveryoftheartofantiquities.
5. The development of the technique of perspective where the artist could represent depth and
recessionandsoproducerealisticspatialrelationships.
6. Theachievementofgreater'naturalism'.
DescriptionofRenaissance

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 The age of renaissance was actually started with revival of art and letters and the
transitionfromtheMiddleAgestothemodernworld.Themaincauseforrenaissancewastheevolution
ofstrongandprosperouscitystatesandmerchantprinces.Thewordrenaissancewasnotoriginallyused
toindicateastylisticperiodbutwasusedonlyapartofsuchphrasesastherenaissanceoftheartsof
antiquity, it is really became a popular source of inspiration partly because of the newly awakened
historicalinterestintheperiod.
During15th19thcenturytheformationanddevelopmentofrenaissancearchitecturebased
onfiveconditionswhichisasfollows:
5. Geographical condition: renaissance architecture first started in Italy in the early period of 15th
centuryandlateronspreadoverthecountrieslikeRome,VeniceandFlorence.
6. Geological condition: the countries coming under this style covered vast part of Europe and were
availabilitiesofdifferentmaterialsthatdecidedthecharacterofarchitecture.
7. Socialcondition:theintellectualmovement.ItcreatedabreakofcontinuousevolutionofEuropean
styles.
8. Historical condition: in the early 16th century, small countries united together and formed one
kingdomthatnewcountrieswerediscoveredsuchasAmericabyColumbusandnewmaterialswere
invented.
Characteristics
x

The mode of living changed too and brought new buildings in common use. People realized the
beautyofclassicstyle.
x Therenaissancedividedbroadlyintothreemainperiodslike,
Earlyrenaissance15thcentury
Highrenaissance16thcentury
Baroque17th,18thcentury.
x Intheearlyrenaissance,regionalcharactermainlysurvived.
x In the high renaissance, it was partially eradicated owing to a widening dissemination of ideas
fosteredbytravelandtheconvergenceonRomeofsomanyarchitectsfortheirtrainingwhilewith
thebaroque,italmostwhollydisappeared.
Therenaissanceworkpriortotheclassicalrevivalmeantgenerallyareturnbymany
architectstovariousperiodsfromtheinceptionoftherenaissanceintheircountrytotheendofthe18th
century.Asrenaissancewasinfluencedinitsdevelopmentsbytheearliertraditionsofeachcountryand
by the work of individual architects which means partially a return to native of traditions. E.g.: in
England, some architects sought for models in the transition from late renaissance during the 16th
century.
Inaboutthe15thcenturymanwastryingtofindsomechangesandthendiscoveryofthe
NewWorldinthefieldofarchitecturetookplacebecauseasourceofinterestandinspirationtoclassical
buildersbutinspiteofmarkedchangesofstyleofartandarchitecture.
Componentsofrenaissance
Thecomponentsoftherenaissanceareasfollows:
6. Theprimarystraightstreets.
7. Fortification
8. Gardendesign
9. Theplace
10. Thegridiron.
Housingcondition
Prenineteenthcenturyplanningofresidentialareasgoesforbackintohistorytothegrid
layoutsofGreekandromancities.Totheagaintownsofmiddleagesandtotheandtotheradialand
circularplansofEuropeancitiesintherenaissanceperiodexinBritaintheearlierremainingexamplesof

85

largescalegroupedhousingaretobefoundinthestreetsandsquaresthatwerebuiltintownsandcities
ineighteenthandearlynineteenthcentury
19thcenturyhousingforthemasses
It was not until the start of the nineteenth century that man housing began to be
constructed as the industrial revolution drew people into the towns and cities where the houses were
broadly constructed with in sufficient floor space and facilities inadequate sanitary provision and poor
ventilation. The houses were crammed to gather in close proximity to each other with little or no
communalspace.

Industrialrevolution
Thetownsofindustrialrevolutionhavetheirrootsinthenineteenthcentury.The
phenomenallyincreasedpopulationwasinneedofshelterintheformofhousingthisnewhousingwas
devoidofadequatelightingandventilationfacilitiesandwasagreatsocialevilandultimatelyresultedin
thecreationofslums.
Thepartialidentityofthemiddleclasswithitsconnotationofurbanplacehintsata
fundamentalrelationshipbetweenurbanizationandthemiddleclass.Thestructureofeconomicactivityin
eachurbancenterwasamajorinfluence.Theseeconomicstructureseachhaddifferentimplicationsfor
theconflictofthemiddleclasseswithothersocialgroups.
Itwasspecifictothenatureofthetownsoftheperiod.Townsdominatedbythe
economic relationships of trading, financing, wage labor and retailing. These needs led to the creation
and development of many institutions and social forms, which were identified with being 'a town' in 19th
century.Forexample,overthepasthundredyears,therapidindustrializationinthecountryhasbrought
aboutdrasticchangesinandaroundHyderabad.EspeciallyintheoldcityCharminaranditssurrounding
resulting in congestion, pollution, increase in population density etc. The huge demand for the housing
stockandcommercializationoftheareahasbeencauseforthechangingpatternofskylineofthearea.
Increaseinthebuiltup,multistoriedthusdisturbingthehistoricalandheritageconstructions.
Recenthousing

Theindustrializedhousingsystemgivesthebasicobjective.Thebuilthousingshould
offer higher degree of integration with the natural environment. Most important in the industrialization
housing is They are using some types of materials in housing like concrete panel construction, plugin
living units, box units, moulded units, mobile housing, modular panel housing, plastic panel systems,
precut housing packages, hybrid systems have been developed during this period. The housing
conditionsaredependingupontheirsocioeconomicandinfrastructurelevels.
Housingconditions

Theindustrialrevolutionischaracterizedbycertainbasicchangeswhichoccurredfirst
in England from the middle of the 18th century onwards .The population was increase in industrial
production and the mechanization of productive systems because of the increasing population,
urbanizationandmigration,overcrowding,poorlivingconditionsarehappening.
Problems

Duringthe(15th19th)centuryperiodmanyoftheproblems,socioandeconomic
segregationcameduringtheindustrialrevolution.Theincapacityofurbangovernmentstoenlargetheir
traditional responsibilities at a time when cities were developing rapidly led to the proliferation of
substandardbuildingstheinterminglingofnoisomeindustriesandhousing.Andadensityofdevelopment
thatovertaxedprimitivewatersuppliesandseweragesystems.

86

City planning is the attempt to exert a wellconsidered control on behalf of the people of a city
overthedevelopmentoftheirphysicalenvironmentasawhole.

City planning stands not only for a longer look ahead in planning municipal improvements than
hasbeencustomaryinthepast,butespeciallyforabroaderandmorepenetratingvisionofthe
interrelations between apparently distinct lines of planning in cities and regions, and of the
profoundinfluencewhichactivitiescarriedoninonepartofthefieldandwithaviewtoonesetof
purposesmayhaveuponconditionsinanotherpartofthefield.

Ittakesaccountoftheinfluenceofstreetplansanddepthsofblocksupontheprevailingtypeof
building and thus upon the amount of light and air and privacy in the people's dwellings of the
effectofrailroadlocationsonthedistributionoffactoriesandonthecongestionofpopulationand
characterofhousingoftheeconomicinterrelationbetweenwatersupplylandsandparklandsof
thesocialandeconomicvaluestobesecuredbygroupingeducationalandrecreationalfunctions
whichhaveordinarilybeenseparatedandofothercombinationsinnumerable.

Thecommonsenseapplicationofthecityplanningidealmaybephrasedthus:Whethertheylike
itornot,whethertheyknowitornot,acollectiveresponsibilityrestsuponcitizensofthepresent
generationformakingormarringtheircity'sfutureincountlessways.
Cityplanningmayconvenientlybeconsideredunderthreemaindivisions:Thefirstconcernsthe
means of circulationthe distribution and treatment of the spaces devoted to streets, railways,
waterways, and all means of transportation and communication. The second concerns the
distributionandtreatmentofthespacesdevotedtoallotherpublicpurposes.Thethirdconcerns
the remaining or private lands and the character of development thereon, in so far as it is
practicableforthecommunitytocontrolsuchdevelopment.
Facility of communication is the very basis for the existence of cities improved methods of
general transportation are at the root of the modern phenomenon of rapid city growth and the
successofacityismoredependentupongoodmeansofcirculationthanuponanyotherphysical
factorunderitscontrol.
The methods of taxation and assessment greatly influence the actions of landowners, and of
those having money to invest in land, buildings, or building mortgages. These methods have a
directinfluenceuponthespeculativeholdingofunproductivepropertyupontheextenttowhich
development is carried on in a scattered, sporadic manner, so as to involve relatively large
expense to the community for streets, transportation, sewerage, etc., in proportion to the
inhabitantsserveduponthequalityanddurabilityofbuildingand,inthosestateswhereproperty
isclassifiedandtaxedatvaryingrates,upontheclassofimprovementsfavored.Exemptionfrom
taxation for a certain period, or other similar bonus, is a familiar device in some cities to
encourageadesiredclassofdevelopments,suchasnewfactories.
But the most direct and conspicuous means of controlling developments on private property is
throughtheexerciseofthepolicepower,asinthecaseofbuildingcodes,tenementhouselaws,
andspecialdistrictregulations.
o Thefirstobjectofbuildingcodes,andofthesystemofbuildingpermitsandinspections
throughwhichtheyareenforced,istoensureproperstructuralstability.
o Asecondobjectistoreducethedangeroffiretoareasonablepoint.
o A third object is to guard against conditions unreasonably dangerous to health.
Tenementhouselaws,factorylaws,andotherspecialprovisionsoperatinginadditionto
the general building code of a city, are directed mainly toward the protection of people
usingspecialkindsofbuildingsagainstunhealthfulconditionsandagainstpersonalrisk
fromfireandaccident.

Buildings are classified according to the purposes for which they are used, according to their
locationwithrespecttoboundaries(suchasfirelimits),accordingtothematerialsofwhichthey
are built, and in dozens of other ways and for each class minute and varied prescriptions and
prohibitions are made which, in the aggregate, play an important part in determining the size,
height, purposes, plan, general appearance, and cost of the structures which a lot owner can
erectandthosewhichhecanexpecthisneighbortoerect.

87

Theamountoflightenteringanygivenwindowinacity,and,inageneralway,theamountofair,
isdependentmainlyuponthedistancetothenextoppositebuildingwall,andtheheighttowhich
thatwallrisesabovethelevelofthewindow.

An examination of the building codes and tenementhouse laws of American cities shows a
confusing diversity in the regulations limiting building heights and horizontal spaces to be left
open, and there are some cities in which there is practically no effective regulation at all. The
more modern zoning ordinances are based on studies has light and air requirements, and
promisemuchfortheimprovementofcommunityhealth.

Wehaveconsideredthethreemaindivisionsofcityplanning,dealingrespectivelywiththelands
devotedtothemeansofcirculation,thelandsdevotedtootherpublicpurposes,andthelandsto
private ownership. Within all of these divisions, the actual work of city planning comprises the
followingsteps:
o Thefirststepisastudyofconditionsandtendencies,asurveyofthepertinentfactsand
anestimateofthemostprobablefuturechangesinthosefacts.
o Thesecondstepisadefinitionofpurposestobeattained.
o Thethirdstepistheplanningofphysicalresultssuitabletothesepurposes.
o Thefourthandlaststepisthebringingofthoseplanstoexecutionthroughsuitablelegal
andadministrativemachinery.
o Everyoneofthosestepsofprogressionisvitaleverypartofthethreemaindivisionsof
the field is important. The following chapters of this book, written by as many different
men, illustrate typical parts of the field considered from the point of view sometimes of
onestepofprogression,sometimesofanother.

Every element in their physical environment affects the people in some degree both on the
economic side, as determining their efficiency, and on the aesthetic side, as determining their
enjoymentoflife.Thereforeinthedesignofeverythingwhichentersintothecity,bothofthese
aspectsmustbegivenweight

Site planning: site planning is the art of arranging an external physical environment in complete detail.
Siteplannersareallthosewhodealwithstructuresandtheland.
It is a design problem that lies on the boundaries between architecture, engineering, city planning, and
landscapearchitecture,andispracticedbyprofessionalsofallthesegroups.
Sitehasanimpactthatisbiological,social,andpsychological.
Siteplanninglocatesstructuresandactivitiesinthreedimensionalspace,andthedifferencesthatarise
from spatial arrangement are the meat of the matter: differences in proportion, volume, density, shape,
grain,pattern,orlinkage.
Thedesignermustandthegroupforwhomheisthatwhateverhedoeswillsoonundergothefirstofa
seriesofcontinuousmodifications.
Itistheorganizationoftheexternalphysicalenvironmentuptothelargestscaleatwhichitcanstillbe
subjecttounifiedandcompletecontrolitdealswithstructures,land,andtheentirecomplexofphysical
formsabove,below,andonthesurfaceithasatitsheartthedispositionofobjectsandactivitiesinthree
dimensionalspace
9
9
9
9
9
9

Typicalgoals
FunctionalHierarchy
Optimumcommunication
Choice
Cost
HealthandComfort
Adaptability

88

Imagequality

Siteanalysis:
Theanalysisofasitedependsontheusetowhichitistobeput.Aquarryman,afortifications
engineer, or a building contractor will see the same piece of ground quite differently, and each
viewwillbecorrectforthegivenpurpose.

Every site, however disturbed, had some time to experience the mutual adjustment of its
elements. Surface flow has created a drainage pattern, plant and animal life has achieved an
ecological balance, neighboring structures lean against each other, shops have arranged
themselvesinrelationtotheresidentpopulation,climatehasweatheredallalike.
Anysiteiscomposedofthesefactorsabove,below,andatthegroundbutallofmanyfactors
are interrelated, and have achieved some sort of balance, whether it be static or one that is
movingtowardanotherequilibrium.

Surfaceconditions:tobeginwith,itisusefultocanvasthesitefactors,whicharetypicallymost
significantinthedesignofbuildinggroups.Theseincludethesubsurfacefactors,thetopography,
thecover,theclimate,andthepatternofexistinglanduse.

Thetopographicsurface,theboundarybetweenearthandair,hasparticularimplicationsforsite
development.Sometimesitdeterminestheorganizationoftheplan.Thegradientofpaths,the
flowofutilities,theuseofareas,thedispositionofbuilding,thevisualaspect,areallaffectedby
it.

Inmostcasestheexistingtopographyalreadyhasanunderlyingorderbroughtaboutbytheflow
ofsurfacewater.
If human beings are to be comfortable, there are certain optimum ranges of daylight, of air
movementandpurity,andoftemperatureandhumidity.
Theplanmodifiestheexistingclimatetoapproximationthisoptimumcondition.
Finally,therearemanymanmadecharacteristicstobestudiedinanalyzingasite.Theessential
elements almost always include the accessibility to external facilities or personsschools or
pupils,shopsorcustomers,plustherelationofthesitetothegeneralcirculationsystem.
The more accessible, urbanized, and developed a site becomes, the more these man made
features of use, structure, circulation, and utilities become predominant over the factors of soil,
topography,andover.
Most often the survey include the preparation of a base map showing the legal lines such as
boundaries and assents the location of utilities, roads, paths, buildings, and walls the local
activities and circulations the presence of swamps, streams, and water bodies the general
vegetativecoverincludingpreciselocationsoflargetreesanotationofrockoutcropsandother
visiblegeologicfeaturescontoursandthespotelevationsofkeypointscompassdirectionsand
thecharacterofthesiteenvirons.

The site plan locates two things: physical objects and human activities. Land use refers to activity
locations,butitalsoimpliesthegeneralphysicalformsthatpermitthoseactivities,suchasanopenpiece
ofgroundatarecreationlocation,oradetachedhouseinalowdensityresidentialarea.
FactorsInfluencingTheSitePlanning:
Inventoryofsitefactors:
Thedesignerhadtobegingatheringfactsaboutthesite,securinginformationfrommapsand
personalinspectionsaboutthesite,andsecuringinformationfrommapsandpersonalinspectionsofthe
area.Suchdatacouldincludethelocationofandotherinformationaboutexisting:
1.Constructedelements

89

a. Legalandphysicalboundaries,privateholdings,andpubliceasements.
b. Buildings,bridges,andotherstructuresincludingthoseofhistoricalandarcheological
significances.
c. Roads,walks,andothertransportationways.
d. Electricmines,gasmines,andotherutilities.
e. Landusesagriculture,industry,recreation,andothers.
f. Applicableordinancessuchaszoningregulationsandhealthcodes.
2.Naturalresources
a. Topography,includinghighandlowpoints,gradients,anddrainagepatterns.
b. Soiltypes,bynameifavailable,forcluesregardingthesurfacepermeability,stability,and
fertility.
c. Waterbodies,includingpermanence,fluctuations,andotherhabits.
d. Subsurfacematter:geologyoftheunderlyingrockincludingexistenceofcommerciallyor
functionallyvaluablematerialsuchassandandgravel,coal,orwater.
e. Vegetation,typesandindividualspecimensofconsequence.
f. Wildlife,includingexistenceofdesirablehabitatssuchaslowcoverforpheasants,cavesfor
bears,orberriesforbirds.
3.Naturalforcesincludingbothmacroclimatesasgenerallyfoundovertheentiresiteand
microclimatecharacteristicsorchangesfromthenormexperiencedinisolatedpatches).
a. Temperatureespeciallyday,night,andseasonalnorms,extremes,andtheirdurations.
b. Sunangles,atvariousseasonsandtimesoftheday.
c. Sunpocketssuchasmightbefoundinforestclearingsfrostpockets,whichmaybefoundin
lowspaceswherethewindthatsweepsawaythemorningdewisblocked.
d. Winddirectionsandintensities,bothdailyandseasonal.
e. Precipitation:rain,snow,andsleetseasonsandaccumulationsstormfrequenciesand
intensities

4.Perceptualcharacteristics
a. Viewsintoandformthesitesignificantfeatures
b. Smellsandsoundsandtheirsources
c. Spatialpatterns
d. Lines,forms,textures,colors,andsizerelationshipswhichgivethesiteitspeculiar
character
e. Generalimpressionsregardingexperiencepotentialofthesiteanditsparts.
INVENTORYOFOFFSITESFACTORS:

Thedesignermustalsoaccumulateinformationabouttheconstructed,natural,and
perceptualelementsontheproperties,whichsurroundorotherwiseaffectthesite.Thesemight
includebothexistingandanticipated
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Landusepatterns
Streamanddrainagesources
Visuals,smells,andsounds.
Aestheticcharacter
Publicutilitylocationsandcapacities
Transportationwaysandsystems

Newtowns:
x Newurbansettlementshavecomeintobeingallovertheworldthroughouthumanhistory,many
spontaneouslybytheorganicgrowthofvillagesandmanybydeliberateplantation.
x ThenewtownsmovementheredescribedbeganwithEbenezerHowardsproposalforGradecities
andtheestablishmentinEnglandofLetchworth(1903)andWelwynGardenCity.

90

Itsprimarypurposeistoprovideanalternativetotheovergrowth,congestionandSuburbansprawlof
citiesbycreatingnewmoderatesizedtownsinwhichpeoplecanhavegoodhomesinhealthyand
pleasantsurroundingsneartheirplacesofwork,withurbanservicesandculturalfacilitiesandaccess
totheopencourtyard.

Satellitetowns:
x TermfirstappliedbyGardencityadvocatesofNewtowns,whichwerethoughtofasmainlyself
containedandseparatedbygreenbeltsfrommajorcities,buteconomicallyandculturallyrelatedto
term.Subsequentlythetermwassometimesusedforlargescalecityfringedevelopmentsmore
intelligibilitynamedindustrialsuburbs.
x ThetermquasisatellitewasappliedbytheLondoncountrycouncilabout1930tosomeofits
suburbanhousingprojectsofapurelydormitorycharacter.
x Satellitetownsareoftenplannedtoimplementapolicyofdecentralizationfromalargecityin
preferencetosuburbandevelopment.
Zoningregulationsandbuildingbyelaws.
x
x
x
x
x
x
x

x
x
x
x

Zoningisthedivisionofacommunityintozonesordistrictsaccordingtopresentandpotentialuseof
propertiesforthecontrollinganddirectingtheuseanddevelopmentofthoseproperties.
Itisprimarilyconcernedwiththeuseoflandandbuildings.
Zoning ordinances typically subdivide the city or town into districts, in each of which specified uses
areauthorizesandbuildingheight,bulk,andsetbackrequirementsareimposed.
The division of the community into zones is necessary in order to provide special regulations for
different sections of the community in accordance with the planned development of each particular
section.
Althoughzoningregulationsvaryaccordingtotheusesestablishedforeachtypeofzone,regulations
withinagivenzoneorthesamekindsofzonemustbeuniform.
Thus,zoningcontemplatesdifferentregulationstoeffectuatedifferentlandusesindifferentzones.
Zoningattemptstogrouptogetherthoseuses,whicharemostcompatible.Ithasamongitspurpose
x Conservingthevalueofitsproperty.
x Assuringorderlycommunitygrowth.
x Safeguardingthegeneralpublicwelfare.
It seeks to preserve the planned character of the neighborhood by excluding uses and structures,
whichareprejudicialtotherestrictedpurposesoftheareaandtoachive,thegradualeliminationof
existingnonconforminguses.
By gilding community growth along orderly lines, zoning helps to minimize the demands for school
facilities,utilities,streets,policing,fireprotection,andotherfacilitiesandservices,inparticularbefore
thecityispreparedtoprovidethese.
Theobjectiveofzoninglegislationistoestablishregulations,whichprovidelocationsforallessential
usesoflandandbuldings,andtoensurethateachuseislocatedinthemostappropriateplace.
Legitimatebusinessoperations,whichmaybeundesirableinonelocation,mayrepresentappropriate
landuseinsomeotherarea.

ZONINGANDTHELANDUSEREGULATIONS:
i Zoningwasoriginallycreatedinordertocontrolthedevelopmentoflanduses.Itsprojectedgoalwas
thecityintwentyyearsormore,anditthuslaidoutlargeenoughCommercial,residential,industrial,
public and semipublic areas, often on undeveloped land, to accommodate and channel this
estimatedgrowth.
i Super speculative skyscraper development and over building, often landuse changes by the
pressureofpoliticsgivesrisetotheincentivezoning.
i Thezonesarefurthersubdividedintowardsandstudiedintensivelywithrespectivetopopulation,
economic,culturalmilieu,thearchitecturalcharacter,administrativelimits,andurbanform.

91

Henceward/sectorareaplansandregulationsshouldsupportthelanduseregulation.Thehistorical
area and CBD preservation takes prime role in this concept as the danger of money invading the
culturepersists.

Thezoningregulationsarebroadlydividedas:
i LanduseplanwithZoning
i PermissiblebuiltopareaandFAR,builtformregulations.
i UseindexofpermittedandpermissibleLanduses.
i Observingtheexistinglanduseandplanneddirectionandtrendofgrowthofthecitymakesthebroad
landuseplanofthecity.Undereachlandusezonethemultiplelanduseareasaregiven.Theland
useplanstates:
6. Maximumpermissiblefloorarea.
7. MaximumpermissibleCoverage.
8. MaximumpermissibleHeight.
9. Minimumgreeneryandsetbacks.
10. MinimumParkingspaces.
i
i
i

Theparkingandgreenerywithintheplotareashouldbetakenintooutmostcareasthepressureof
landvalueswallowsthecareforlivingenvironment.
Thereisspecialneedtolookafterthehistoricandconservationareas,asthepurposeandfunction
changesfromitsoriginalform.
Theproperimplementationisonlypossibleiftheuseriswellinformedofwhathecando.Hencethe
availability of well published reports (Newspaperbest medium) and clear broad sets of plan are
necessary.

Buildingbyelaws
A byelaw is a local law framed by a subordinate authority. Building codes or byelaws are defined as
standardsandspecificationsdesignedtograntminimumsafeguardstotheworkersduringconstruction
tothehealthandcomfortofusersandtoprovideenoughsafetytothepublicingeneral.
Objectsofbyelaws:
3. Guidelinestothedesigningarchitectorengineer.
4. Preventhaphazarddevelopment.
Applicabilityofbuildingbyelaws:
4. Additionsandalterationstoabuilding:
5. Newconstruction
6. Requirementofopenspace.
Floorspaceindex:theratioofthetotalbuiltupareainclusiveofwallsofallthefloorstotheareaofthe
landonwhichthebuildingthebuildingstandsisknownasfloorspaceindexorF.S.I.
ThelocalauthoritydeterminesthevalueofFSIanditmaybedifferentfordifferentareasandfordifferent
buildingsofthetown.
Newtowns:
x Newurbansettlementshavecomeintobeingallovertheworldthroughouthumanhistory,many
spontaneouslybytheorganicgrowthofvillagesandmanybydeliberateplantation.
x ThenewtownsmovementheredescribedbeganwithEbenezerHowardsproposalforGradecities
andtheestablishmentinEnglandofLetchworth(1903)andWelwynGardenCity.
x Itsprimarypurposeistoprovideanalternativetotheovergrowth,congestionandSuburbansprawlof
citiesbycreatingnewmoderatesizedtownsinwhichpeoplecanhavegoodhomesinhealthyand
pleasantsurroundingsneartheirplacesofwork,withurbanservicesandculturalfacilitiesandaccess
totheopencourtyard.
Satellitetowns:
x TermfirstappliedbyGardencityadvocatesofNewtowns,whichwerethoughtofasmainlyself
containedandseparatedbygreenbeltsfrommajorcities,buteconomicallyandculturallyrelatedto

92

x
x

term.Subsequentlythetermwassometimesusedforlargescalecityfringedevelopmentsmore
intelligibilitynamedindustrialsuburbs.
ThetermquasisatellitewasappliedbytheLondoncountrycouncilabout1930tosomeofits
suburbanhousingprojectsofapurelydormitorycharacter.
Satellitetownsareoftenplannedtoimplementapolicyofdecentralizationfromalargecityin
preferencetosuburbandevelopment.

City planning is the attempt to exert a wellconsidered control on behalf of the people of a city
overthedevelopmentoftheirphysicalenvironmentasawhole.

City planning stands not only for a longer look ahead in planning municipal improvements than
hasbeencustomaryinthepast,butespeciallyforabroaderandmorepenetratingvisionofthe
interrelations between apparently distinct lines of planning in cities and regions, and of the
profoundinfluencewhichactivitiescarriedoninonepartofthefieldandwithaviewtoonesetof
purposesmayhaveuponconditionsinanotherpartofthefield.

Ittakesaccountoftheinfluenceofstreetplansanddepthsofblocksupontheprevailingtypeof
building and thus upon the amount of light and air and privacy in the people's dwellings of the
effectofrailroadlocationsonthedistributionoffactoriesandonthecongestionofpopulationand
characterofhousingoftheeconomicinterrelationbetweenwatersupplylandsandparklandsof
thesocialandeconomicvaluestobesecuredbygroupingeducationalandrecreationalfunctions
whichhaveordinarilybeenseparatedandofothercombinationsinnumerable.

Thecommonsenseapplicationofthecityplanningidealmaybephrasedthus:Whethertheylike
itornot,whethertheyknowitornot,acollectiveresponsibilityrestsuponcitizensofthepresent
generationformakingormarringtheircity'sfutureincountlessways.
Cityplanningmayconvenientlybeconsideredunderthreemaindivisions:Thefirstconcernsthe
means of circulationthe distribution and treatment of the spaces devoted to streets, railways,
waterways, and all means of transportation and communication. The second concerns the
distributionandtreatmentofthespacesdevotedtoallotherpublicpurposes.Thethirdconcerns
the remaining or private lands and the character of development thereon, in so far as it is
practicableforthecommunitytocontrolsuchdevelopment.
Facility of communication is the very basis for the existence of cities improved methods of
general transportation are at the root of the modern phenomenon of rapid city growth and the
successofacityismoredependentupongoodmeansofcirculationthanuponanyotherphysical
factorunderitscontrol.
The methods of taxation and assessment greatly influence the actions of landowners, and of
those having money to invest in land, buildings, or building mortgages. These methods have a
directinfluenceuponthespeculativeholdingofunproductivepropertyupontheextenttowhich
development is carried on in a scattered, sporadic manner, so as to involve relatively large
expense to the community for streets, transportation, sewerage, etc., in proportion to the
inhabitantsserveduponthequalityanddurabilityofbuildingand,inthosestateswhereproperty
isclassifiedandtaxedatvaryingrates,upontheclassofimprovementsfavored.Exemptionfrom
taxation for a certain period, or other similar bonus, is a familiar device in some cities to
encourageadesiredclassofdevelopments,suchasnewfactories.
But the most direct and conspicuous means of controlling developments on private property is
throughtheexerciseofthepolicepower,asinthecaseofbuildingcodes,tenementhouselaws,
andspecialdistrictregulations.
o Thefirstobjectofbuildingcodes,andofthesystemofbuildingpermitsandinspections
throughwhichtheyareenforced,istoensureproperstructuralstability.
o Asecondobjectistoreducethedangeroffiretoareasonablepoint.
o A third object is to guard against conditions unreasonably dangerous to health.
Tenementhouselaws,factorylaws,andotherspecialprovisionsoperatinginadditionto
the general building code of a city, are directed mainly toward the protection of people
usingspecialkindsofbuildingsagainstunhealthfulconditionsandagainstpersonalrisk
fromfireandaccident.

93

Buildings are classified according to the purposes for which they are used, according to their
locationwithrespecttoboundaries(suchasfirelimits),accordingtothematerialsofwhichthey
are built, and in dozens of other ways and for each class minute and varied prescriptions and
prohibitions are made which, in the aggregate, play an important part in determining the size,
height, purposes, plan, general appearance, and cost of the structures which a lot owner can
erectandthosewhichhecanexpecthisneighbortoerect.
Theamountoflightenteringanygivenwindowinacity,and,inageneralway,theamountofair,
isdependentmainlyuponthedistancetothenextoppositebuildingwall,andtheheighttowhich
thatwallrisesabovethelevelofthewindow.

An examination of the building codes and tenementhouse laws of American cities shows a
confusing diversity in the regulations limiting building heights and horizontal spaces to be left
open, and there are some cities in which there is practically no effective regulation at all. The
more modern zoning ordinances are based on studies has light and air requirements, and
promisemuchfortheimprovementofcommunityhealth.

Wehaveconsideredthethreemaindivisionsofcityplanning,dealingrespectivelywiththelands
devotedtothemeansofcirculation,thelandsdevotedtootherpublicpurposes,andthelandsto
private ownership. Within all of these divisions, the actual work of city planning comprises the
followingsteps:
o Thefirststepisastudyofconditionsandtendencies,asurveyofthepertinentfactsand
anestimateofthemostprobablefuturechangesinthosefacts.
o Thesecondstepisadefinitionofpurposestobeattained.
o Thethirdstepistheplanningofphysicalresultssuitabletothesepurposes.
o Thefourthandlaststepisthebringingofthoseplanstoexecutionthroughsuitablelegal
andadministrativemachinery.
o Everyoneofthosestepsofprogressionisvitaleverypartofthethreemaindivisionsof
the field is important. The following chapters of this book, written by as many different
men, illustrate typical parts of the field considered from the point of view sometimes of
onestepofprogression,sometimesofanother.

Every element in their physical environment affects the people in some degree both on the
economic side, as determining their efficiency, and on the aesthetic side, as determining their
enjoymentoflife.Thereforeinthedesignofeverythingwhichentersintothecity,bothofthese
aspectsmustbegivenweight

Site planning: site planning is the art of arranging an external physical environment in complete detail.
Siteplannersareallthosewhodealwithstructuresandtheland.
It is a design problem that lies on the boundaries between architecture, engineering, city planning, and
landscapearchitecture,andispracticedbyprofessionalsofallthesegroups.
Sitehasanimpactthatisbiological,social,andpsychological.
Siteplanninglocatesstructuresandactivitiesinthreedimensionalspace,andthedifferencesthatarise
from spatial arrangement are the meat of the matter: differences in proportion, volume, density, shape,
grain,pattern,orlinkage.
Thedesignermustandthegroupforwhomheisthatwhateverhedoeswillsoonundergothefirstofa
seriesofcontinuousmodifications.
Itistheorganizationoftheexternalphysicalenvironmentuptothelargestscaleatwhichitcanstillbe
subjecttounifiedandcompletecontrolitdealswithstructures,land,andtheentirecomplexofphysical
formsabove,below,andonthesurfaceithasatitsheartthedispositionofobjectsandactivitiesinthree
dimensionalspace

94

9
9
9
9
9
9
9

Typicalgoals
FunctionalHierarchy
Optimumcommunication
Choice
Cost
HealthandComfort
Adaptability
Imagequality

Siteanalysis:
Theanalysisofasitedependsontheusetowhichitistobeput.Aquarryman,afortifications
engineer, or a building contractor will see the same piece of ground quite differently, and each
viewwillbecorrectforthegivenpurpose.

Every site, however disturbed, had some time to experience the mutual adjustment of its
elements. Surface flow has created a drainage pattern, plant and animal life has achieved an
ecological balance, neighboring structures lean against each other, shops have arranged
themselvesinrelationtotheresidentpopulation,climatehasweatheredallalike.
Anysiteiscomposedofthesefactorsabove,below,andatthegroundbutallofmanyfactors
are interrelated, and have achieved some sort of balance, whether it be static or one that is
movingtowardanotherequilibrium.

Surfaceconditions:tobeginwith,itisusefultocanvasthesitefactors,whicharetypicallymost
significantinthedesignofbuildinggroups.Theseincludethesubsurfacefactors,thetopography,
thecover,theclimate,andthepatternofexistinglanduse.

Thetopographicsurface,theboundarybetweenearthandair,hasparticularimplicationsforsite
development.Sometimesitdeterminestheorganizationoftheplan.Thegradientofpaths,the
flowofutilities,theuseofareas,thedispositionofbuilding,thevisualaspect,areallaffectedby
it.

Inmostcasestheexistingtopographyalreadyhasanunderlyingorderbroughtaboutbytheflow
ofsurfacewater.
If human beings are to be comfortable, there are certain optimum ranges of daylight, of air
movementandpurity,andoftemperatureandhumidity.
Theplanmodifiestheexistingclimatetoapproximationthisoptimumcondition.
Finally,therearemanymanmadecharacteristicstobestudiedinanalyzingasite.Theessential
elements almost always include the accessibility to external facilities or personsschools or
pupils,shopsorcustomers,plustherelationofthesitetothegeneralcirculationsystem.
The more accessible, urbanized, and developed a site becomes, the more these man made
features of use, structure, circulation, and utilities become predominant over the factors of soil,
topography,andover.
Most often the survey include the preparation of a base map showing the legal lines such as
boundaries and assents the location of utilities, roads, paths, buildings, and walls the local
activities and circulations the presence of swamps, streams, and water bodies the general
vegetativecoverincludingpreciselocationsoflargetreesanotationofrockoutcropsandother
visiblegeologicfeaturescontoursandthespotelevationsofkeypointscompassdirectionsand
thecharacterofthesiteenvirons.

The site plan locates two things: physical objects and human activities. Land use refers to activity
locations,butitalsoimpliesthegeneralphysicalformsthatpermitthoseactivities,suchasanopenpiece
ofgroundatarecreationlocation,oradetachedhouseinalowdensityresidentialarea.
FactorsInfluencingTheSitePlanning:

95

Inventoryofsitefactors:
Thedesignerhadtobegingatheringfactsaboutthesite,securinginformationfrommapsand
personalinspectionsaboutthesite,andsecuringinformationfrommapsandpersonalinspectionsofthe
area.Suchdatacouldincludethelocationofandotherinformationaboutexisting:
1.Constructedelements
g. Legalandphysicalboundaries,privateholdings,andpubliceasements.
h. Buildings,bridges,andotherstructuresincludingthoseofhistoricalandarcheological
significances.
i. Roads,walks,andothertransportationways.
j. Electricmines,gasmines,andotherutilities.
k. Landusesagriculture,industry,recreation,andothers.
l. Applicableordinancessuchaszoningregulationsandhealthcodes.
2.Naturalresources
g. Topography,includinghighandlowpoints,gradients,anddrainagepatterns.
h. Soiltypes,bynameifavailable,forcluesregardingthesurfacepermeability,stability,and
fertility.
i. Waterbodies,includingpermanence,fluctuations,andotherhabits.
j. Subsurfacematter:geologyoftheunderlyingrockincludingexistenceofcommerciallyor
functionallyvaluablematerialsuchassandandgravel,coal,orwater.
k. Vegetation,typesandindividualspecimensofconsequence.
l. Wildlife,includingexistenceofdesirablehabitatssuchaslowcoverforpheasants,cavesfor
bears,orberriesforbirds.
3.Naturalforcesincludingbothmacroclimatesasgenerallyfoundovertheentiresiteand
microclimatecharacteristicsorchangesfromthenormexperiencedinisolatedpatches).
f. Temperatureespeciallyday,night,andseasonalnorms,extremes,andtheirdurations.
g. Sunangles,atvariousseasonsandtimesoftheday.
h. Sunpocketssuchasmightbefoundinforestclearingsfrostpockets,whichmaybefoundin
lowspaceswherethewindthatsweepsawaythemorningdewisblocked.
i. Winddirectionsandintensities,bothdailyandseasonal.
j. Precipitation:rain,snow,andsleetseasonsandaccumulationsstormfrequenciesand
intensities

4.Perceptualcharacteristics
f. Viewsintoandformthesitesignificantfeatures
g. Smellsandsoundsandtheirsources
h. Spatialpatterns
i. Lines,forms,textures,colors,andsizerelationshipswhichgivethesiteitspeculiar
character
j. Generalimpressionsregardingexperiencepotentialofthesiteanditsparts.
INVENTORYOFOFFSITESFACTORS:

Thedesignermustalsoaccumulateinformationabouttheconstructed,natural,and
perceptualelementsontheproperties,whichsurroundorotherwiseaffectthesite.Thesemight
includebothexistingandanticipated
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Landusepatterns
Streamanddrainagesources
Visuals,smells,andsounds.
Aestheticcharacter
Publicutilitylocationsandcapacities

96

6. Transportationwaysandsystems
Landacquisitionact:
The first piece of legislation in India in respect to the acquisition of property was in Bengal
regulationactof1824.
In1850,itwasfeltthatlegislationwasneeded,foracquiringlandsforthemalso.
The building Act of 1839 was the first piece of legislation in Bombay where provisions for
acquisition of lands for the purposes of widening or altering any existing public road, street or
otherthoroughfarewithintheislandsofBombayandcolabawereprovided.Itwasasimilaractto
BengalRegulationActof1824.
Latertheactof1852waspassedinMadrasforthepurposeoffacilitatingtheacquisitionofland
in the presidency of St. Fort George. This act adopted first seven sections of the Bengal
RegulationsActof1824withcertainmodifications.
ForthewholeofBritishIndia,anActonthissubjectwasforthefirsttimeenactedin1857.
Under this act. The collector was empowered to fix the amount of compensation to be paid by
agreement, if possible, but if there was no such agreement possible, the dispute had to be
referredtoarbitrator.
Thisactamendedbytheactof1861andsubsequentlybytheActof1863.
Ultimatelythelegislaturehadtointerveneandtheactof1870waspassed.Thisact,forthefirst
time,providedforareferencetoacivilcourtforthedeterminationoftheamountofcompensation
whenthecollectorcouldnotsettlebyagreement.
But the act of 1870 was found to be equally unsatisfactory, particularly the matters of
referencetothecourtandconsequentlyanotheractintheyear1894waspassedinplace
ofthesaidactof1870.
Theactof1870wasnotfoundentirelyeffectivefortheprotectionofeitherthegovernmentsor
thepersonsinterestedinlandstobeacquired.
Before1894thevaluationoflandwasentirelyinthehandsofarbitratorforwhosedecisionthere
wasnoappeal.
Under this 1894 act the collectors award was normally final, unless desired by the concerned
partiestobereferredtothecourt.
Definitionofland:
Inthecontextoflandacquisition,thetermlanddoesnotrefermerelytovacantlandbutincludes
structuresandtrees,whichmayexistonit.
Hence section 3 (a) of the land acquisition act, 1894 clearly defines the expression of land as
including benefits to arise out of land and things attached to the earth permanently fastened to
anythingattachedtotheearth.
Alternativemethodsofpossessionofland:
x

Thereare3methods
o Mutualagreementonscaleprice(outrightscale)
o Takingoverlandonlease.
o Compulsoryacquisitionofpropertyunderthelandacquisitionact.

Thepurposeoftheeminentdomainorthepowerofstatetoacquireprivatepropertyisgivenexpression
byarticle31oftheconstitution.
AfewprinciplesrelatingtoacquisitionofpropertycanbederivedfromArticle31asexplainedbelow:
1.Apersoncannotbedeprivedofhispropertybyamereexecutiveflatwithoutthebackingofalaw.
Theimplicationisthattheexecutivemustsetaccordingtoandwithintheframeworkofalawwhichmust
providenecessarypowerstothegovernmentforcompulsoryacquisitionofproperty.
3. Thelandacquisitionlawhastoconformtotwoconstitutionalrequirementssoastobeoperative.
Firstly, the acquisition can only be public purpose and secondary the acquisition law should
provideforpaymentofcompensationforthepropertyacquired.

97

Conceptofpublicpurpose:thephrase,whateverelseitmaymean,mustincludeapurpose,theobject
oraiminwhichthegeneralinterestofthecommunity,asopposedtotheparticularinterestofindividuals,
isdirectlyandvitalityconcerned.
The act that specific land is required for public purpose shall be conclusive evidence that the land is
neededforpublicpurpose.
AnimportantadministrativeprinciplewithregardtotheoperationoflandAcquisitionActisthatwhenever
any Government Dept. or a public authority want to acquire any land, they will not themselves directly
undertakethevariousstagesofacquisitionundertheActbuttheymustsendtheirrequisitionproposalto
theappropriateofficeoftheGovernmentwhowillonbehalfoftheland,gothroughthevariousstagesof
thelandacquisitionprocedureuntilhetakespossessionofthelandandhandsitovertotheconcerned
departmentorthepublicauthority.Hence,ineverydistinctandbigcityofourcountry.

Importantstagesinlandacquisition:
1. PublicationofpreliminarynotificationundersectionoftheactbytheGovernmentthataparticular
landisneededorlikelytobeneededforapublicpurpose.
2. Hearingofobjectionstotheabovementionednotificationfrominterestedpartiesbythecollector.
3. Declaration under section 6 of the act by the government that the land is required for public
purpose.
4. Notificationundersection9oftheactbythecollectordeclaringgovernmentsintention.
5. Enquiryintothecompensationclaimsandpassingofawardbythecollector.
6. Takingpossessionofthelandbythecollectorafterpaymentofcompensationandhandingitover
totheauthorityrequiringthesame.
Infact,landacquisition,1894hasstoodthetestofacquisitionproceduresfornearlyacenturyandhas
served the public authority usefully in this regard. A criticism has often levied that the land acquisition
proceedingstakeconsiderabletimeandthiscriticismisjustifiedtoconsiderableextent.
AnotheraspectofthelandAcquisitionActisthatitistoomuchexecutiveriddeninwhichtheGovernment
andthelandacquisitioncollectorenjoyvastdiscretionarypowers.
TheMullacommitteeonlandacquisitionhasrecentlysubmitteditsreporttotheGovtofIndiasuggesting
somechangesinthelandAcquisitionlaw.
Landceiling:
x

x
x
x

x
x

The1971electionManifestsofCongressstartedlimitationsmustbeplacedonurbanproperty.
Measureswillbetakentocurbantisocialracketeeringinthepurchaseandsaleofland.The25th
AmendmenttotheConstitution(1971)pavedthewayfortheurbanland(ceilingandregulation)
Actthatwasinpursuanceofabovepages.
ThestateGovernmentsweregenerallyinfavourofthebill.buttheproblemoftakingover,
managinganddisposingofurbanproperties,affectedadverselybythedraftbillwereconsidered
colossal.
Hence, while the original pledges of the Government related to urban poverty, the ULC&R Act
imposesaceilingonlyonprivateholdingsofvacantlands.
Urbanlandreformsmeansbringingaboutradicalchangesinurbaneconomicinstitutionssuchas
urbanlandownerships,holdingsandtenancy,regulationoflandvalues,propertytaxation,
availabilityofpreemptionrightandimprovementsinlandacquisitionanddevelopmentand
disposalprocess.
Suchreformsarenecessaryforassuringtheavailabilityoflandinadequatequantityfor
reasonablepricesattherighttimetopublicauthoritiesandindividuals.
InIndia,itwillbeclearthatitwasnottheurbancrisis,whichexistsinneitherourcountrynorthe
needforbulkacquisitionofurbanlandsoastosecureneitheranorderlygrowthofourcitiesnor
theconceptofurbanlandreforms.WidelypracticedinLatinAmericancountries.Thatledthe
governmenttoenactULC&RACT.Theinitialstimulusfortheactcameframeopponentsof
agrarianreformslegislation.

98

ThroughlandismentionedinthestatelistinscheduleVIIthtotheconstitution.TheULC&RAct
wasenactedbytheparliamentaftertheadoptionofresolutionbythelegislaturesof11states
requestingtheparliamenttoenactsuchalawinthemannerspecifiedinArticle525.

Broadobjectiveoftheact:
o Abilltoprovidefortheimpositionofaceilingonvacantlandintheurbanagglomerations.
Fortheacquisitionofsuchlandinexcessoftheceilinglimit,toregulatetheconstruction
ofbuildingsonsuchlandandformattersconnectedtherewithwithaviewtopreventing
theconcentrationofurbanlandinthehandsofafewpersonsandspeculationand
profiteeringthereonandwithaviewtobringingaboutanequitabledistributionoflandin
urbanagglomerationtosubservethecommongood.

Thereisaproliferationofnationalconceptslikeurbanagglomeration,vacantlands,urbanland
andurbanisablelandintheact.
Landappurtenantmeanssuchlandasisrequiredtobekeptopenasperregulations.
Compensationmarketvalue.
Theactalsoimposesaceilingontheplinthareaofallfuturedwellingunitsvaryingfrom300sq.
mts.IncitiesofcategoriesofA,B,to500sq.mCandD.
Thereisalsosomeexemptionsandnonapplicabilityofact.
ThecitieshavebeengroupedundercategoriesA,B,C,D
o ADelhi,Mumbai,Calcutta,madras
o Bexceeding1million
o C3lacks1million
o D23lacks.

x
x
x
x
x

Developmentcontrolandzoningregulations:
Development controls are an integral part of development plans. They aim at regulating
developmentinaccordancewithlanduse,setbacksmanyotherthingsonacompatiblemanner.
Theseareariseoutof
Sporadicgrowthofprivateproperties
Sprawlofslums
Majortransportationcongestionpoint
Othercongestedresidentialandindustrialzones
Availabilityoflandforreclamationandthusofferingnewopportunitiesfordevelopment
Aimandobjectives
o Guides development or the use of land and preserve other site against the intrusion of
undesirabledevelopment.
o Curbsmisuse.
o Regulatesthenonuseofmisuseofland.
Itsetscertaintrendsintheframeworkofdevelopmentprocess.
Itprovidescertaindemandinachangingpatternoflanduse.
Developmentcontrolisaskilledprocess.
Elements:
o Health
o Safety
o Convenience
o Economyand
o Amenity
Toolsofdevelopmentcontrol:
Landusecontrol
Subdivisioncontrol
Heightcontrol
Plotcoveragecontrol
Setbackcontrol

99

Densitycontrol
Buildinglinecontrol
Architecturalcontrol
Advertisementcontrol
Buildingbylawsorregulations
Zoning

Land use control helps to regulate the allocation of different uses such that the basic requirements of
eachoneoftheusesarefulfilled.
Themainaimofthecontrolshouldbetopromotelanddevelopmentinaplannedandorderlymannerand
toensurethereservationofadequatequantityoflandforfutureplannedgrowth.
Subdivisionregulationsarealsoneedincasesofnewindustrialtownshipswherethemunicipalactnotis
inoperation.
Heightcontrolsaredesignatedprimarilytoensureanadequatesupplyoflightandair.
FARistheratioofthegrossfloorareaofallstoreysofabuildingtothetotalareaoftheplot.HigherFAR
isusuallyforCBDsincethelandvaluesarehigher.
ZONING LAWS: the term zoning is generally understood by the Layman as referring to designation of
landsinthecityfordifferentusers.
Zoning ordinance sub divides the city into districts in each of which specified uses are permissible and
restrictions regarding the height bulk, density and setbacks for the structures are specified for each
district.
Theordinanceshouldbebasedonbasicpopulation,economicandlandusestudiesandplanninggoals.
ObjectivesofZoningareprotectingtheprivateuseandenjoymentofpropertyandtopromotethewelfare
oftheindividualpropertyowner.
1. Safeguardingthecharacterandamenityvalueofaresidentialoranyothertypeofaarea.
2. Imposingtherestrictionsonminimumopenspacearoundthebuildingsintheinterestoflightand
air and controlling the density of development by limiting the size of the structures and thus
preventingcongestion.
TheobjectiveofthezoningisnormallyattainedinIndiancitiesthroughtheenforcementoflanduse
proposalsintheMasterplanandthedetailedtownplanningschemes.
Theenforcementofdevelopmentcontrolisanimportantaspectofspatialplanningparticularlyatthe
leveloflocalarea.
PLANNINGLAWSOFUNITEDKINGDOM:
TheBritishlawslargelyguideIndianlegislations.
TheHousingAndTownPlanningAct,1909wasthefirstenactmenttodealwithtownplanning.
ThehouseandtownplanningAct,1919authorizedtheissueofinterimdevelopmentorderstoprotect
theinterestsofthosewhowantedtodeveloptheirsitsevenbeforetheschemecameintooperation.
x Next came the townplanning act, 1925, which consolidated the previous Acts and was the first
independentactontownplanning.
x TheTownAndCountryPlanningAct1932thefirsttimethewordcountryhasbeenintroduced.
x
x
x

BARLOWCOMMISSION:
x Theroyalcommissiononthedistributionoftheindustrialpopulationwassetupin1937underthe
chairmanship of Sir Mon Tague Barlow to inquire on distribution of the industrial population of
Great Britain and to consider what social economic or strategic disadvantage arise from the
concentrationofindustriesinnationalinterests.
x

Finally the commission stressed the need for a vigorous policy for dispersal of population
combinedwithrestrictionsonfurthergrowthofthebiggestcities.

UTHWATTCOMMITTEEONCOMPENSATIONANDBETTERMENT:

100

AsrecommendedbytheBarlowcommission,anExpertCommitteeundertheChairmanshipof
Mr.JusticeUthwattwassetupin1941tomakeanobjectiveanalysisofthesubjectofpaymentof
compensationandrecoveryofbettermentinrespectofthepubliccontroloftheuseoflandandto
adviceasamatterofurgencywhatstepsshouldbetakennoworbefore.

The committee stated in its findings that the ownership of land does not carry with it an
unqualifiedrightoftheuserandthereforerestrictionsbasedonthedutiesofneighborlinessmay
beimposedwithoutliabilityofpaymentofcompensation.

ThecommitteesrecommendationsformedthebasisofTownandCountryacts1944and1947.

Scottcommitteeonlandutilizationinruralareas
x ThiscommitteeundertheChairmanshipofMr.JusticeScottwasappointedin1941toconsider
theconditionswhichshouldgovernbuildingandotherconstructionaldevelopmentincountryarea
consistentlywiththemaintenanceofagricultureandinparticularthesectorsaffectingthelocation
oftheindustry.
x Inthisreport,thecommitteestressedthedeplorablelivingconditionsinruralareas.
x

Townandcountryplanningact,1947.
o Thisactsupersededallpreviousplanninglegislationanditsconsideredvery
comprehensiveanddrasticregardingitseffectsonownershipofland.
x Townandcountryplanningact,1968.
o Thisistheact,whichrepealsallformerenactmentsonplanning:
o TheministerforHousingandLocalGovernmentdealswithmattersrelatingtoTownand
countryplanning.
Townandcountryplanningact,1971.
This act suggests that each local planning authority must institute a survey of their area examining the
matters that may be expected to affect the development of that area or keep all such matters under
review.
PlanninglawsININDIA:
Planning legislation in India was essentially confirmed to building bylaws and building regulation. The
urbanization produced a great shift of population from the rural to the urban areas. This sad state of
affairsledtoaconceptualizationofsanitarycommissionin1864andthe1stCITYIMPROVEMENTACT
wasenactedinmajorcities.
Theywere:TheBombayImprovementAct1898.
TheMysoreImprovementAct1903
TheCalcuttaimprovementAct1911.
SirPATRICKGEDDESsuggestedtheneedforTOWNplanninglegislationinINDIA.Accordinglyforthe
firsttimethetownplanningactswereenacted.
Theywere:theBombaytownplanningact1915.
BHORECOMMITTEE1946.
acommitteewasappointedtolookintotheadaptabilityofthetownplanningactsinvariousstatesandthe
followingpolicieswereoutlined:
1. Regulatingurbandevelopmentthroughtownplanning.
2. Separateministersforvariousdepartment
3. Improvementoflargeareas.
4. Formulatethemodellegislation.
AfterindependenceofIndiaFIVEyearplansgaveguidanceforplanning.
2ndfiveyearplanprovidesthepreparationofplansoflargercities.,organizingplanningactivities,regional
plans

101

3rdfiveyearplanprovidesenactmentoftownplanninglegislation.Providedfundforurbanareaplanning,
industrialtowns,capitaltowns.
Atthistwobodiesformed.
1.COPPcommitteeofplanningprojects.
2.BOPEbureauofpublicenterprise.
Maharashtra has been a pioneer in town and country planning in our country in more than one way, in
enactingthefirsttownplanningact
Secondly, in effective application of plot reconstitution technique in implementing its town planning
schemes.Thirdly,thelawprovidingisstatutoryregionalplanning.
CIDCOTheCityAndIndustrialDevelopmentCorporation.
RegionalplanninglawsinIndia:
1.Maharashtraregionalandtownplanningact1966
2.Tamilnadutownandcountryplanning1973.
3.Madyapradesh1973.
4.modelT&CPA1973.
The development charge concept introduced by this act (4) in the Indian scene appears to have been
successful(Hyderabad)
TheDelhiMasterPlanpreparedin1962wasinfactthefirstcomprehensiveurbandevelopmentplanwith
regionalperspective,foranycityinthecountry.
Someofthebasiccausesoftheslowimplementationofdevelopmentplanare:
1. Poorfinancialpositionoflocalauthority.
2. Lackofskilledtechnicalmanpower.
3. Delayinlandacquisitionprocedure.
4. Highlandvalues.
5. Individualinterestcratingproblemtodevelopmentplan.
6. Unrealisticallyprepareddevelopmentplan.
Landacquisitionact:
The first piece of legislation in India in respect to the acquisition of property was in Bengal
regulationactof1824.
In1850,itwasfeltthatlegislationwasneeded,foracquiringlandsforthemalso.
The building Act of 1839 was the first piece of legislation in Bombay where provisions for
acquisition of lands for the purposes of widening or altering any existing public road, street or
otherthoroughfarewithintheislandsofBombayandcolabawereprovided.Itwasasimilaractto
BengalRegulationActof1824.
Latertheactof1852waspassedinMadrasforthepurposeoffacilitatingtheacquisitionofland
in the presidency of St. Fort George. This act adopted first seven sections of the Bengal
RegulationsActof1824withcertainmodifications.
ForthewholeofBritishIndia,anActonthissubjectwasforthefirsttimeenactedin1857.
Under this act. The collector was empowered to fix the amount of compensation to be paid by
agreement, if possible, but if there was no such agreement possible, the dispute had to be
referredtoarbitrator.
Thisactamendedbytheactof1861andsubsequentlybytheActof1863.
Ultimatelythelegislaturehadtointerveneandtheactof1870waspassed.Thisact,forthefirst
time,providedforareferencetoacivilcourtforthedeterminationoftheamountofcompensation
whenthecollectorcouldnotsettlebyagreement.
But the act of 1870 was found to be equally unsatisfactory, particularly the matters of
referencetothecourtandconsequentlyanotheractintheyear1894waspassedinplace
ofthesaidactof1870.
Theactof1870wasnotfoundentirelyeffectivefortheprotectionofeitherthegovernmentsor
thepersonsinterestedinlandstobeacquired.
Before1894thevaluationoflandwasentirelyinthehandsofarbitratorforwhosedecisionthere
wasnoappeal.

102

Under this 1894 act the collectors award was normally final, unless desired by the concerned
partiestobereferredtothecourt.
Definitionofland:
Inthecontextoflandacquisition,thetermlanddoesnotrefermerelytovacantlandbutincludes
structuresandtreeswhichmaybeexistingonit.
Hence section 3 (a) of the land acquisition act, 1894 clearly defines the expression of land as
including benefits to arise out of land and things attached to the earth permanently fastened to
anythingattachedtotheearth.
Alternativemethodsofpossessionofland:

Thereare3methods
o Mutualagreementonscaleprice(outrightscale)
o Takingoverlandonlease.
o Compulsoryacquisitionofpropertyunderthelandacquisitionact.

Thepurposeoftheeminentdomainorthepowerofstatetoacquireprivatepropertyisgivenexpression
byarticle31oftheconstitution.
AfewprinciplesrelatingtoacquisitionofpropertycanbederivedfromArticle31asexplainedbelow:
1.Apersoncannotbedeprivedofhispropertybyamereexecutiveflatwithoutthebackingofalaw.
Theimplicationisthattheexecutivemustsetaccordingtoandwithintheframeworkofalawwhichmust
providenecessarypowerstothegovernmentforcompulsoryacquisitionofproperty.
2. The land acquisition law has to conform to two constitutional requirements so as to be operative.
Firstly,theacquisitioncanonlybepublicpurposeandsecondarytheacquisitionlawshouldprovidefor
paymentofcompensationforthepropertyacquired.
Conceptofpublicpurpose:thephrase,whateverelseitmaymean,mustincludeapurpose,theobject
oraiminwhichthegeneralinterestofthecommunity,asopposedtotheparticularinterestofindividuals,
isdirectlyandvitalityconcerned.
The act that specific land is required for public purpose shall be conclusive evidence that the land is
neededforpublicpurpose.
AnimportantadministrativeprinciplewithregardtotheoperationoflandAcquisitionActisthatwhenever
any Government Dept. or a public authority want to acquire any land, they will not themselves directly
undertakethevariousstagesofacquisitionundertheActbuttheymustsendtheirrequisitionproposalto
theappropriateofficeoftheGovernmentwhowillonbehalfoftheland,gothroughthevariousstagesof
thelandacquisitionprocedureuntilhetakespossessionofthelandandhandsitovertotheconcerned
departmentorthepublicauthority.Hence,ineverydistinctandbigcityofourcountry.

Importantstagesinlandacquisition:
7. PublicationofpreliminarynotificationundersectionoftheactbytheGovernmentthataparticular
landisneededorlikelytobeneededforapublicpurpose.
8. Hearingofobjectionstotheabovementionednotificationfrominterestedpartiesbythecollector.
9. Declaration under section 6 of the act by the government that the land is required for public
purpose.
10. Notificationundersection9oftheactbythecollectordeclaringgovernmentsintention.
11. Enquiryintothecompensationclaimsandpassingofawardbythecollector.
12. Takingpossessionofthelandbythecollectorafterpaymentofcompensationandhandingitover
totheauthorityrequiringthesame.
Infact,landacquisition,1894hasstoodthetestofacquisitionproceduresfornearlyacenturyandhas
served the public authority usefully in this regard. A criticism has often levied that the land acquisition
proceedingstakeconsiderabletimeandthiscriticismisjustifiedtoconsiderableextent.
AnotheraspectofthelandAcquisitionActisthatitistoomuchexecutiveriddeninwhichtheGovernment
andthelandacquisitioncollectorenjoyvastdiscretionarypowers.

103

TheMullacommitteeonlandacquisitionhasrecentlysubmitteditsreporttotheGovtofIndiasuggesting
somechangesinthelandAcquisitionlaw.
Landceiling:
x

x
x
x

x
x

The1971electionManifestsofCongressstartedlimitationsmustbeplacedonurbanproperty.
Measureswillbetakentocurbantisocialracketeeringinthepurchaseandsaleofland.The25th
AmendmenttotheConstitution(1971)pavedthewayfortheurbanland(ceilingandregulation)
Actthatwasinpursuanceofabovepages.
The state Governments were generally in favour of the bill. but the problem of taking over,
managinganddisposingofurbanproperties,affectedadverselybythedraftbillwereconsidered
colossal.
Hence, while the original pledges of the Government related to urban poverty, the ULC&R Act
imposesaceilingonlyonprivateholdingsofvacantlands.
Urbanlandreformsmeansbringingaboutradicalchangesinurbaneconomicinstitutionssuchas
urban land ownerships, holdings and tenancy, regulation of land values, property taxation,
availability of preemption right and improvements in land acquisition and development and
disposalprocess.
Such reforms are necessary for assuring the availability of land in adequate quantity for
reasonablepricesattherighttimetopublicauthoritiesandindividuals.
InIndia,itwillbeclearthatitwasnottheurbancrisis,whichexistsinneitherourcountrynorthe
needforbulkacquisitionofurbanlandsoastosecureneitheranorderlygrowthofourcitiesnor
the concept of urban land reforms. Widely practiced in Latin American countries. That led the
government to enact ULC&RACT. The initial stimulus for the act came frame opponents of
agrarianreformslegislation.
ThroughlandismentionedinthestatelistinscheduleVIIthtotheconstitution.TheULC&RAct
was enacted by the parliament after the adoption of resolution by the legislatures of 11 states
requestingtheparliamenttoenactsuchalawinthemannerspecifiedinArticle525.

Broadobjectiveoftheact:
o Abilltoprovidefortheimpositionofaceilingonvacantlandintheurbanagglomerations.
Fortheacquisitionofsuchlandinexcessoftheceilinglimit,toregulatetheconstruction
ofbuildingsonsuchlandandformattersconnectedtherewithwithaviewtopreventing
the concentration of urban land in the hands of a few persons and speculation and
profiteeringthereonandwithaviewtobringingaboutanequitabledistributionoflandin
urbanagglomerationtosubservethecommongood.

Thereisaproliferationofnationalconceptslikeurbanagglomeration,vacantlands,urbanland
andurbanisablelandintheact.
Landappurtenantmeanssuchlandasisrequiredtobekeptopenasperregulations.
Compensationmarketvalue.
Theactalsoimposesaceilingontheplinthareaofallfuturedwellingunitsvaryingfrom300sq.
mts.IncitiesofcategoriesofA,B,to500sq.mCandD.
Thereisalsosomeexemptionsandnonapplicabilityofact.
ThecitieshavebeengroupedundercategoriesA,B,C,D
o ADelhi,Mumbai,Calcutta,madras
o Bexceeding1million
o C3lacks1million
o D23lacks.

x
x
x
x
x

AirPollution
Automobile Traffic Pollution Automobile exhaust contains unburned hydrocarbons, particulates,
carbon dioxide, and oxides of nitrogen and sulfur that contribute to acid rain, smog, and global
warming.Theoxidescombinewithwatervaporintheairtoformacids,whichreturntothegroundas
acidrain.Smog,amixtureofsmoke(particulates)andfog,irritatestheeyes,throat,andlungsand

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also damages plants. Photochemical smog, a particularly harsh form of smog, is created when
sunlighttriggersachemicalreactionbetweentheunburnedhydrocarbonsandtheoxidesofnitrogen
inautomobileexhaust.Carbondioxide,producedfromtheburningoffossilfuelsincludinggasoline,is
theleadingcauseofthegreenhouseeffect,aphenomenonthoughttoberesponsibleforrisingglobal
temperatures.

Spruce Forest Damaged by Acid Rain Forests, lakes, ponds, and other terrestrial and aquatic
environmentsthroughouttheworldarebeingseverelydamagedbytheeffectsofacidrain.Acidrain
is caused by the combination of sulphur dioxide and nitrogen compounds with water in the
atmospheretoproducerainwithaverylowpH.Normally,rainwaterhasapHof6.5,makingitslightly
acidic.However,withtheadditionofsulphurandnitrogencompounds,thepHofrainwatermaydrop
toaslowas2.0or3.0,makingitdangerouslyacidic.Inadditiontochemicallyburningtheleavesof
plants,acidrainPoisonsLakeWater,whichkillsmostifnotalloftheaquaticinhabitants.

IndustrialSmokestacksCarbondioxide,sulfurdioxide,andothertypesofcontaminantspouringfrom
industrial smokestacks contribute to worldwide atmospheric pollution. Carbon dioxide contributes
significantly to global warming, while sulfur dioxide is the principal cause of acid rain in the
northeastern United States, southeastern Canada, and Eastern Europe. Other environmental
problems stemming from smokestack emissions include respiratory diseases, poisoned lakes and
streams,anddamagedforestsandcrops.
Brown Smog over Phoenix, Arizona Smog is caused by industrial and automobile pollution. It is
compoundedbytemperatureinversions,whichcausetheairpollutiontobekeptinaparticulararea
forextendedperiods.Continuedexposuretosmogcanresultinrespiratoryproblems,eyeirritation,
andevendeath.

AirPollutionandAcidrain
Rainwateroncewasthepurestformofwateravailablebutnowisoftencontaminatedbypollutantsin
theair.Acidrainiscausedwhenindustrialemissionsmixwithatmosphericmoisture.Pollutantsmay
be carried in clouds for long distances before falling, which means that forests and lakes far away
fromfactoriesmaybedamagedbyacidrain.Inthenearvicinityofthefactories,additionaldamageis
causedbydeposition,akindofdryraininwhichthelargerpollutantparticlesfalltotheground.Air
pollutionhasbeenincreasingsincetheIndustrialRevolutionbutonlyrecentlyhavesideeffectssuch
asacidrainbecomesevereandwidespreadenoughtoevokeinternationalconcern.

NoisePollutionorSound
Pollution,exposureofpeople
or
animalstolevelsofsoundthat
are
annoying,stressful,ordamagingtotheears.Althoughloudandfrighteningsoundsarepartofnature,
onlyinrecentcenturieshasmuchoftheworldbecomeurban,industrial,andchronicallynoisy.

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Mostnoisepollutioncomesfrommachines,especiallyautomobiles,trucks,andaircraft.Construction
equipment,farmmachines,andthedinofmachineryinsidefactoriescanbedangerouslyloud.Some
homeappliances,shoptool,lawnmowers,andleafblowerscanalsobenoisy,asareguns,
firecrackers,andsometoys.Evenmusic,whenplayedatveryhighvolume,particularlythrough
personalheadphones,isasdamagingtotheearsasaroaringchainsaw.Eventheoceansare
increasinglynoisy.Theenginesofships,especiallylargevesselsandsupertankers,producealotof
sound,andtrafficisincreasing.Offshoreoilexplorationanddrillingarealsonoisy.Andmorerecently,
veryloud,lowfrequencysonarsignalsarebeingsentthroughtheseastodetectsubmarinesandto
gaininformationaboutwatertemperaturesandglobalwarming.
Themostsignificanthealthproblemcausedbynoisepollutionishearingloss(seeDeafness).Any
noiseappreciablylouderthantalkingcandamagethedelicatehaircellsinthecochlea,thestructure
intheinnerearthatconvertssoundwavesintoauditorynervesignals.Theinitialdamagetothe
cochleamaybetemporary,butwithrepeatedexposure,thedamagebecomespermanent.Loud
noisedeafensquicklyextremelyloudsoundssuchasgunshotsatcloserange,cancause
immediatehearingloss.Butevensoundlevelsofonly85decibelswillcausesomehearinglossafter
prolongedexposure.
Evenatlevelsbelowthosethatcausehearingloss,noisepollutionproducesproblems.Noisemakes
conversationdifficult,interfereswithsomekindsofwork,anddisturbssleep.Asasourceofstress,it
canpromotehighbloodpressureandothercardiovascularproblems,aswellasnervousdisorders.
Noisealsoputsstressondomesticanimalsandwildlife.Inremoteareas,helicoptersandmilitary
aircraftoftenfrightenanimals.
Pollution,contaminationofEarthsenvironmentwithmaterialsthatinterferewithhumanhealth,
thequalityoflife,orthenaturalfunctioningofecosystems(livingorganismsandtheirphysical
surroundings).Althoughsomeenvironmentalpollutionisaresultofnaturalcausessuchas
volcaniceruptions,mostiscausedbyhumanactivities.
Therearetwomaincategoriesofpollutingmaterials,orpollutants.Biodegradablepollutantsare
materials,suchassewage,thatrapidlydecomposebynaturalprocesses.Thesepollutants
becomeaproblemwhenaddedtotheenvironmentfasterthantheycandecompose(seeSewage
Disposal).Nondegradablepollutantsarematerialsthateitherdonotdecomposeordecompose
slowlyinthenaturalenvironment.Oncecontaminationoccurs,itisdifficultorimpossibleto
removethesepollutantsfromtheenvironment.
Asmallfishthatgrazesontheseplantsaccumulatesahighconcentrationofthetoxin.Largerfish
orothercarnivoresthateatthesmallfishwillaccumulateevengreater,andpossiblylife
threatening,concentrationsofthecompound.Thisprocessisknownasbioaccumulation.
IMPACTSOFPOLLUTIONBecausehumansareatthetopofthefoodchain,theyare
particularlyvulnerabletotheeffectsofnondegradablepollutants.Thiswasclearlyillustratedin
the1950sand1960swhenresidentslivingnearMinamataBay,Japan,developednervous
disorders,tremors,andparalysisinamysteriousepidemic.Morethan400peoplediedbefore
authoritiesdiscoveredthatalocalindustryhadreleasedmercuryintoMinamataBay.Thishighly
toxicelementaccumulatedinthebodiesoflocalfishandeventuallyinthebodiesofpeoplewho
consumedthefish.Morerecentlyresearchhasrevealedthatmanychemicalpollutants,suchas
DDTandPCBs,mimicsexhormonesandinterferewiththehumanbodysreproductiveand
developmentalfunctions.Thesesubstancesareknownasendocrinedisrupters.See
OccupationalandEnvironmentalDiseases.
Pollutionalsohasadramaticeffectonnaturalresources.Ecosystemssuchasforests,wetlands,
coralreefs,andriversperformmanyimportantservicesforEarthsenvironment.Theyenhance
waterandairquality,providehabitatforplantsandanimals,andprovidefoodandmedicines.Any
oralloftheseecosystemfunctionsmaybeimpairedordestroyedbypollution.Moreover,
becauseofthecomplexrelationshipsamongthemanytypesoforganismsandecosystems,
environmentalcontaminationmayhavefarreachingconsequencesthatarenotimmediately
obviousorthataredifficulttopredict.Forinstance,scientistscanonlyspeculateonsomeofthe
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potentialimpactsofthedepletionoftheozonelayer,theprotectivelayerintheatmospherethat
shieldsEarthfromtheSunsharmfulultravioletrays.
Anothermajoreffectofpollutionisthetremendouscostofpollutioncleanupandprevention.The
globalefforttocontrolemissionsofcarbondioxide,agasproducedfromthecombustionoffossil
fuelssuchascoaloroil,orofotherorganicmaterialslikewood,isonesuchexample.Thecostof
maintainingannualnationalcarbondioxideemissionsat1990levelsisestimatedtobe2percent
ofthegrossdomesticproductfordevelopedcountries.Expenditurestoreducepollutioninthe
UnitedStatesin1993totaled$109billion:$105.4billiononreduction,$1.9billiononregulation,
and$1.7billiononresearchanddevelopment.Twentyninepercentofthetotalcostwenttoward
airpollution,36percenttowaterpollution,and36percenttosolidwastemanagement.
Inadditiontoitseffectsontheeconomy,health,andnaturalresources,pollutionhassocial
implications.Researchhasshownthatlowincomepopulationsandminoritiesdonotreceivethe
sameprotectionfromenvironmentalcontamination,asdohigherincomecommunities.Toxic
wasteincinerators,chemicalplants,andsolidwastedumpsareoftenlocatedinlowincome
communitiesbecauseofalackoforganized,informedcommunityinvolvementinmunicipal
decisionmakingprocesses.
TYPESOFPOLLUTION
PollutionexistsinmanyformsandaffectsmanydifferentaspectsofEarthsenvironment.Point
sourcepollutioncomesfromspecific,localized,andidentifiablesources,suchassewage
pipelinesorindustrialsmokestacks.Nonpointsourcepollutioncomesfromdispersedor
uncontainedsources,suchascontaminatedwaterrunofffromurbanareasorautomobile
emissions.
Theeffectsofthesepollutantsmaybeimmediateordelayed.Primaryeffectsofpollutionoccur
immediatelyaftercontaminationoccurs,suchasthedeathofmarineplantsandwildlifeafteran
oilspillatsea.Secondaryeffectsmaybedelayedormaypersistintheenvironmentintothe
future,perhapsgoingunnoticedformanyyears.DDT,anondegradablecompound,seldom
poisonsbirdsimmediately,butgraduallyaccumulatesintheirbodies.Birdswithhigh
concentrationsofthispesticidelaythinshelledeggsthatfailtohatchorproducedeformed
offspring.Thesesecondaryeffects,publicizedbyRachelCarsoninher1962book,SilentSpring,
threatenedthesurvivalofspeciessuchasthebaldeagleandperegrinefalcon,andaroused
publicconcernoverthehiddeneffectsofnondegradablechemicalcompounds.
AirPollution
HumancontaminationofEarthsatmospherecantakemanyformsandhasexistedsincehumans
firstbegantousefireforagriculture,heating,andcooking.DuringtheIndustrialRevolutionofthe
18thand19thcenturies,however,airpollutionbecameamajorproblem.Urbanairpollutionis
commonlyknownassmog.ThedarkLondonsmogthatEvelynwroteofisgenerallyasmoky
mixtureofcarbonmonoxideandorganiccompoundsfromincompletecombustion(burning)of
fossilfuelssuchascoal,andsulfurdioxidefromimpuritiesinthefuels.Asthesmogagesand
reactswithoxygen,organicandsulfuricacidscondenseasdroplets,increasingthehaze.Smog
developedintoamajorhealthhazardbythe20thcentury.In1948,19peoplediedandthousands
weresickenedbysmoginthesmallU.S.steelmilltownofDonora,Pennsylvania.In1952,about
4,000Londonersdiedofitseffects.
Asecondtypeofsmog,photochemicalsmog,beganreducingairqualityoverlargecitieslikeLos
Angelesinthe1930s.Thissmogiscausedbycombustionincar,truck,andairplaneengines,
whichproducenitrogenoxidesandreleasehydrocarbonsfromunburnedfuels.Sunlightcauses
thenitrogenoxidesandhydrocarbonstocombineandturnoxygenintoozone,achemicalagent
thatattacksrubber,injuresplants,andirritateslungs.Thehydrocarbonsareoxidizedinto
materialsthatcondenseandformavisible,pungenthaze.
Eventuallymostpollutantsarewashedoutoftheairbyrain,snow,fog,ormist,butonlyafter
travelinglargedistances,sometimesacrosscontinents.Aspollutantsbuildupintheatmosphere,
sulfurandnitrogenoxidesareconvertedintoacidsthatmixwithrain.Thisacidrainfallsinlakes
andonforests,whereitcanleadtothedeathoffishandplants,anddamageentireecosystems.

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Eventuallythecontaminatedlakesandforestsmaybecomelifeless.Regionsthataredownwind
ofheavilyindustrializedareas,suchasEuropeandtheeasternUnitedStatesandCanada,are
thehardesthitbyacidrain.Acidraincanalsoaffecthumanhealthandmanmadeobjectsitis
slowlydissolvinghistoricstonestatuesandbuildingfacadesinLondon,Athens,andRome.
Oneofthegreatestchallengescausedbyairpollutionisglobalwarming,anincreaseinEarths
temperatureduetothebuildupofcertainatmosphericgasessuchascarbondioxide.Withthe
heavyuseoffossilfuelsinthe20thcentury,atmosphericconcentrationsofcarbondioxidehave
risendramatically.Carbondioxideandothergases,knownasgreenhousegases,reducethe
escapeofheatfromtheplanetwithoutblockingradiationcomingfromtheSun.Becauseofthis
greenhouseeffect,averageglobaltemperaturesareexpectedtorise1.4to5.8Celsiusdegrees
(2.5to10.4Fahrenheitdegrees)bytheyear2100.Althoughthistrendappearstobeasmall
change,theincreasewouldmaketheEarthwarmerthanithasbeeninthelast125,000years,
possiblychangingclimatepatterns,affectingcropproduction,disruptingwildlifedistributions,and
raisingthesealevel.
Airpollutioncanalsodamagetheupperatmosphericregionknownasthestratosphere.
Excessiveproductionofchlorinecontainingcompoundssuchaschlorofluorocarbons(CFCs)
(compoundsformerlyusedinrefrigerators,airconditioners,andinthemanufactureofpolystyrene
products)hasdepletedthestratosphericozonelayer,creatingaholeaboveAntarcticathatlasts
forseveralweekseachyear.Asaresult,exposuretotheSunsharmfulrayshasdamaged
aquaticandterrestrialwildlifeandthreatenshumanhealthinhighlatituderegionsofthenorthern
andsouthernhemispheres.
NoisePollution
Unwantedsound,ornoise,suchasthatproducedbyairplanes,traffic,orindustrialmachinery,is
consideredaformofpollution.Noisepollutionisatitsworstindenselypopulatedareas.Itcan
causehearingloss,stress,highbloodpressure,sleeploss,distraction,andlostproductivity.
Soundsareproducedbyobjectsthatvibrateataratethattheearcandetect.Thisrateiscalled
frequencyandismeasuredinhertz,orvibrationspersecond.Mosthumanscanhearsounds
between20and20,000hertz,whiledogscanhearhighpitchedsoundsupto50,000hertz.While
highfrequencysoundstendtobemorehazardousandmoreannoyingtohearingthanlow
frequencysounds,mostnoisepollutiondamageisrelatedtotheintensityofthesound,orthe
amountofenergyithas.Measuredindecibels,noiseintensitycanrangefromzero,thequietest
soundthehumanearcandetect,toover160decibels.Conversationtakesplaceataround40
decibels,asubwaytrainisabout80decibels,andarockconcertisfrom80to100decibels.The
intensityofanearbyjettakingoffisabout110decibels.Thethresholdforpain,tissuedamage,
andpotentialhearinglossinhumansis120decibels.Longlasting,highintensitysoundsarethe
mostdamagingtohearingandproducethemoststressinhumans.
Solutionstonoisepollutionincludeaddinginsulationandsoundproofingtodoors,walls,and
ceilingsusingearprotection,particularlyinindustrialworkingareasplantingvegetationto
absorbandscreenoutnoisepollutionandzoningurbanareastomaintainaseparationbetween
residentialareasandzonesofexcessivenoise.
CONTROLLINGPOLLUTION
Becauseofthemanyenvironmentaltragediesofthemid20thcentury,manynationsinstituted
comprehensiveregulationsdesignedtorepairthepastdamageofuncontrolledpollutionand
preventfutureenvironmentalcontamination.IntheUnitedStates,theCleanAirAct(1970)andits
amendmentssignificantlyreducedcertaintypesofairpollution,suchassulfurdioxideemissions.
TheCleanWaterAct(1977)andSafeDrinkingWaterAct(1974)regulatedpollutiondischarges
andsetwaterqualitystandards.TheToxicSubstancesControlAct(1976)andtheResource
ConservationandRecoveryAct(1976)providedforthetestingandcontroloftoxicand
hazardouswastes.In1980CongresspassedtheComprehensiveEnvironmentalResponse,
Compensation,andLiabilityAct(CERCLA),alsoknownasSuperfund,toprovidefundstoclean
upthemostseverelycontaminatedhazardouswastesites.Theseandseveralotherfederaland

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statelawshelpedlimituncontrolledpollution,butprogresshasbeenslowandmanysevere
contaminationproblemsremainduetolackoffundsforcleanupandenforcement.
Internationalagreementshavealsoplayedaroleinreducingglobalpollution.TheMontral
ProtocolonSubstancesthatDepletetheOzoneLayer(1987)setinternationaltargetdatesfor
reducingthemanufactureandemissionsofthechemicals,suchasCFCs,knowntodepletethe
ozonelayer.TheBaselConventionontheControlofTransboundaryMovementsofHazardous
WastesandTheirDisposal(1989)servesasaframeworkfortheinternationalregulationof
hazardouswastetransportanddisposal.
Since1992representativesfrommorethan160nationshavemetregularlytodiscussmethodsto
reducegreenhousegasemissions.In1997theKytoProtocolwasdevised,callingfor
industrializedcountriestoreducetheirgasemissionsby2012toanaverage5percentbelow
1990levels.Attheendof2000theKytoProtocolhadnotyetbeenratifiednegotiatorswerestill
workingtofindconsensusontherules,methods,andpenaltiesthatshouldbeusedtoenforce
thetreaty.
Regulationsandlegislationhaveledtoconsiderableprogressincleaningupairandwater
pollutionindevelopedcountries.Vehiclesinthe1990semitfewernitrogenoxidesthanthosein
the1970sdidpowerplantsnowburnlowsulfurfuelsindustrialstackshavescrubberstoreduce
emissionsandleadhasbeenremovedfromgasoline.Developingcountries,however,continue
tostrugglewithpollutioncontrolbecausetheylackcleantechnologiesanddesperatelyneedto
improveeconomicstrength,oftenatthecostofenvironmentalquality.Theproblemis
compoundedbydevelopingcountriesattractingforeigninvestmentandindustrybyoffering
cheaperlabor,cheaperrawmaterials,andfewerenvironmentalrestrictions.Themaquiladoras,
assemblyplantsalongtheMexicansideoftheMexicoU.S.border,providejobsandindustryfor
MexicobutaregenerallyownedbynonMexicancorporationsattractedtothecheaplaborand
lackofpollutionregulation.Asaresult,thisborderregion,includingtheRoGrande,isoneofthe
mostheavilypollutedzonesinNorthAmerica.Toavoidecologicaldisasterandincreased
poverty,developingcountrieswillrequireaidandtechnologyfromoutsidenationsand
corporations,communityparticipationindevelopmentinitiatives,andstrongenvironmental
regulations.
Nongovernmentalcitizengroupshaveformedatthelocal,national,andinternationallevelto
combatpollutionproblemsworldwide.Manyoftheseorganizationsprovideinformationand
supportforpeopleororganizationstraditionallynotinvolvedinthedecisionmakingprocess.The
PesticideActionNetworkprovidestechnicalinformationabouttheeffectsofpesticideson
farmworkers.TheCitizensClearinghouseforHazardousWaste,establishedbyveteransofthe
LoveCanalcontroversy,providessupportforcommunitiestargetedforhazardouswaste
installations.Awellorganized,grassroots,environmentaljusticemovementhasarisento
advocateequitableenvironmentalprotections.Greenpeaceisanactivistorganizationthat
focusesinternationalattentiononindustriesandgovernmentsknowntocontaminateland,sea,or
atmospherewithtoxicorsolidwastes.FriendsoftheEarthInternationalareafederationof
internationalorganizationsthatfightenvironmentalpollutionaroundtheworld.
.Airpollution
AirPollution,additionofharmfulsubstancestotheatmosphereresultingindamagetothe
environment,humanhealth,andqualityoflife.Oneofmanyformsofpollution,airpollution
occursinsidehomes,schools,andofficesincitiesacrosscontinentsandevenglobally.Air
pollutionmakespeoplesickitcausesbreathingproblemsandpromotescanceranditharms
plants,animals,andtheecosystemsinwhichtheylive.SomeairpollutantsreturntoEarthinthe
formofacidrainandsnow,whichcorrodestatuesandbuildings,damagecropsandforests,and
makelakesandstreamsunsuitableforfishandotherplantandanimallife.
PollutionischangingEarthsatmospheresothatitletsinmoreharmfulradiationfromtheSun.At
thesametime,ourpollutedatmosphereisbecomingabetterinsulator,preventingheatfrom
escapingbackintospaceandleadingtoariseinglobalaveragetemperatures.Scientistspredict

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thatthetemperatureincrease,referredtoasglobalwarming,willaffectworldfoodsupply,alter
sealevel,makeweathermoreextreme,andincreasethespreadoftropicaldisease.
MAJORPOLLUTANTSOURCES
Mostairpollutioncomesfromonehumanactivity:burningfossilfuelsnaturalgas,coal,and
oiltopowerindustrialprocessesandmotorvehicles.Amongtheharmfulchemicalcompounds
thisburningputsintotheatmospherearecarbondioxide,carbonmonoxide,nitrogenoxides,
sulfurdioxide,andtinysolidparticlesincludingleadfromgasolineadditivescalledparticulates.
Between1900and1970,motorvehicleuserapidlyexpanded,andemissionsofnitrogenoxides,
someofthemostdamagingpollutantsinvehicleexhaust,increased690percent.Whenfuelsare
incompletelyburned,variouschemicalscalledvolatileorganicchemicals(VOCs)alsoenterthe
air.Pollutantsalsocomefromothersources.Forinstance,decomposinggarbageinlandfillsand
solidwastedisposalsitesemitsmethanegas,andmanyhouseholdproductsgiveoffVOCs.
Someofthesepollutantsalsocomefromnaturalsources.Forexample,forestfiresemit
particulatesandVOCsintotheatmosphere.Ultrafinedustparticles,dislodgedbysoilerosion
whenwaterandweatherloosenlayersofsoil,increaseairborneparticulatelevels.Volcanoes
spewoutsulfurdioxideandlargeamountsofpulverizedlavarockknownasvolcanicash.Abig
volcaniceruptioncandarkentheskyoverawideregionandaffecttheEarthsentireatmosphere.
The1991eruptionofMountPinatubointhePhilippines,forexample,dumpedenoughvolcanic
ashintotheupperatmospheretolowerglobaltemperaturesforthenexttwoyears.Unlike
pollutantsfromhumanactivity,however,naturallyoccurringpollutantstendtoremaininthe
atmosphereforashorttimeanddonotleadtopermanentatmosphericchange.
Onceintheatmosphere,pollutantsoftenundergochemicalreactionsthatproduceadditional
harmfulcompounds.Airpollutionissubjecttoweatherpatternsthatcantrapitinvalleysorblowit
acrosstheglobetodamagepristineenvironmentsfarfromtheoriginalsources.
Buildingmaterialsinhotclimate:

Te exposure conditions encountered in hot regions markedly differ from those in temperature
climate. In this respect, particular attention should be given to solar radiation, high temperature,
elevatedhumidity,andsomeotherfactors.
Solarradiationeffects:
1. Thermaleffects
2. Chemicaltransformations
3. Incentivezoning
Polymerizationordinationoforganicmaterials,suchaspaints,asphalts,bitumens,plasticsand
rubber.
Effectsonwallsduetolightoncracks&weakenedconnectionsbetweenstructuredconnections.
Timber,whichisaninherentlywaterbearingmaterial,losesmoistureandhencewraps&cracks.
Plainandreinforcedconcretewithahighaluminacementcontentandsometypesofgypsum
plasteraregiventorecrystalizationwhenexposedtoelevatedtemperatures.
Inhotairarea,thedurabilityofbuildingmaterialandstructuresisaffectedbytheirfoulingwithdust
andsandparticles.
Dustandsandalsofoulequipment,mechanisms,windowhinger&doorlocks.
Dust and sand particles give rise to erosion when they come in to contact with unpainted metal
surfaces.
Accumulationofsandanddustonrootsmaycausethecollapseofthebearingmembers,whichis
whyperiodicinspectionandcleaningofrootstructuresisamustinsuchregions.
Concreteandstonefindthemostextensiveapplicationinhotregions,becomeoftheirdurability.
Stonesandcementinhumidareasisquiteachallengingproblem,sincethematerialstendstotake
upmoistureandCO2fromtheairandhardenspermanently.
Metalshaveprovedtheirworthinhotregionsasbearing&filterelements.
Aluminum&copperalloysoffergoodresistancetoclimaticfactors.
Asfarglass,theusualformofwearistheabrasionbysanddust.
Themarginalportionsofaglasspaneareshadedbythecasement,sothetemperaturedifference
withinthesamepanemayrunto20qCsometimescausingbreakage.

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Asbestos cement is a poor choice for exposed structures in hot climate regions. It frequently
cracksincyclicheatingandcooling.
Paintsandplasticsaresubjecttorapiddestructionbyincreasedsolarradiationwhichintensities

physical,chemical&photochemicalprocesses.
Paintsresistanceincreasebyaddingasbestostopaintsandpoliticizestoplastics.

Elevatedhumiditybringsaboutswellingandpointedcorrosionandmayspurthedevelopmentof

mouldandalgal.
Rugged&reliableastheyareintemperatureclimateregions,bituminousmaterialsandsealants

losemuchoftheirdurabilityinhotareas.
Climate:aregionwithcertainconditionsoftemperature,dryness,winds,light,etc.

Integration in time of the physical states of the atmospheric environment, characteristic of a certain
geographicallocation.
Tropicalclimatesarethosewhereheatisthedominantproblem,where,forthegreaterpartoftheyear
buildingsservetokeeptheoccupantscool,ratherthanwarm,wheretheannualmeantemperatureisnot
lessthan20qC.
Thespectrumofsolarradiationextendsfrom290to2,300nm.
1. Ultravioletradiation290380nm,producingphotochemicaleffects,bleaching,andsunburn.
2. Visiblelight,380(violet}700nm(red).
3. Shortinfraredradiation,7002300nm,radiantheatwithsomephotochemicaleffects.
Earthtroposphere (310)stratosphere (1030)mesosphere (30100)thermosphere (100
300)Exosphere(3001000)
Ozonelayer16Kms40Kms
The intensity of radiation reaching the upper surface of the atmosphere is taken as the solar constant.
1395W/metresquare.
21stJunelongestday.23.5q.21stDecember,shortestday.
Thereisaslippageattheboundarylayerbetweentheearthanditsatmospherecausedbywhatisknown
astheCoriolisforce.
The dry bulb or true air temperature is a value in the shade the thermometer being mounted inside a
louveredwoodenbox,knownastheStevensonscreenandalternativeisthermograph.
The humidity of air can be described as absolute humidity (AH), i.e., the amount of moisture actually
presentinunitmassorunitvolumeofair,intermsofg/Kgorg/cubicmeter.
The relative humidity (RH) is, however, a much more useful form of expression, as it gives a direct
indicationofevaporationpotential.
RH=AH/SH*100
SH=saturationhumidity.
Humidityisgenerallymeasuredbywetanddrybulbhygrometer.
DBTdrybulbtemp.WBTwetbulbtemp.
Anotherindicationorexpressionofatmospherichumidityisthevapourpressure,i.e.,thepartialpressure
ofwatervapourpresentintheair.
The atmospheric pressure (P) is the sum of the partial pressure of dry air (Pa) and the partial vapour
pressure(Pv):
P=Pa+Pv
RH=AH/SH*100=Pa/Pv*100.
Vapourpressureunits=Newtonpermetresquare.(N/m3).
The relationship of all these quantities, i.e., of dry bulb and wet bulb temperature, absolute, relative
humidityandofvapourpressureisshownbythepsychometricchart.
HumidityrecordedbyHydrograph.

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Precipitationisthecollectivetermusedforrain,snow,hail,dewandfrost.Itismeasuredbyraingauges,
i.e.,calibratedreceptaclesandexpressedinmillimeterperatimeunit.
The driving rain index characteristics a given location and expresses the degree of exposure. it is the
productofannualrainfall(inm)andtheannualaveragewindvelocity.
Theexposureismoderateiftheindexisbetween3and7m2/sandsevereifover7m2/s.
Obviously this index only broadly classifies the given location the actual rain penetration will
dependontheinstantaneousrainintensityandthesimultaneouswindvelocity.
Skyluminousvaluesareneededifdaylightinginbuildingsistobepredicted.
Asimplesunshinerecorderwillsregistrarthedurationofsunshine,whichcanbeexpressedinnumberof
hoursperday,asanaverageforeachmonth.
Solar radiation: a number of sophisticated instruments solrimeter, heliometer, actinometer and
pyranometer.unitarewattpermetresquare.
W/m*m=J/m*m.
APitottubeanditsdirectionmeasuredbywindwanemeasurebyacuptypeorpropelleranemometeror
wind velocity. An anemograph can produce continuous recordings of wind velocity and directional
changes.
For the purposes of showing the diurnal variations of one climatic parameter throughout the year, an
isoplethschartcanbeused.
The interaction of solar radiation with the atmosphere and the gravitational forces, together with the
distributionoflandandseamasses.
Tropicalclimates:twofactorsairtemperatureandhumidity.
Fourtypesofclimates:
1.warmhumidclimate:neartheequator.
Little seasonal variation throughout the year gusty rains RH remains high, at about 75% for the most
timevapourpressureis25003000N/m*m.
Annualrainfallcanvaryfrom20005000mmcloudcoversvarybetween6090%.Gustsof30m/shave
beenreported.
Specialcharacteristics:highhumidityacceleratesmouldandalgalgrowth,rustingandrotting.
2.Warmhumidislandclimate:
LittleseasonalvariationnegligiblegustyrainsRHremainshigh,atabout55%forthemosttimevapour
pressureis17502500N/m*m.
Annual rainfall can vary from 12501800 mm cloud covers normally clear. Gusts of 30 m/s have been
reported.Solarradiationisstrongandmainlydirect,withaverysmalldiffusecomponent.
Specialcharacteristicsarethetropicalcyclonesorhurricaneswithwindvelocitiesfrom4570m/s,which
constitute a serious hazard. The high salt content of the atmosphere encourages corrosion in coastal
areas.
3.Hotdrydesertclimate:15degrees30
Twomarkedseasonsoccur:ahotandasomewhatcoolerperiod.
Diurnalrangeisverygreat:1722degCRHvaries1055%vapourpressureisnormallybetween750
1500N/m*m.
Annualrainfallcanvaryfrom50155mmsolarradiationisdirectandstrongduringtheday.
Specialcharacteristicsduringcertainmonthsdustandsandstormsmaybefrequent.
4. Hotdrymaritimedesertclimate:

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Diurnalmeanvariesbetween912degC.RHissteadilyhigh,between5090%withvapourpressureof
15002500N/m*m.rainfallisverylow.Specialcharacteristics:dustandsandstormsmayoccur.
5. Compositeormonsoonclimate:
RH2055% annual rainfall varies from 5001300 mm vegetation, which is sparse characteristic of a
regionwithbrownandredbarrenground,changesrapidlyanddramaticallywiththerain.
Specialcharacteristics:seasonalchangesinrelativehumiditycauserapidweakeningofbuildingmaterial.
Dustandsandstormsmayoccur.
6. Tropicaluplandclimate:thediurnalrangeisgreatRH4599%.VP=8001600n/m*mprecipitation
islessthan1000mm.vegetationisgreenalthoughnotveryluxuriantduringthewestseason.Thesoil
maybedampintherainsbutdriesquickly.
x
x

Everycity,townorvillageandevenaprecinctinatownmayhaveitsownclimate,slightlydifferent
fromclimatedescribedfortheregionthemacroclimate.
Siteclimateestablishesthescale

Designerstaskistoidentifytheareamostsuitableforhabitation.

Factorsgoverningthelocalcondition:

Topography:slope,orientation,exposure,elevation,hillsorvalleys,atornearthesite.

x
x

Groundsurface:whethernaturalormanmade,itsreflectance,permeabilityandsoiltemperature.
Threedimensionalobjects:suchastrees,ortreebelts,fences,wallsandbuildings.

Temperatureinversion,asthedaytimesituationofdecreasingtemperaturewiththeincreaseofheight
istakenasnormal.
x The relative humidity depends as much on the air temperature as on the actual amount of water
vapourpresentintheair.
x Whenthedewpointtemperatureisreachedtheformationoffogwillstart,andifthereisnofurther
rapidcoolingandnoairmovement.
Isoseismicmaps:mapsshowingtheearthquakeslocations.
The process involved in converting foodstuff into living matter and useful form of energy are known as
metabolism.
Duringthepast50yearsmanyattemptshavebeenmadeandmanyexperimentshavebeencarriedout
in order to device a single scale which combines the effects of these four factors. Such scales are
collectivelyreferredasthermalindicesorcomfortscales.
ET: the findings plotted on psychometric chart, producing equal comfort lines. They named the new
scale as effective temp. It can be defined as the temperature of a still, saturated atmosphere, which
would,intheabsenceofradiation,producethesameeffect.
CET:correlatedeffectivetemperature:includesETandairmovement.
EW:equivalentwarmth.ScalewasconstructedanddefinedbyaNomograph.
OT:operativetemperature.Itcombinedtheeffectsofradiationandairtemp.
ECI:equatorialcomfortindex:togetherwithmeasurementsofairtemp.Humidityandairmovement.
RT:resultanttemp.Predictedfourhoursweatrate(P4SR).Heatstressindex(HIS).
Thebioclimaticchart:onwhichthecomfortzoneisdefinedintermsofDBTandRH,butsubsequently
itisshown,byadditionallines,howthiscomfortzoneispushedupbythepresenceofairmovementsand
howitisloweredbyradiation.
Effectivetemperatureitsuse
Incorporating the appropriate modification, a Nomograph has been constructed which defines the ET
indexfromDBTandWBTreadings.
Thesescales(basicscale)stilldonotmakeanyallowanceforradiationheatexchangebetweenthebody
anditsenvironment.

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MRTmeanradianttemperature:ifallsurfacesinasenvironmentwereuniformlyatthistemperature,it
wouldproducethesamenetradiantheatbalanceasthegivenenvironmentwithitsvarioustemperatures.
TheglobethermometerreadingandtheMRTareidenticalonlyiftheairiscompletelystillandthereisno
convectiveheatexchangebetweentheglobeandtheair.
If there is no radiation loss or gain and air is saturated, the globe and wetbulb temperature will be
identical:theconnectinglinewillbehorizontal.
Anemometers with moving parts will rarely respond to air movements below 0.5m/s. even small air
speedsofrandomdirectionscanbemeasuredthroughtheircoolingeffect.TheKatathermometerisan
instrumentusedforthispurpose.
KataairspeedNomographKatafactor,coolingpower,airspeed,coolingtime,temp.
The thermal comfort zone: the range of conditions within which at least 80% of the people would feel
comfortable.Itisshownonthebioclimaticchart.
Above1.5m/stheairmovementcanproducesecondaryorsideeffects,whichmaybeannoying.
TheThermalquantities:
Temperature:
x Thetemperatureisastheoutwardappearanceofthethermalstateofthebody.Ifthemolecular
movementisspreadovertootherbodies(eg:air)itsintensitywithinthebodydecreasesandthe
bodyappearstobecooling.
x TheCelsiusscalemeasurestemperature.Thishasbeenconstructedbytakingthefreezingand
boilingpointsofwater(atnormalatmosphericpressure)asfixedpointsanddividingtheinterval
into100degrees.
x The interval of the Kelvin scale temperature is the same as the Celsius scale, but the starting
pointiszero,
x i.e.,Absolutezero,whichis273.15degC.
Heat:
x Heatisaformofenergy,appearingasmolecularmovementinsubstancesorasradiantheat,a
certainwavelengthbandofelectromagneticradiationinspace(700to10,000nm).Assuchitis
measuredinJoules.
x TheJouleisderivedfromthe3basicunits:
1. Velocity:amovementofunitlengthinunittime,metre/second.
2. Acceleration:aunitchangeinvelocityinunittime,metre/secondsquare.
3. Force:whichcancauseunitaccelerationofabodyhavingunitmass,Newton
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x

Weightisactuallythegravitationalaccelerationofaunitmass.
Thegravitationalaccelerationis9.8met/secsquare.
Workunitworkiscarriedoutifaunitforceisactingoveraunitlength,Joule.
Energyisthepotentialorcapacityforcarryingoutacertainwork,Work.
The British Thermal Unit (Btu) was defined as the amount of heat necessary to raise the
temperatureof1lbofwaterby1degF.
1Btu=1056.06J
1kcal=4186.8J
Specificheattheamountofheatenergynecessarytocauseunittemperatureincreaseofaunit
massofasubstance,J/Kg.degC.
Thehigherthespecificheatofasubstance,themoreheatitwillabsorbforagivenincreasein
temperature.
Waterhasthehigherspecificheat:4187J/Kg.DegC.
Forgasesoftenthevolumetricspecificheatofairisaround1300J/metrecube.DegC.
Latentheat:latentheatofasubstanceistheamountofheatenergyabsorbedbyunitmassof
thesubstanceatchangeofstatewithoutanychangeintemperature.J/Kg.
Thermalcapacityofabodyistheproductofitsmassandthespecificheatofitsmaterial.Itis
measured as the amount of heat required to cause unit temperature increase of the body,
J/degC.

114

Calorific value is the amount of heat released by unit mass of a fuel or food material by its
completecombustionanditismeasuredinJ/Kg.PervolumeitisJ/metrecube.

Heatflow:
x Thegreaterthetemperaturedifference,thefastertherateofheatflow.
x PoweristheabilitytocarryoutacertainworkinunittimeitsunitsJ/secorWatt.
x Asapoundoficerequires144Btuofheattomeltitintowaterofthesametemperature.
x Densitytherateheatflowinunitarea,unitsW/metresquare.
Conductivity:
x Thermal conductivity: The rate at which molecular movement spreads varies with different
materialsandisdescribedasthepropertyofmaterial.
x Thermalconductivitycanbemeasuredastherateofheatflowthroughunitareaofunitthickness
ofthematerial.W/m.degC.
x Resistivity:Resistivityisthereciprocalofconductivity.Unitsm.degC/W.
x BetterinsulatorswillhavehigherResistivityvalues.
x Waterhasconductivityof0.580W/m.degC
x Airhasconductivityof0.026W/m.degC
x Ifairintheporesofamaterialisreplacedbywater,itsconductivityrapidlyincreases.
x The more pores a material, the greater the increase in conductivity with increased moisture
content.
x Conductance is the heat flow rate through a unit area of the body when the temperature
differencebetweenthetwosurfacesis1degC.UnitsW/metresquare.DegC
Surfaceconductance:
x Surfaceconductanceincludestheconvectiveandtheradiantcomponentsoftheheatexchange
atsurfaces.
x Theoverall,airtoairresistanceisthesumofthebodysresistanceandthesurfaceresistances.
x The magnitude of surface or filmconductance is a function of surface quantities and of the
velocityofairpassingthesurface.
Transmittance:
x Thereciprocalofthisairtoairresistanceistheairtoairtransmittance,orUvalue=1/Ra
x Thisisthequantitymostoftenusedinbuildingheatgainproblems,asitsusegreatlysimplifies
thecalculations.
Cavities:
x Ifanairspaceorcavityisenclosedwithinabody,throughwhichtheheattransferisconsidered,
thiswillofferanotherbarriertothepassageofheat.
Convention:
Therateofheattransferinconventiondependsonthreefactors:
1. Temperaturedifference
2. TherateofmovementofthecarryingmediumintermsofKg/s.
3. ThespecificheatofthecarryingmediuminJ/metrecube.DegC.
Radiation:
x Inradiationheattransfertherateofheatflowdependsonthetemperaturesoftheemittingand
receivingsurfacesandoncertainqualitiesofthesesurfacestheemittanceandabsorbance.
x Radiationreceivedbyasurfacecanbepartlyabsorbedandpartlyreflected.
x Light colored, smooth and shiny surfaces tend to have a higher reflectance. For the perfect
reflectivetheoreticalwhitesurface:r=1,a=0
x Theperfectabsorber,thetheoreticalblackbodywouldhavethecoefficientsr=0,a=1.
x Thewavelengthofemittedradiationdependsonthetemperatureoftheemitter.Thesunwithits
surfacearound5500degC.
x Bright metal foils are successfully used for insulation in situations where heat is transmitted
mainlybyradiation.
x Radiationincidentonaplanesurfacecanbemeasuredinstrumentallyanditsintensitydescribed
intermsofW/metersquare.

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Solairtemperature:
x For building design purpose it is useful to combine the heating effect of radiation incident on a
buildingwiththeeffectofwarmair.
x The incident radiation increases the surface temperature far above the air temperature, thus
someheatisdissipatedtotheoutdoorairimmediately.
x Thegreaterthesurfaceconductancevalue,themoreheatwillbedissipated.
Solargainfactor:
x The solar gain factor is defined as the heat flow rate through the construction due to solar
radiationasafractionoftheincidentsolarradiation.
x Itmightbeusefultoconsiderthecombinedeffectofreflectivesurfacesandthermalinsulation.
x Its value should not exceed 0.04 in warmhumid climates or 0.03 in the hotdry season of
compositeclimates,whenventilationisreduced.
x Theconstantvalueforexternalsurfaceconductanceas:Fo=20W/metresquare.DegC.
Heatexchangeofbuildings:
Thethermalbalancetheexistingthermalconditionismaintainedif
Q1+Qs+Qc+Qv+QmQe=0
Ifthesumofthisequationislessthanzero(negative),thebuildingwillbecooling,andifitismore
thanzero,thetemperatureinthebuildingwillincrease.
ConductionheatflowratethroughawallofagivenareacanbedescribedbytheequationQc=A
xUxT
Conventionheatflowratebetweentheinteriorofabuildingandtheopenairdependsontherate
ofventilation.
Therateofventilationheatflowisdescribedby:Qv=1300xVxT
Internalheatgain:
Heatoutputfromabody(insidethebuilding)isaheatgainforthebuilding.
Thetotalrateofenergyisemissionofelectriclampscanbetakenasinternalheatgain.Thelarge
partofthisenergyemittedasheat(95%forincandescentlampsand79%forfluorescentlamps.
Theemittedlightwhenincidentonsurfaceswillbeconvertedintoheat.Therateofcoolingby
evaporationcanonlybemeasurediftherateofevaporationitselfisknown.
Iftheevaporationrateisexpressedinkg/h,thecorrespondingheatlossratecanebefound:
Qe=666XKg/h.
Heatgainisusuallycalculatedforthepurposesofairconditiondesign.
Condensation: when the RH reaches 100%, i.e., saturation, dew or condensation appears. The
temperatureatwhichthishappensisreferredtoasdewpointtemperature.
Mostbuildingmaterialsareporousandofferlittleresistancetothepassageofvapour.Iftheinsidehumid
airpenetratesthewall,whenitreachesalayerhavingatemplessthanitsowndewpointtemp.Moisture
willcondense.Thisphenomenonisknownasinterstitialcondensation.
Buildingmaterialsinhotclimate:

Te exposure conditions encountered in hot regions markedly differ from those in temperature
climate. In this respect, particular attention should be given to solar radiation, high temperature,
elevatedhumidity,andsomeotherfactors.
Solarradiationeffects:
1. Thermaleffects
2. Chemicaltransformations
3. Incentivezoning
Polymerizationordinationoforganicmaterials,suchaspaints,asphalts,bitumens,plasticsand
rubber.
Effectsonwallsduetolightoncracks&weakenedconnectionsbetweenstructuredconnections.
Timber,whichisaninherentlywaterbearingmaterial,losesmoistureandhencewraps&cracks.

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Plainandreinforcedconcretewithahighaluminacementcontentandsometypesofgypsum
plasteraregiventorecrystalizationwhenexposedtoelevatedtemperatures.
Inhotairarea,thedurabilityofbuildingmaterialandstructuresisaffectedbytheirfoulingwithdust
andsandparticles.
Dustandsandalsofoulequipment,mechanisms,windowhinger&doorlocks.
Dust and sand particles give rise to erosion when they come in to contact with unpainted metal
surfaces.
Accumulationofsandanddustonrootsmaycausethecollapseofthebearingmembers,whichis
whyperiodicinspectionandcleaningofrootstructuresisamustinsuchregions.
Concreteandstonefindthemostextensiveapplicationinhotregions,becomeoftheirdurability.
Stonesandcementinhumidareasisquiteachallengingproblem,sincethematerialstendstotake
upmoistureandCO2fromtheairandhardenspermanently.
Metalshaveprovedtheirworthinhotregionsasbearing&filterelements.
Aluminum&copperalloysoffergoodresistancetoclimaticfactors.
Asfarglass,theusualformofwearistheabrasionbysanddust.
Themarginalportionsofaglasspaneareshadedbythecasement,sothetemperaturedifference
withinthesamepanemayrunto20qCsometimescausingbreakage.
Asbestos cement is a poor choice for exposed structures in hot climate regions. It frequently
cracksincyclicheatingandcooling.
Paintsandplasticsaresubjecttorapiddestructionbyincreasedsolarradiationwhichintensities
physical,chemical&photochemicalprocesses.
Paintsresistanceincreasebyaddingasbestostopaintsandpoliticizestoplastics.
Elevatedhumiditybringsaboutswellingandpointedcorrosionandmayspurthedevelopmentof
mouldandalgal.
Rugged&reliableastheyareintemperatureclimateregions,bituminousmaterialsandsealants
losemuchoftheirdurabilityinhotareas.
Principlesoflightingandillumination:
x Visualresponses:thesensitivesurfaceoftheeye,theretina,automaticallyadjustsitselftothe
amount of light falling upon it, and this enables to the amount of light falling upon it, and this
enablestheeyetoperformusefullyoveranextremelywiderangeofbrightness.
x Thismechanismofadaptationishowever,limitedinthesensethatatanyinstantonlyaportion
ofitsrangecanbeuseful.
x Eyescanseethethingsclearlyaboveorbelowtheadoptionlevel.
x Thisinabilityoftheeyestoadaptthemselvestowidelycontrastingdegreesofbrightnessisatthe
rootofmostlightingproblems.
x Theeffectsaretermedcollectivelyasglare.
x Discomfort:thedegreeofdiscomfortwilldependonthebrightnessofthesourcerelativetothe
brightnessofthebackground.Example:motorcarheadlight.
x Source area: a lamp close to the eyes causes more discomfort than the same lamp in the
distance.Inotherwordsdiscomfortisdependentontheareaofthebrightsource.
x Additiveeffects:theeffectsofglaresourcesareadditivethatistosay,alargenumberofsmall
sources cause the same degree of discomfort as a small number of large sources of the same
brightness.
x Relationship between Brightness of Surroundings: another factor of major importance in
practice is that, if the brightness of the source is increased, the brightness of the surroundings
must be increased by more than a proportional extent in order to maintain the same degree of
comfort.
x MorelightwouldhavetobethrownontothewallsandceilingorelselighterColourwouldhaveto
beusedinthedirection.
x In natural lighting the discomfort caused by bright cloud seen through a window is more
pronounced than that caused by a blue sky of low brightness even though the cloudy sky
increasestheroomsilluminationinproportiontoitsownhigherbrightness.

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x
x
x
x
x
x
x

x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x

x
x
x
x

EffectofVeryBrightConditions:indaylightandsunlight,degreesofbrightnessapproachthe
upperlimittowhichtheeyecanadaptitselfandprogressivelymorediscomfortisfeltirrespective
ofsurroundingconditions.
With very bright skies large windows cause more discomfort than small ones to increase the
brightnessofthesurroundingswillnotreducediscomfortbutwillincreaseit.
Contrast grading: A sharp jump of brightness from a light source to the area surrounding it
causes discomfort, but grading the brightness between the two reduces it. The practical
applicationofthisisknownascontrastgrading.
Angle of Displacement: A glare source, which is uncomfortable when, viewed directly is
acceptablewhenremovedbeyond50qfromthedirectionofvision.
Thisfactorchieflydeterminestheangleofcutoffrequiredtoscreenalampbecause,fornormal
tasks,visionisgenerallyhorizontalorbeloweyelevel.
Industrial fittings rarely have a cutoff greater than 20 degrees, which is clearly inadequate, but
therearesignsthatupto40or50degreeswillbeemployedinthefuture.
ShapeofGlareSource:recentstudiesindicatethatalongsourcemaintainedhorizontallyisno
more glaring than a square source, but that a long source mounted vertically increases
discomfort. Thus a fluorescent tube set vertically will be more glaring than one set horizontally,
andatallwindowwillbemoreglaringthanalongwindowofequalarea.
Disability: Disability alone arises when there are low levels of illumination where the lighting is
fromverylargesourcesoflowbrightness,as,forex:fromalargewindowonadullday,froma
largelaylight,orwhenthesourceisanindirectlylightedceiling.
Disabilityeffectsaredependentnotonthebrightnessofthesourcebutonitsintensity,thatis,on
thetotalamountoflightreachingtheeyes,i.e.areaxbrightness.Disabilityeffectsareworstin
theareaclosesttothesource.
TheTaskanditsSurroundings:Visualperceptionoffinedetailisatitsbestwhentheworkor
thethingwearelookingatisalittlebrighterthanitssurroundings.
Lostofvisualacuityoccurswhenthebrightnessofthesurroundingareaiseitherverymuchlower
orhigherthanthepointofinterest,butthelossisgreaterwhenthesurroundingareaisbrighter.
Disabilityismoremarkedwhenthetaskissmall.
Severeconditionsofdisabilityarealmostalwaysaccompaniedbydiscomfort,orevenpain,andit
issometimesnoteasytodistinguishvisualdiscomfortcausedbyactualdifferencesofbrightness
fromthementaldiscomfortorirritationofnotbeingabletoseeathingproperly.
Attentiveness:Oneofthemostinfluentialofthenumerousfactorstobeborneinmindbylighting
designersisthattheeyeisattractedtolightsources.Thetermphototropismhasbeencoined
recentlytodescribethisreflexaction.
Phototropismisinstinctive:wetendtolookatthebrightestandmostcontrastythingsinaview,
andalsoatmovingthings.
TherelationshipbetweenAttention,ComfortandAcuity:Maximumphototropiceffectoccurs
when the area of interest is very bright and the surroundings are very dark maximum acuity
occurswhenthesurroundingsarealittlelessbrightthanthepointofinterestmaximumcomfort
occurswhenthepointofinterestanditssurroundingsareequalbrightness.
Clearly,there,conditionsproducingstrongvisualattractionarenotcomfortableanddonotresult
ingoodvisualacuity.
On the other hand, the conditions producing good acuity are not comfortable in the sense that
they require a field of view of uniform brightness, which cannot provide a resting place for the
eye.
Effect of background to visual task on Acuity, Comfort and Attention: Each of the visual
factorsdiscussedherehaveagreaterorlesserinfluenceonbuildingandlightingdesign.
Certainofthemwillexertthemselvesstronglyinparticularproblems.Thus,forextheeffectof
the shape of a glare source is of comparatively little significance in most artificial lighting
installations as there are few situations in which a vertical source can be efficient and give
adequatedistributionoflightbutindaylightingitmaybeacriticalfactorasitaffectsthedesign
ofwindows.
Forgeneralguidancetodesigners,thefollowingconclusionsemergeclearlyfromthesefactors

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1) Theobjectofattentionshouldbethebrightestpartofthefieldofview.
2) The local surround to the object of attention and the general background should be of
progressivelylowerbrightness.
3) Thesourcesoflightshouldbelimitedinbrightnessandarea,andshouldbegradedinto
theirsurroundings.
x Emotional Responses: Emotions range from happiness to sorrow, excitement to depression,
calmtoirritationwork,personality,companyandenvironmentaffectthem.
x MostofthesubjectiveeffectsoflightingprobablycomeunderthegeneralheadingStimulation.
Anenvironmentwithoutsparkleandcontrastsinbrightnessislikelytobedepressingthelackof
stimulationinducesinattentionandsleepiness.
x Indirectlighting,forexproducesjustthesereactionsbecausetheilluminationiswhollydiffused
andhencewithoutcontrast.
x It has been observed that what is commonly understood to be Gloom in brightness contrast:
toplightedmuseumsarenotoriousfortheirgloominess
x The gloom is caused not so much by lack of light as by disability glare which prevents the eye
fromseeingintowholeareasofdetail.
x If the contrasts are very sharp, we experience discomfort also it is likely enough that the
combinationofdiscomfortanddisabilityleadtoanemotionalstateofirritation.
Naturallight:
x Themeasurementofdaylight:
x Thedaylightatapointindoorsismeasured,inthesamewayastheeye,asapercentageof
theilluminationoutside,appraisesit.TheratioistermedaDaylightFactor(D.F)
x D.Fisoftenconfusedwithaskyfactorasimilarratiousedtoexpressonlydirectlightfrom
theskyaDaylightfactorincludesallreflectedlight.
x TheDesignofWindows:
x Theshapeandsizeofawindowaffectsthedistributionoflightandthefollowingsimplerules
givegeneralguidance:
1. The height of a window chiefly determines the penetration of daylight width has
comparativelylittleinfluence.
2. Generally, a high window, area for area, is more efficient not only because it gives good
penetration but because it provides a larger day lighted area within a given sky factor
counter.

Housing:
i
i
i

Introduction
There has been an enormous increase in the level of urbanization in the third world in the last 4
decades.
India is a poor country with a large part of its population working in informal and formal sector. In
198485,nearly37%ofitspopulationlivedbelowthepovertyline.
In India, the estimate of inadequate housing of urban population is as high as 2025%. It has
continued to deteriorate over the last 30 years. The urban poor are hit very badly, cannot afford a
housewithminimumbasicamenitiesandthereforetrytofindashelterfortheminareasthatlackthe
servicesessentialforahealthyandadequatelife.
Provision of housing and urban services to the urban poor is one of the most critical challenges of
thirdworldGovernments.Thesituationisparticularlydeplorableinlargetownsandcities,especially
inthemetropolitanareaswhereonethirdofcity'spopulationiseitherpavementdwellersorlivingin
slumsandsquattersettlements.

Housingtheurbanpoor

Theurbanpoorpopulationconstitutes8croreinthetotalpopulationofIndia.Theurban
poorlivewhichisasfollows:
Inauthorizedslums

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Inunauthorized/illegalsettlementsalongrailwaytracks,neargarbage.
Onstreetsandpavements
Cityoutskirts
Inmigrantorconstructioncolonies
Illegallyencroachingtheland

ThepresenceofslumsandsquatterpresentsclearlythefailureofthesocietyandtheGovt.toprovide
theadequatefacilities.Belowthedefinitionsofslumsandsquatterareasfollows:

Slum:whichindicatehousingthatfallsbelowacertainlevel,whichisnecessarytocontributeahuman
development.

Squatter:whichindicatehousingthatiseithertheresultofillegaloccupationorhasbeendevelopedin
anunauthorizedfashion.
Itdependsupontheconditions,characteristicsoftheoccupants.InIndia,
theymayconsistoflowincomeandlowstatuspersonswhohavebeenforcedtoliveoutsidethebounds
oftenuredlandholdinginordertosurviveinanurbansetting.
Informalsector:theinformalsectorarisesforreasonsofeconomicsurvivalwhereformaljobcreation
lags behind urban population growth. Housing has various relationships to the informal sector. Informal
sectorpovertyleadstoinformalsquattersettlementsandpavementdwellings.Industrialworkersmostly
inhabit the slums or other formal sector workers, which reveals the shortage of land and dwelling units
arisingintheprocessofindustrializationandcommercialization.
Strategiesforhousingtheurbanpoor

Housingstrategiesfortheurbanpoorneedaholisticandmultiprongedapproachcoveringmanyaspects
foremostamongthemwouldbeensuringadequatesupplyofservicedland.
Thenationalreportforhabitathasfocusedonthefollowingstrategiestoimprovethe
availabilityoflandforurbanhousingingeneralandhousingforthepoorinparticular:

Landdevelopmentshouldbeajointactivityofthepublicsectorandprivatesector,includingtheco
operativesectorwithadequatesafeguardstoprotectthelowerincomegroups.
Promotionofoptimumutilizationoflandandreleasinglandsintotheurbanmarket.
Developmentofanautomatedandcadastralandlandtiltingsystemthroughoutthecountryinorderto
ensureeffectivefunctioningoflandmarket.
Cross subsidization can be used effectively for making affordable housing accessible to the urban
poor.
Many developed and developing countries have used the system of inclusionary zoning for making
availablelandandhousingtothepoor.
It would be essential to create a land bank for the urban poor in order to facilitate the process of
makingthemavailabletheaffordableshelter.

Approaches
The standards, in terms of space and materials, were too high and the resultant cost of housing was
beyond the paying capacity of the poor. This approach requires lot of finance that was meager. The
earliestresponseofthissituationwasatechnologicalapproach,whichsoughttoreducethegapbetween
costandaffordabilitybydevelopingtechnologicalalternativesforlowcosthousing.Thisapproachhadits
ownlimitations.
Anotherapproachadoptedwasslumclearanceandtherelocationofslumdwellers
into publicly built, highly subsidized standard housing units. Again this approach made even the
cheapesthousebuiltundersocialhousingschemesbeyondthemeansofthetargetgroup.
Theinadequateunderstandingofthemagnitudeandnatureofhousingproblems
resulted in a large proliferation of slums and squatter settlements in towns and cities. Now the govt.
understoodthattheapproachthatistobemadeshouldnotbeaconstructiveone.

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In terms of planned efforts slum improvement, selfhelp housing, incremental housing, sites and
servicesetc.hasemergedasalternativestohousingproblemsoftheurbanpoor.Alltheseapproaches
acceptamodelofprogressivehouseconstructionfocusingonprovisionofsecuretenureandarangeof
basicservices.
Duringthe1950sand1960s,thealmostuniversalresponsetoslumsandsquatter
settlementswastoconstructpublichousing.Frommid60sadifferentapproachbegantobeconsidered:
insteadofconstructingstandardhousesforthemselvesi.e.selfhelphousing.
This approach translated into execution of two main types of projects: sites and services and slum
upgrading. Upgrading involves legalization of tenure and installation of infrastructure. Some countries
have given priority to one of the approaches, whereas in some countries both have been implemented
simultaneously.

Impactofselfhelphousing
Ingeneral,selfhelphousingprojectshaveperformedbetterinregardtoaffordabilityand
accessibility when compared to conventional housing. With regard to the impact of selfhelp housing
programmes on urban housing. Malawi is the only country where a substantial number of the urban
populationisahousedinsitesandserviceshouse.Selfhelphousinginterventionshavebeenaffectedby
anumberofproblemsandconstraints.Selfhelphousingseekstobringdownthencostofhousingand
makeithowever,thereappearstobereluctanceonthepartofGovt.tolowerstandards.
SiteandServices

Inthe'siteandservices'approach,eachfamilyisprovidedwithasmallplot,whichis
servicedwithawatertap,stormwaterdrainage,asewerageconnectionandapavedaccesswithstreet
lighting.Thelevelofservicingvarieswiththebeneficiary'sabilitytopay.Thesiteandservicesapproach
hasvariousadvantages:

Itcancoverbeneficiariesofverylowincomegroupswithoutheavysubsidesthusreducingfinancial
burdenonpublicagencies.
This approach incorporates the concept of progressive development of services and facilities
dependingontheresourceavailabilityandgrowthofsettlement.
Itallowspeopletoundertakeincrementalhousingconstructionataspeedthatmatchestheirneeds
andtheirneedsandabilitytogenerateresources.

Limitations
Ithasitsownlimitationslike:
Weaknessintheimplementationprocess.
Failureinthelocation
Thebeneficiaries,primarilyintendedtobefromEWS,needtoliveclosetotheirworkplaceinorderto
keeptheirtravelcostandnonavailabilityoflandinprimelocationsresultsinmanyoftheseprojects
beinglocatedintheperipheralareasofurbancenters.So,thesesettlementsremainunoccupied.
Incrementalhousing
ThelowincomehouseholdsinIndiasuffernotonlyfromshortageofcashfordown
payment but also from lack information. Lack of information is also a major factor responsible for lower
incomegroupstobekeptoutoftheorganizedsectorhousing.Theconceptof'incrementalhousing'has
not found acceptance within the Govt./formal sector and hence, the poor performance, have to depend
upontheinformalsectorfortheirhousingneeds.
Whetheritisaruralorurbanarea,landavailabilityandlandtenureformthebaseof
thehousingproblem.Inurbanareas,thereisnosuchschemeandthepriceofurbanlandbeingwhatit
is,itisbeyondthereachofthepoor.Consequently,resultinginlandencroachmentbythepoor.Also,the
lowincome group households tend to buy unauthorized plots from private developers who" illegally"
convertagriculturallandintoresidentialcolonies.Thelegalstatusoftheselandsisalsonotveryclearas

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mostofthesearesoldon"PowerofAttorney"sincelawprohibitsevensubdivisionofruralholdings.While
noenumerationhasbeenmadesofar,itisfeltthatgrowthofsquatterandunauthorizedcoloniesismuch
faster than those of regular housing in urban areas in India. The task force on Housing and Urban
DevelopmentappointedbyPlanningCommissionofferedtwoestimates:
.
TheslumActsofvariousstateshavegivenlegitimacytonotifiedslumsandtheir
improvementhasbecomeamatterofstatepolicy,themostneglectedareaisthesocalledunauthorized
colonies consisting of economically weaker sections who have some income to become eligible for a
housingloan.
ItmayalsobenotedthatthestateofMadhyaPradeshistheonlystateinIndia,whichhasgrantedsecure
landtenuretourbansquattersbypassinganactpopularlycalledthe"PattaAct".Itentitlesanylandless
personoccupyingupto50sq.moflandforresidentialpurposeson10thApril1984.
Government'sapproach

GovernmentofIndiaheavilydependedonothercountriesindealingwiththeslum
problem. As regards policy towards slums and squatters, Govt. started off with a negative approach of
slumclearancewaybackinfiveyearplans.Slumclearancemustaimatimprovingthecity'ssubstandard
localities as well as substandard residential buildings. Drastic action was taken to arrest the growth of
unauthorizedhutsonvacantlands.Suchconstructionsserveasanucleusforthecreationofnewslums.
But it could not implement success. National Commission on urbanization set during seventh fiveyear
planalsolookedintotheproblemofhousingtheslumdwellersandinformalsector.Recommendationsfor
housingtheurbanpoorin1988,whichisasfollows:
1. Housingpolicymustaimatincreasingthesupplyofservicedlandandlowcostshelter,improvingand
upgradingslumsandconservingtheexistingstock.
2. The state must facilitate housing and ensure access to basic inputs. It should not become a real
estatedeveloper.
3. The sites and services program should be extended to cover an entire cross section of society.
Besidesprovidinghousing,theprogramshouldbeusedtogenerateemployment.
4. Public agencies in the housing sector should be restructured for fulfillment of their new role as
facilitatorsratherthanprovidersofhousing.
Government action as such is the only effective measure for securing adequate supply of
housingbecauseoftheverynatureofthehousingmarket.Itisunderstoodthatwiththepresentrate
of growth of population, it will take time for the authorities to provide a home for each and every
family.Thusamassiveprogramhastobelaunchedbyourcountryforprovidinghousesfortheurban
poor,whichinvolveshugecapitalcost.
COMMUNITYPLANNING:
DEFINITION:
j Communityisaninteractingpopulationofvariouskindsofindividualsinacommonspace.
j Agroupofpeoplewithacommoncharacteristicorinteresttogetherwithalargercity.
Essentialelementsofacommunity:
j
j
j

Group of people: community is a group of human beings it cant even be imagined with out a
groupofhumanbeing.
Definitelocality:thefirstconditionofthecommunityisdefinitelocality.
Community sentiment: a community is a local area which people using the same mores,
languages,feelingmoreorlesscommonsentimentsandactinguponthesameattitudes.

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j
j
j

Permanency: A community is not transitory and temporary like a crowd. For it is essentially a
permanentlifeinadefiniteplace.
Natural: Communities are not made or created by an act of will but these are natural. An
individualisborninacommunityitisbyvirtueofthecommunitythathedevelops.
Particular name: Every community has some particular name, which is expressive of the
individualityorpersonalityofitslocality.

EFFACTEDFACTORSINTHEGROWTHOFCOMMUNITY:
i

ThegrowthofcommunityisnotcausedbyanyonefactorvariousfactorslikeGeographic,Social,
EconomicandEcologicalfactorshavebeenactiveparticipantinthisgrowth.

GeographicFactors:
ThemoreimportantofthiskindoffactorisLand,WaterandClimate.
i
i
i

Land:Themostimportantgeographicalortopographicalwithrespecttopermanentcommunityis
landinthisboththefertilityandthelayoutofthelandareimportant.
Water:Thefacilitiesofwaterhasmuchtodowiththegrowthofcommunitiesatanyparticular
localityitisalmostinconceivablethatcommunitiescancomeupwherewaterisnotavailable.
Climate: The climate of a place is also an important factor in the growth of village or urban
community.

Socialfactors:
Socialfactorsinthegrowthofcommunitiesincludepeace,security,Cooperationandbusiness
etc.
Peace:forapermanentandhealthydevelopmentofcommunitiesitisessentialthatthereshouldbe
externalandinternalpeace.
Security:Peaceisbasedonsecurity,thepermanentlygrowthofcommunitiesbeingImpossiblein
theabsenceofthelatter.
Cooperation:Communitydevelopmentisdifficulttoachievewhenthereisnocooperation.
i

In the villages people are so close to each other that they cannot make progress with out co
operation.
Intelligenceandbusiness:thebiggestsinglesocialfactorresponsibleforthegrowthofavillageor
urbancommunitiesistheintelligence,ExThecreditfortheimprovedconditionsofcommunities
mustgototheirBusinessandIntelligence.
i

Migration: The movement of people from place in their search for better living conditions is a
potentfactorinthedemandfornewhousesorcommunities.

Economicfactors:
EconomicfactorsinthegrowthofcommunitiesincludesthecommunitiesAgricultureandCottage
Industriesetc.,
Agriculture:Eventodaythemainstaysofthevillagecommunityisagricultureandtheirgrowth
dependsuponthestateofagriculture.
Industries:Industriesareaveryimportanteconomicfactorinthegrowthofthecommunity.

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Theseindustriesprovideameansoflivelihoodtolandlesspeopletheyalsooffer,meansofutilization
oftheleisure.
Ecologicalfactors:
Thewayoflivingofdifferentpeoplerefersfromtowntotownorvillagetovillageaccordingtothevariation
inecologicalfactor.
TherearesomeecologicalelementsofthecommunityisPopulation,Distancefromthetown,Geographic
location.
Population:Itspopulationconsiderablyinfluencesthelifeofacommunity.
j
When population increases the villages are denoted by the term town while a further
increaseleadstothesameunitbeingcalledacitybecausetheincreaseinpopulationalsomeans
the construction or establishments of markets, increase in the no of shops where new
commodities available, the opening schools and colleges and the arrangements of police and
othersecuritymeasures.
Distancefromthetown:Thecommunityisalsoinfluencedconsiderablybythefactorofitsdistancefrom
thetown.
j
Thesuburbanorvillageswhichareatagreatdistancefromthetowncommoditiessuch
ascosmetics,newclothes,fashionableobjectsarenotavailableinvillages,northepeopleofthe
villageareinclosecontactwiththepeopleinthetowninrespectofeconomicorsocialstatus.
Geographic location: In the villages situated if forests, mountains, plains, in the Polar Regions there
apparentlyasomedifferentinrespectoftheirsocio,economic,culturalandpoliticallife.
**********************************************************
Designofresidentialareas:
Theresidentialareastobecarefullydesignedwithrespecttobefollowingaspects:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Aesthetics
Basicmaterials.
Housingunit
Layout
Sizeandshape
Streetsystem

`****The credit of designing the first true skyscraper goes to Major William L.jennyan architect of
Chicago.
AgenciesforHousing
Followingarethethreeagencies,whichmaybeconsideredresponsiblefortheconstructionofhouses:
1. Government.
2. Cooperativehousingsocieties.
3. Individuals.
Housingschemesdemandhighinitialcapitalcostandbecauseofthelongdurabilityofmanyhouses,the
netadditionprovestobeofmarginalnature.GovthasintroducedTheurbanland(ceilingandregulation)
act,1976whichmainlyaimsatsecuringexcessurbanvacantlandsinprivatehandsfordevelopmentof
housesofacceptablestandardsfortheweakersectionsofthesociety.
Someoftheobjectivesinhousingpolicy:

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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Itshouldbeacomprehensivepolicy.
Checkthepopulationsgrowth
Haphazardgrowthshouldbeprevented.
Ensureadequatefinancialprovisions.
Lowcosttechniques.

2.Cooperativehousingsocieties:
Firstisthesaraswathcooperativehousingsociety1915.
At present, this agency become very popular because of encouragement at government level with
respecttotwomainaspectsofhousing,namely,
1.Acqusitionoflandatreasonablepriceand
2.Financialhelpintheformofloanstobepaidininstallmentsatlowratesofinterest.
Agroupofhouseseekingpersonscombineandformalegalbody,knownashousingsociety.
INVESTMENT IN HOUSING: it is estimated that housing project worth Rs.1 crore per year will provide
jobstoabout8000menandwomendirectlyandindirectly.
The investment in housing results in overall increase in productivity of economy in the following three
ways:
1. Itincreasesthemobilityofmanpower.
2. Itpromotessocialdevelopment.
3. ItprovidesanincentivetoproductiveLabour.
Amassiveinvestmentinhousingmaybetakenupinthefollowingorder:
1. Slumimprovementscheme.
2. Urbanhousing.
3. Ruralhousing.
HUDCO:TheHousingAndUrbanDevelopmentCorporationwassetupin1970anditsmainfunctioning
istopromotehousingandurbandevelopmentprogrammesinthecountry.
HUDCOservesastheApexcontrolAgencyformobilizationoffinancialresourcesforhousingandurban
developmentprogrammes.
OneofthemainobjectivesofHUDCOisalsotofinanceorundertakethesettingupofbuildingmaterial
industries because of the fact that building materials constitute about 70% of the total cost of the
construction.
CIDCO:CITYANDINDUSTRIALDEVELOPMENTCORPORATION.
Undercompaniesact.
The functions of CIDCO are planning, implementation, administration and maintenance of the New
Bombayandotherareaswhichmaybeentrustedtoitbythegovernment.
ThenewprojectisMRT(massrapidtransit).
The main objective of CIDCO is take off the everincreasing load of the existing cities by providing,
among other things, housing and social amentias for the population in these carefully selected urban
growthcentres.
Eg.NewAurangabad,NewNasik,NewNanded
.NETWORKSANDSERVICES:
Therearefiveimprolesfortownplanner:

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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Strategyformulation
Integratednetworksandservicesdevelopment
Monitoringnetworksandservicesdevelopment
Reservationoflandfornetworksandservices
Reducingthedevelopmentcostofland

1.WATERSUPPLY
Quality:Drinkingwatermustfreefrompathogens.
Temp:Shouldbecool(desirable50degreesFandgenerallylessthan80).
Turbidity:isshallbebetween2.5andlessthan10partspermillion(p.p.m)
Turbidityisanaccountofsuspendedandcolloidalinorganicmattersuchassalt,clayandmudparticle.
At20p.p.m,wateriscloudy.At100p.p.mitisdistinctlyturbid.
Colour:fordrinkingpurposewatershouldbelessthan10p.p.m.Colourisduetoorganicandinorganic
compound.
Themax.Permissibleamountofmanganeseandironcompoundforwaterdistributionisbetween0.3to
0.6p.p.m.
Odour and taste: is due to the presence of microscopic organic matter like sodium, chloride, and
carbonates.
Canberemovedbyaerationandfiltration.
Organicpollution:contaminationofwaterwithorganicmatterisindicatedbythepresenceofnitrogenin
water.
Urinecontainsbothammoniaandchloride.
Oxygen: organic life in natural water needs oxygen for life. The amount thus consumed is known as
biochemicaloxygendemand(B.O.D)
Salt:sodiumchloridemorethan250p.p.mmakesthewaterunpalatable.
Alkanity:isduetopresenceofmineralsaltsdissolvedinwater.
Hardness:isduetothepresenceofbicarbonates,sulphatesandchloridesofcalciumandmagnesium.
Measure: one grain of calcium carbonate in onegallon water is one degree of hardness, which is
equivalentto14p.p.m
PHvalue:hydrogenionconcentration.
PH+pOH=14
_<7acidand_>7isalkaline.
Sedimentation,filtrationandsterilization:
Theprocessofremovingsuspendedimpuritiesiscalledsedimentation
RemovingofSmallerparticleandbacteriabyFiltration.
Sterilizationmeanskillingofbacteriabyaddingchlorine,ammonia,andozoneorUVtreatment.
QUANTITYOFURBANWATERSUPPLY:
Dependsuponpop,climate,typeofsewerage.
Population:economicstatus(higherstatususemorewater)
Designperiod:30years.
Publicwatersupply:inIndia.
Upto10,00070100litersperday.
1050,000100125
Above50,000125200
Rateofsupply:max.Seasonaldemandismaybe1.3timesaverageannualdemand.
Peakfactor:

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Upto50,0003timestheavgrateofwatersupply.
50,0002,00,0002.5
Above2,00,0002times
Pressure:7mforsinglestore,12mdouble,17mforthreeand22forfourstoreybuildings.
Thegroundwaterisunderconstantmovement.Itsvelocity,whichisafunctionofspeed,anddirection
canbestudiedwiththeuseofdyes.
Annualrainfallismeasuredfor35years.
Theamountofwateravailableatthereservoirsitemaybecomputedasfollows:
W=RXAXP
W=theamountofwateravailableincubicmeters.
R=annualrainfallinm
A=catchmentareainsq.m
P=thelikelypercentofrunoffforthatyear.
Volumeofthereservoir=
V=(H/6)*(A1+A3+4A2)
Histhecontourintervals.A1,A2,A3arethethreesuccessivecontourintervals.
Distributionsystemcharacteristics:dependon
Street patterns, topography, degree and type of development of the area, location of treatment and
storagetank.
Pipespecifications:distributionpipesshallnotbelessthan150mmindiameterintheIndianmetropolitan
citiestomeetfirefighting.
Otherurbanareas100mm
Purifiedwaterisavailablefromwateratconstantrate,butthedemandofwaterchangeswithhourandat
peakhourtherateofdemandisveryhigh.
The operating storage can be determined from mass diagram or hydro graph (time discharge graph.)
massdiagramisaplotbetweencumulativedemandofwaterandtime.
Nomographcanbeusedinadvantagetodesignthepipediameter.
UsingHazenWilliamsequationisasgivenbelow:
V=1.318c,R,S
Wherev=velocityifft/sec,s=hydraulicscope,R=hydraulicradius
R=A/P
Fromthisinformationconstructamapofpressurecontoursandorhydraulicgradientline(HGL)
2.SANITATIONSYSTEM
MainreasoninIndiaisurbanization
Theconventionalseweragewasconsideredawondertechnologyinwhichallexcretaandallpathogens
weretransportedawayfromhouseholdtothetreatmentplant.
Conventionalseweragerequirescontinuouswatersupply.

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Whenadoptingconventionalseweragefromtemperatetotropicalcountry,septicandincreasedblockage
of excreta in pipes makes this technology less satisfactory. High temperature accelerates biological
degradation in the pipes and so depletes the dissolved oxygen and become anaerobic in tropical
temperature.
FACTORSINFLUENCINGSANITATIONTECHNOLOGYOPTIONS:
1. Watersupplylevels
2. Lowcostsanitationoptions
3. WastetreatmentMethods
4. Resourcerecovery
5. Healthandsocioeconomiccriteria
6. Appropriatesanitationtechnologyforurbandistricts
a. Conventionalcommercial,industrial,highclassresidential
b. Aquaprivyorsewerageusingwastestabilizationnewmediumclassareas
c. Pitlatrinestemporaryoccupation
d. Sulabhcongestedresi,areas,slums,squattersettlements,neglectedurbanvillages
3.URBANDRAINAGE:
Sewercanbedividedintobuildingsewers,lateralsewers,mainsewers,interceptorsandoutfallsewers.
Buildinglateralline=min100mandslope2%sizeis4inches
Lateralalateralhasnootherconnectionssewertributaryexceptbuildingconnectionstheminimum
diameteris200mm(8in)
Interceptorslargesewerpipelines.
Manholes:manholesareinstalledateverychangeofslope,directionofsewerlines,changeofsewer
size,andsewerconnection.
Maximumspacingis50120m(150400ft)
Calculations:
Percapitasolidwasteproduction:dependsupon
Standardofliving,wateruse,climatefactor
Inaridarea40%waterusedreachesthesewer.Inintensivelydevelopedarea9080%
Therunoffreachingthesewerisgivenbytheexpression:
Q=10CiA
WhereQisrunoffincu.M/hec
Ccoefficient
iintensityofrainfallinmm/hec
Aistheareaofthedrainagedistrictinhectares.
Datarequirementforthelayoutofurbandrainagesystemincluderoadmap,locationoftheBuildingand
otherutilities,floorelevationofthebuilding,soil,topography,undevelopedareaandfutureexpansion.
Commonlyslopesarecalculatedassumingaminimumvelocityforadryweatherflowof0.6m/s(2fps)
whensewersareflowinghalffull.
Combinedsystem0.9m/s

PipeselectionNomograph(Manningformula).
4.URBANSOLIDWASTE:

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MUNCIPALCorporation,municipalityandnotifiedareacommitteesareentrustedwiththetaskofsolid
wastedisposal(swd).
Itcomprisesofhouseholdwaste,whichincludesputrescentandnonputrescentwastes,rubbish,and
oftenbulkywasteproducedbydiscardedoldfurniture,buildingmaterials,glassesetc.
Papers,glasses,plasticsandironmaterialsaresortedoutfromresidentialcoloniesandsoldoutbythe
classofragpickers.Henceallgenerateddoesnotreachthedisposalsites.
ThequantityofsolidwasteperpersonperdayinIndianurbanareahasbeenreportedraggingbetween
300to600g.
ThepercapitadailygenerationofsolidwastebyIndianhouseholdcanbeashighas0.75kg.
Notmorethan0.4kg/capita/dayforahigherurbandensityofpopulationlessthan20,000persq.km.
Thecalorificvalueofsolidwasteis1500kcal/kginmostcities.
HouseHandcartmunicipalvehicle
Landfilling,composing,recycling,pyrolysis,dryfuelmakingandincinerationarethetechnologyavailable
forsolidwastedisposal.
Indiansolidwasteischaracterizedbylowcalorificvalue,highmoisturecontentandhighquantityofnon
combustiblematerials.
LANDFILLING:
1. Sanitarylandfilling
2. Controlledtippinginlowlyingareas,adjacenttotheseaforlandreclamation.
3. Uncontrolledtippingonmunicipalland.
4. Uncontrolledtippingonprivateland.
5. Uncontrolledtippingintowater.
Themajorproblemairandwaterpollutioncanbeassociatedwithlandfilling.
COMPOSTING:thephysicalandchemicalofIndiancityrefuseshowedthat4060%ofitiscompostable
andthatithasadequatenutrients(NPK),moisturecontentof4050%andcarbontonitrogenratio25:1to
40:1.
Twomethodsofcompostingofurbansolidwasteispracticedbydifferent,_____
a) Pretreatmentandposttreatmentwindrowing
b) TheIndoreorBangaloremethod.
Incinerators burn refuses in an excess of oxygen atmosphere to achieve 8085 volumes and 60 to 65
weightreduction.
InRefuse/FuelRecoverysystem,solidwasteisfirstshreddedandseparatedintolightcombustibleand
heavynoncombustiblefractions.
Pyrolysis is the physical and chemical decomposition of organic matter by the application of 1 to 3000
degree F in the total or partial absence of oxygen. This produces heat, carbon dioxide and reduce the
volumeofrefuse.
5.FIREPROTECTION:
Inplanningforprotectioninacity,itisimportanttostartwiththedatabaseofallrecordsofoccurrenceof
firesinthelastfewdecadesbothbynumberandmagnitudeasmeasuredbyitsduration.
Causes:landuse,structuralcondition,andurbannetworksandservicesavailable.
Inacity,itisimportanttoidentifyandscaleallzones/partsbyscaleforvulnerabilityforfire.

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Location principle for fire station: fire stations shall be easily accessible to all industrial, business, ware
housing,institutionalandresidentialareas.
Range1.5km
For district requiring 9000gpm (567.1lit/s) or more these distance shall be 0.75 kms and for 4500 gpm
(283.5l/s)itshouldbe23kms.
Water for fire demand: the requirement of water for fire fighting in Q liters/ day may be calculated by
formulaforIndianconditions:
Q=100,000xp
WherePispopulationinthousands.
Allmajorbuildingshallbecertifiedbytheserviceforfirefightingcapabilityandpotential
vulnerability for fire. This will take into account the structural condition of the building,
availability of water for fire fighting, standard of electrical wiring and fire extinguisher
systems.
6.ELECTRICITY
Majortasks:
a. Shortandlongtermelectricalloadestimating
b. Identifyinglocalstandardsandconformingandworkingwithinthestandardslaidoutbylocal
legislativeactslikefactoryact,townandcountryplanningactandrulesandotherregulations
c. Layingouttheelectricalnetworksforthepresentandfuture.
Units:voltagecanbeconsideredasapush,whichcauseselectronstoflowinaconductor.
VoltorKilovoltistheunitofvoltage
Power(W)=voltagevxcurrenti
1KW=1.34HP
1HP=746W
Power:twotypes

1. Apparentpower(KiloVoltAmpereKVA)
2. Truepower.(Apparentpowerxpowerfactor)
Energyisthemeasureofworkdoneanditisthethereforeaproductofpowerandtime.

KilowattHouristheunitcommonlyused.(KWH).
Theratiobetweenaveragedemandandmaximumdemandiscalledloadfactor(L.F)
L.F=averageDemand/MaximumDemand
And
MaximumDemand=AverageDemand/loadfactor
Loadestimating:1year415voltor11KVA
23y33KV
Methodsforforecasting:insmallvacantlandundergoingdevelopment,averagehouseholdorinstitutional
demandisusedtoprojecttheloaddemand.
Naturalgrowthofloadcanbetabulatedandplottedonaloadversustimegraph.
Inanothermethodunitsandloadfactorsofunitsaretabulatedforpastyears.

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Anunderstandingoftheelectricalsupplysystemisthestartingpointforthedesignofthelayoutofthe
network. Electricity is generated in a power station. An 11KV/132KV transformer stepup the voltage
before it leaves the power station to the transmission line. Then it is fed into a primary grid substation,
which step down the voltage from 132k KV to 33 KV. From there it is transported to secondary sub
stationswhereitisfurthersteppeddownfrom33KVto11KVandfedintothesecondaryhighvoltage
distribution system. In the next stage it is further stepped down from 11 KV to 415V/220V low voltage
distributionsystem.
Asfarasrelativecostisconsideredundergroundnetworkcostmorethantheoverhead.Streetpattern
offersthelimitationforlayingoutthelowvoltele.Networks.
Cables are also laid under footpath. Cables laid in P.V.C duct can facilitate replacement but this
arrangementisexpensive.
DomesticLowvoltage
Commercial,industrial11KV
Majorindustrial33KV
7.COMMUNICATIONS:
Ithasanintegralpartofalleconomicactivity.
PSTNpacketswitcheddatanetworksprovides3typesoffacilities
Messagetransfer
Interactivecomputeraccess
Computercomputeraccess
LAN local area networks are the systems that are used to link the terminals, computers, word
processorsandotherdeviceslocatedwithinacompactarea.
CellularservicesfirstinstalledinNCR
1.
Aperspectiveplanisalongterm(2025years)writtendocumentsupportedbynecessarymaps
and diagrams providing the state government the goals, politics, strategies and general programmes of
theurbanlocalauthorityregardingspatioeconomicdevelopmentofthesettlementunderitsgovernance.
2.
A development plan conceived within the framework of the approved perspective plan, is a
mediumterm(generallyfiveyears)plan.Providingtothepeoplethecomprehensiveproposalsforsocio
economicandspatialdevelopmentoftheurbancentreindicatingthemannerinwhichtheuseoflandand
developmentthereinshallbecarriedoutbythelocalauthorityandotheragencies.
3.
An annual plan, conceived within the framework of development plan, is a plan containing the
details of new and ongoing projects that the local authority intends to implement during the respective
financialyearandforwhichnecessaryfiscalresourcesshallbemobilizedthroughplanfundsandother
sources.
4.
Conceivedwithintheframeworkofapproveddevelopmentplan,projects/schemesaredetailed
workinglayoutswithallsupportinginfrastructure,anddocumentsincludingcostofdevelopment,source
offinanceandrecoveryinstrumentsfortheirexecutionbyapublicorprivateagency.
ThepreparationofdevelopmentPlanisdonefollowingthetownandcountryplanninglegislationofthe
stateconcerned.
a) Declarationofintentiontopreparedevelopmentplan.
b) Declarationofappropriateauthoritytowhomtheresponsibilityofpreparationofthedevelopment
planisgiven.

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c) Provision for survey through a reference with an Existing land use map and existing land use
register.
d) Publicationofdraftplan.
e) Accommodatingtheprovisionofregionalplan.
f) Objectionandsuggestiontothedraftplan.
g) Modificationofdraftplan.
h) Finalizationandsubmissionoftheplan.
i) Approvalofdraftplan.
PLANNINGSURVEYS:
Planningmustbebaseduponknowledge,knowledgedependsuponinformationandinformationdepends
uponsurvey.
Physicalcharacteristics:thenature,scaleandformoftheenvironmentarethecanvasuponwhichthe
planispainted.Aknowledgeandrecordofthetopography,geology,climate,minerals,areasofspecial
interest,locationofrichagriculturallandandthesourcesofpollutionareprimerequirementsoftheland
useplanner.
Utilities:oneaspectthatisoftenneglectedandmuchmaligned,lackingasitdoesthecharismaticappeal
ofsomanyothermoretopicalelementsoftownplanning,isthedigestiveprocessofurbanareas.
Population:anappreciationofthesize,density,characteristicsanddistributionofthepopulation
isnearlyalwaysthestartingpointinthepreparationofallplansandpolicies.
Employment: the study of population leads naturally on to the need for jobs, demand for labour,
andtheconsequentlevelofunemploymentinalocal,regionalandnationalcontext.
Housing: From the location of employment springs the need for accommodation. The planner is
occupiedwiththetaskofascertaingthesize,condition,age,tenure,distribution,density,rateof
growthandoccupancyratesoftheexistingstockofhousing.
Shopping: to ensure the most appropriate location for retail facilities the planner is obliged to
assesstheneedsandpotentialofhislocalauthorityarea.
Education:althoughoftenseparatelydealtwithinlocalauthoritymanagement,theprovisionand
locationofeducationalfacilitiesislargelydependentuponpopulationsurvey,andananalysisof
thetrends,changes,andimplicationsintheirsocialcontext.
Leisure and recreation: with the growth in available leisure hours and the upsurge in demand for
recreation,thisareahasrapidlybecomeacceptedasamajorpartoftheplanningprocess.
Movement:oneoftheprincipalfactorscontributingtothesizeandnatureofurbandevelopmentis
accessibility, which in turn depends upon the degree of, and propensity for, movement. This
includesthemovementofbothpeopleandgoods,andhasgivenrisetoanentirelynewdiscipline,
withitsownlanguage,whichconcernsitselfwithsuchtasksasoriginanddestination,pedestrian
anddesirelinesurveys.
Management: with the growing awareness of the need for better organisation and administration,
bothinplanningandinlocalgovernment,therehasrecentlybeenexplosioninthedevelopment
andapplicationofmanagementtechniques.
Evaluation:althoghitisratherunusualtosingleoutonestageoftheplanningprocessandafford
itseparateattention,itisfromthiscriticalareaofselection.
Inthepreparationofanysurveyortheconstructionofanytechniqueitisessentialtorecognize
thattheythemselvesrequireplanning.Thecostmustbeestimated.

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Structureplans:
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
i
i

Aplanforacountryorlargeorimportanturbanarea,formulatingpolicyandgeneralproposals.
A structure plan relates to the social, economic, and physical system of an area so far as they are
subjecttoplanningcontrolorinfluence.
It is the planning framework for an area, including the distibution populations, the activities and
relationships between them, the patterns of land use, and the developments the activities create,
togetherwiththenetworkofcommunicationsandthesystemofutilityservices.
It is prepared by the local planning authority in cooperation with neighbouring authorities and
performsthefollowingfunctions:
Interpretingnationalandregionalpolicies.
Establishingaims,policies,andgeneralpropasals.
Providingaframeworkforlocalplans.
Indicatingactionplans.
Providingguidancefordevelopmentcontrol.
Providingabasisforcoordinatingdecisionsbetweendifferentlevelsofpublicauthority.
Bringingthemainplanningissuesbeforecentralgovernmentandthepublic.
The structure plan comprises a written statement, supported by fuller arguments in the report of
survey, giving current policies and proposals together with an examination of resources likely to be
availableforcarryingouttheplan.
Itmustcontainorbeaccompainedbysuchdiagrams,illustrations,anddesriptivematterasthelocal
planningauthoritythinksappropriate.
It is to be submitted to central government after appropriate publicity, and it may be approved,
modified,orrejectedafterapublicinquiry.
Theplanmaybealteredatanytimeafterapproval,butasimilarprocedureaspreviouslydescribed
mustbefollowed.

SURVEYRESEARCH
Secondary data: the collection of secondary, or published, data is critical in almost all economic and
planningstudies.
Thetypesofsecondarydatamostoftenusedinurbanandregionalplanningare:
i Populationtrendsandprojections
i Populationcharacteristics,suchasage,income,occupation,andrace
i Employmenttrendsandprojections,especiallyindifferenttypesofemployment
i Landuseinventorydata,showingsquarefootagesdevotedtodifferentspecifictypesofuses
i Propertyvaluedata
i Retailsalesdata
Theseitemsofinformationrevealwhattheplannerhastoworkwith,whathemayhavetoworkwith
in the future, and what is needed to achieve a workable, livable plan for the town or area under
consideration.
Primarydata:
i Primary,ororiginal,researchisessentialtoalmosteveryplanningstudy.
i Primary data are more expensive to get than secondary data. The methods of collection affect the
accuracyoftheresultspoorlystructuredsamplesorquestionnairesmayresultinfacultyinformation.
Moreover,itisalwaystemptingtoextractmarefromasurveythanisstatisticallyvalid.
Therearefourchiefmethodsofcollectingprimarydata.
i

Field interviews with businessmen, government officials, real estate developers and brokers, tax
assessors, financial institutions, etc. these are often the only sources of current, directly pertinent
informationbuttheymustbewatchedcarefullyforbias.

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Other interviews: Personal interviews are the best method, especially for getting indepth
information but they are also the most expensive types of interview. Telephone interviews are less
expensive than personal interviews, but the indirectness lowers the certainty of the response and
evendeterscommunications.Mailquestionnairesarelowinpricebutsubjecttobiasandplaguedby
lowresponse.

Paneldiscussions:Whilepanelsofinteresteddiscussantsdonotproducestatisticallyreliabledata.
Theyareexcellentreflectorsofcommunityattitudesandinteractionsonsubjectsofconcern.
There are also specialized techniques used in certain kinds of study. Licenseplate surveys are
usefulforretailtradeanalysis.Inappraisals,realestatetransactionsmaybeanalyzed.

TheResearchProcess:
i Mostresearchassignmentshavethreeroughlysequentialphases:
1)Datacollection
2)Analysisandinterpretation,and
3)Developmentofconclusionsforpresentation.
Interpretationandsconclusionswouldrequirefartoobroadadiscussiontofitthescopeofthisarticle,
sincetheyinvolvemanyintangiblessuchasjudgment,experience,andinstitution.
i The final purpose of the study should always be kept in mind. Research should always serve the
objectofthestudy.
i Goodworkshouldnotbeduplicated.
i Astudyshouldbestructuredasearlyaspossible.
i Insightsandideasshouldbeshared.
Surveyresearchprocess:itcomposedofthefollowingsetoftasks(ITPI).
1.Defininginformationneedsandobtainingresources.
2.Collectionofdata.
Choosingthetechniqueofobservation.
Definingthequestions.
Determiningthesample
Pretestingandconductingthesurvey.
3.Analyzingthedata.
Compilingandeditingtherawdata.
Analyzeofthedistributionofresponsetoasinglequestion.
Analyzeoftheinterrelationamongvariables.
Interpretingtheanalysis.
Biasiswhatwearealwaystryingtominimizeandavoidbiasmeansthatsomehowthedatacontaina
systematicerrorandthusdonotrepresentwhatweintendedthemetorepresent.
Techniquesofobservation:
1. Selfsurveys.
2. Interviews.
3. Directinspection.
4. Participantobservation=thesurveyorbecomesaresidentofthecommunity.

Definingthequestions:thequestionsofasurveyareaalsocalledthevariablesofthesurvey.
Nominalscales:thesearesetofnames.Nominallyscaledvariablesarethosewhosevarious
possibleanswersarecategoriesofdifferentnames.Aquestiontowhichtheanswerineither
YesorNoisanominallyscaledquestion.
o Sexmale,female.

Ordinalscales:theyputthingsinarankedorder.Intherankingofgoalsdiscussed.We
employedordinalmeasurement.Someexamplesofanordinalscale.

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o Priorities:1st,2nd,and3rd.
o Socialclass:upper,middle,lower.

Intervalscales:theyprovideayardsticklikesetofnumbersformeasuringtheintervals
betweenorderedresponses.Dollars,distance,age,temp,yearsofeducation.

Example:nominal:isthefamilypoor"______yes_____no.
Ordinal:Whichannualincomecategoryisthefamilyin"
Below4000_____.
400010,000
______Above10,000.
Interval:whatisthefamilysannualincome"_______
Typesofsampling:
Simplerandomsamplingisthefundamentaltechniqueofsampling.Itisthekindofsamplingwedo.If
wepickacardfromawellshuffleddeckofcards.
Tobefairandaccuratelyrepresentive,everypersonoritemfromamongthosetobesampledmusthave
anequalchanceofbeingpickedforthesample,andallcombinationofindividualmusthaveanequal
chanceofappearing.
Systematicsampling:totakeasystematicsampleistotakeevery6thelementfromalist,sayevery
tenthstudentorsystematicsamplingsatisfiedtherequirementsofatrulyrandomsampleaslongasthere
isnobiasintheorderingoftheoriginallist.Itsgreatadvantageisthatitsavestimesandcostsover
simplerandomsampling.
Stratifiedsampling:thetechniquesofstratificationareusedtoinsuretherepresentivenessofasample,
whereitmightotherwisebeunlikely.Stratificationwoulddealwiththisproblembydefiningseparate
groupsorlists,whicharehomogenous,andthen,wouldtakesimplerandomsampleorsystematic
samplesfromeachgroup.
Thesizeofthesampletakenfromeachgroupmaybeproportionaltogroupsizeordisproportional
dependingontheinformationneedstotheproblembeingstudied.
Clustersampling:clustersamplingisverysimilartostratifiedsampling,butthegroupsthataredefined
areheterogeneous.Itisanalternativemeansforkeepingthesamplesizesmall.Thuskeepingthecosts
downwhileinsuringrepresentivenessinthesample.Suppose,thatweareagaininneedofevaluations
ofacommunityserviceinaneighborhood,andwewishtoinsureabalancedviewwithrespecttoracial
andethnicgroups.
Iftheseclusterscanbeidentified,thaneithersystematicorsimplerandomsamplingcanbeconducted
withineachofafewclusters.
REMOTESENSING
x Remote sensing means acquiring information about an object or phenomenon from a distance, i.e.
withoutactuallycomingincontactwiththeobject.
x QuantitymeasuredinRSelectromagneticenergy.
x The human eye can respond to light in the minute portion of electromagnetic spectrum 0.4 0.7
micrometerwavelength.
x Thistechniquerangesthroughthespectrumfromtheveryshortwavelengthsatwhichgammarays
areemittedtothecomparativelylongwavelengthsatwhichradaroperates.
x Aerialphotographyislimitedtovisiblebandofthespectrum.
x TheoldestapplicationofRSismilitaryoperation.Infraredsensing.
x Infraredremotesensingisparticularlyusefulinprovidingdatathatcanbeusedtolocateanenemys
position.Itisusefultodetectingandmappingforestfires.
x Using
x Geologistsmineralsanddeposits.
x Soilscientistsgeologicalandgeomorphologicfeaturesandvegetation.
x Hydrologistsaquifers,surfaceflowofwater.

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x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x

Geographerscananalyzelandusepatternsoverlargeareaandcanstudytheeffectofclimate,
topography,plantlife,animallifeandhumanactivityinaparticulararea.
x Civil engineers planning large construction projects such as highways, airports, railways or
dams can obtain data from on landforms, rock materials, soils, and type of vegetation and
drainageconditionintheprojectarea.
Foreffectingmanagementofdiminishingsourcesofnaturalresourcesandmonitoringthequalityof
ourenvironment,theremotesensingtechniquehaveedgeoverconventionalmethods.
Principleallobjectsonthesurfaceofearthhavecharacteristicspectralsignatures.
The knowledge of spectral signatures is essential for exploring the potential of remote sensing
technique.
Remote sensing techniques through visual interpretation of aerial photographs, satellite imaginary
anddigitalanalysisofcomputercompatibletapes(CCTs).Inconjunctionwithgroundtruthhavebeen
provedfasterandeconomicfortheappraisalandintegrationofnaturalresources.
IRSsatelliteresolution5.872.5m
Aerialphotographs
x 1:25,000
x 1:30,000scale
LANDSAT band 5 (B/W) image showing tonal and spatial characteristics of hills, flat buried
pediments,plains,riverbedsandassociatenaturalresources.
LANDSATband7formspatterntonalandspatialcharacteristicsofsanddunes.
Smallscalemultispectrallandsatcoastalgeomorphology.

AERIALPHOTOGRAMMETRY:
Usefulforplanners
x Truegeometryoftheground.(Intheformofbasemap).
x Information about vegetation cover soils geological and geomorphologic features and drainage
pattern.
x Aerialphotographs23cmsX23cms.
x Therearethreeagenciesforcarryingoutaerialphotography.
x NationalRemoteSensingAgency(NRSA)Hyderabad.
x AirSurveyCompany(private)Calcutta,
x IndianAirForce.
x Overlapwith60%ofadjacentphotograph.
x This is done to take advantage of 3dimensional optical model of the terrain for measurement and
interpretation.parallaxbar
Disadvantages:
x Tiltdistortiontheircameraaxisisnotexactlyverticalatthetimeofmakinganexposure.
x Reliefdistortiontheundulationsofthegroundcauseshiftofimagepointfromtheirtrueorthogonal
points.
x SCALEOFaerialphotographsdependsupon:
x Heightofaircraft(cameraplatform)
x Focallengthofthecamera.
x Scale=focallength/height(sameunits).
x Rectification of photography is the simple technique the titled photograph can be transformed as if
the camera axis had been vertical. Rectified photographs are photographs on a given scale from
whichtiltdistortionhasbeentakenout.
x
x
x

Creation of the same condition as existed at the time of photography between two adjacent
exposuresispossiblebytheprincipleoforientation.
Delineationofcontoursisalsopossiblewiththeseinstruments.Someofthestereoplotinginstruments
calledphotogrammetricinstruments,are:
Theoutputsfromanalyticalplotterscanbeintheformofgraphicalordigitalintheformofatape.

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x
x
x
x
x
x

Itisquitepossibletodrawcontoursonaplotter.Thecontourintervalwilldependonthescaleofthe
aerialphotography.
1:50,000aerialphotographymayprovidecontoursof10mts.
1:25,000aerialphotographymaybeprovidecontoursof5mts.
1:10,000aerialphotographymaybeprovidecontoursof2mts.
Ahandheldcover35mm.Commercialcameratakeninalightaircraftisgoodenoughforpickingthe
informationneededbyaplanner.
ThecostofflyingSFAis1/10thecostifconventionalphotography.
REGIONALPLANNINGANDSATELLITEREMOTESENSING

x
x
x
x

x
x

Usefulscalesofmapsemployedforregionalplanningare:
1:250,000mapofsurveyofIndia(toposheets)
1:50,000mapofsurveyofIndia(toposheets).
IndiaremotesensingsatelliteIRSIAbisinspacenow,havingspatialresolutionof73metresand37
metres.
Transparentpositiveprints(calleddiapositives)ofaerialphotographsarealsopossibletoget.
PhotoMosaics:mosaicsareofthreetypes.
Uncontrolledphotographsarejoinedtogetherinsomedesignedway.Nouseofexistingmaporfield
controlismade.
Semicontrolleduseofmaporcontrolpointsismade
Controlledthephotographsarerectifiedandjoinedtogetheronaprojectssheet.

Theplottedsectionoutofaphotogrammetricmachineismostaccuratepieceofsurveywork.

It is recommended for Central Business District where more accuracy and large scales (1:1000
1:2000)arerequiredforplanning.

Products specially suited for interpretation in addition to black nad white aerial photography,
multispecial photography is also possible. This can be decided/ designed depending on the
requirements.

A major demand, all over in India, is to have basemaps of towns, which require physical planning
inputs.

x
x
x

LANDUSE(URBANANDREGIONAL)
x

Landuse(orspaceuse)isakeyconceptinthetownplanningproffession.
ZONING

x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x

Rectified prints on 1:4,000 or 1:50,000 obtained from 1:10,000 aerial photographs are adequate for
thepurpose.
Small format photography is imminently suitable as on administrative tool for recording a situation/
scenarioof
Urbandesign
Unauthorizedcolonies
Encroachments
Violationbeforedemolitionofstructure
Censusofslumdwellings
Architecturalconservation.

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VISUALANDURBANDESIGN:
x

Paths are channels of movement. They include walkways, streets, railroads, expressways, and
masstransitlines.Thesearetypicallytheperspectivefromwhichanobserverviewsthecity.

Edges are linear, not unlike paths, but do not facilitate movement. They are often boundaries
defining a break in continuity between two homogeneous regions. Examples include shores, walls,
rivers,andrailroadscuts.

Districts are the midsized sections of a city. They are distinguishable as having some common,
identifyingcharacteristics.Typicalidentifyingtraitsincludeaparticulararchitecturalstyle,lightposts,
ormailboxes.

Nodes arestrategicspotsinthecitywhereobserverscanenter.Theyaretypicallylinkedtotravel
andmayberepresentedbysometypeoftransportationhubsuchasamasstransitstation,busstop,
ortrafficcircle.

Landmarks are pointreferences that are external to the observer. They are not entered into but
ratherareviewedfromadistance.Alandmarkmustbedistinctfromitssurroundingsandshouldhave
directionalinformationassociatedwithit.Directionalinformationisessentialtothenavigator'sability
toremainorientedwiththeenvironment.

Landmarks,nodes,anddistrictsdividethecityinto"places"whichareconnectedbypathsandbounded
byedges.
Therearecertainelementsinmostcitiesthatshapepeoplesunderstandingofhowthecityisorganised.
People use these elements to locate themselves. This provides an important sense of security. In
disorientatingplacesthissenseofsecurityislost,andpeoplefeeluncomfortable.Weneedtounderstand
what are the appropriate physical forms to produce what Kevin Lynch (in the Image of the City, 1960)
calledlegibility.
.
PerceptionandCognition
Itisarguedthatthementalmapistheendproductofperceptionandcognition.
a.Perception:
The environment is regarded as a mass of "to whom it may concern" messages through which an
individualsperceptionselectsthemessagesthatareofconcern.Soperceptionisanencodingprocess.
This encoding allows individuals to convert information about the environment into meaningful terms.
Perceptionimpliesthatindividualsselectspecificobjectsratherthan"thewholepicture".
b.Cognition:
Cognitionreferstothewayinformation,oncereceived,isstoredandorganizedinthebrainsothatitfits
with other already accumulated information. Cognition is therefore developmental, and as it progresses
perceptionbecomesubordinate."...Onemayperceivethestreetwherewelivebyphysicallybeingthere,
but knowing the route to work depends on cognitive organization of perceptions." Golledge, L G and
StimsonRJ(1987)AnalyticalBehavioralGeography,London:CroomHelmMentalmappingorcognitive
mappingisseenastheprocesswhichenablesindividualstoacquire,code,store,recallandmanipulate
informationaboutthenatureoftheirenvironment.
Legibility
a. Legibility is the ease with which the parts of a town or city can be recognized and organised into a
coherentpattern.
b.Lyncharguedthattheanxietythataccompaniesgettinglostshowsclearlyhowlegibilityislinkedtoour
senseofwellbeing."Agoodenvironmentalimagegivesitspossessoranimportantsenseofemotional

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security.Hecanestablishaharmoniousrelationshipbetweenhimselfandtheoutsideworld.Thisisthe
obverseofthefearthatcomeswithdisorientation."Lynch(1960)
c.Lynch,inhisstudies,foundthatpeople'simagesofaplaceoverlap.Thatdespitedifferingmeanings
that they gave to places, people identified similar elements as important to being able to orientate
themselves. It is from the analysis of mental maps that Lynch identified the physical elements that aid
legibility.
Whatistheproblemwithtoday'scities?
Many people comment on the confusion that contemporary cities produce because of a lack of spatial
distinctionresultingfrom:
Thematic/NonThematic:
i. Thematic buildings appear indistinct an normal ie they are of a theme. NonThematic buildings are
distinctandstandout.
ii. Today nonthematic buildings are often located in important positions, and usually mean little to the
majorityofpeople
iii.Publicandprivatebuildingsalsostarttolookalike.
Theseparationofpedestriansfromvehicles:
I. Frequently roads are bordered by mounds of earth and vegetation to separate roads from paths and
housing(speedandefficiency).Itisdisorientatingandrequiresrelianceonsignsonly.
ii. Footpaths frequently require pedestrians to walk between the private backs of houses, or alongside
facelessfencesandprivacyscreens,undergroundorbetweenfastmovingroads.Intheseplacesthereis
disorientationandlackofsurveillance.
Lackofspatialdefinition:
Itisalsoarguedthatemphasisonthedesignofindividualbuildingsinalandscape/carparksettingdoes
not provide the spatial definition that the traditional close grain city can provide. Such environments do
not enhance orientation because they do not contain identifiable elements forming clearly identifiable
relationships.
Thingstodoindesigntoenhancelegibility
a.Reinforcingpaths:byprovidingphysicalcharacteristics,whichmarkthemfromsurroundingchannels.
b.Reinforcingthenetwork:adeformedgridcansharpentherelationshipbetweenplaces,andreinforce
the pattern between elements. Gradual curves and winding culdesacs disorientate and deny an
appreciationofactualphysicalvicinity.
c.Edgesshouldcontaincontinuityinformandusetobeclearlylegibleanddefined.
d.Landmarksshouldcontrastwiththeircontext,andshouldbeusedinsequenceinrelationtotheextent
ofprogressalongapath,orformingunifyingrelationshipsbetweenpaths(i.e.atjunction).
e.Nodesshouldbereinforcedandcharacterizedbyasingularandcontinuousqualityofe.g.walls,floor,
buildingstyle,massing.Aphysicallyenclosednodeismorenotablethanasuburbanroundaboutwithno
closedboundaries.
Ofcourseyoumaynotchoosetousetheelementstoprovidelegibility.Youmayuseyourunderstanding
toproducedeliberatelyillegibleplaces.Security,itisargued,issometimesbestachievedwherepeople
aredisorientated,andsensethattheydonotbelong.Argumentsstatethat,forexample,manyhousing
layouts should be designed to intimidate and alienate the public. Clearly this is linked to our earlier
discussionsaboutaccessibility.
Conclusion
a.Ifpeoplearegoingtousethephysicalenvironmentandunderstandtherelationshipsbetweenitsparts,
thenitmustbelegible.
b.Youcanunderstandhowlegibleaplaceisbyaskingpeopletodrawamentalmaporbyanalysingthe
areaandlookingforpaths,edges,districts,nodesandlandmarks.

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c.Placesthatarenotlegibleresultindisorientationandarenotusuallyusedorcrossed.Inadditionsome
placesmightbeperceivedasdangerous.

AtoZ
Accessibility The ability of people to move round an area and to reach places and facilities, including
elderlyanddisabledpeople,thosewithyoungchildrenandthoseencumberedwithluggageorshopping.
ActionplanningParticipationtechniques,includingcommunityplanningweekendsandUrbanDesign
ActionTeams(UDATs):whichenablelocalpeopleandinvitedteamsofprofessionalstoexploredesign
ideasforparticularareasoveroneorseveraldays.
ActivityspineStreetorstreetsalongwhichactivityisconcentrated.
ActivitynodeConcentrationofactivityataparticularpoint.
Adaptability The capacity of a building or space to be changed so as to respond to changing social,
technologicalandeconomicconditions.
Area appraisal An assessment of an areas land uses, built and natural environment, and social and
physicalcharacteristics.
Architecture and planning center An institution, which provides a focus for a range of activities and
services(suchasdiscussions,information,exhibitions,collaborationandprofessionalservices)relatingto
architectureandplanning.
BriefThisguidereferstositespecificbriefsasdevelopmentbriefs.Sitespecificbriefsarealsocalleda
varietyofothernames,includingdesignbriefs,planningbriefsanddevelopmentframeworks.
BuildingelementsDoors,windows,cornicesandotherfeatures,whichcontributetotheoveralldesignof
abuilding.
Building envelope guidelines Diagram(s) with dimensions showing the possible site and massing of a
building.
Building exploratory A center for explaining, interpreting and providing information on the built
environment.
BuildinglineThelineformedbythefrontagesofbuildingsalongastreet.Thebuildinglinecanbeshown
onaplanorsection.
BulkThecombinedeffectofthearrangement,volumeandshapeofabuildingorgroupofbuildings.Also
calledmassing.
Character assessment An area appraisal identifying distinguishing physical features and emphasizing
historicalandculturalassociations.
Charrette An event (ranging from a couple of hours to several days), which brings together a range of
peopletodiscussdesignissues.Acharrettemayormaynotusetechniquesofcollaborativedesign.Also
knownasadesignworkshop.
Conservation area character appraisal A published document defining the special architectural or
historicinterestwhichwarrantedtheareabeingdesignated.

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ContextThesettingofasiteorarea,includingfactorssuchastraffic,activitiesandlandusesas
Wellaslandscapeandbuiltform.
Context(orsiteandarea)appraisalAdetailedanalysisofthefeaturesofasiteorarea(includingland
uses,builtandnaturalenvironment,andsocialandphysicalcharacteristics)whichservesasthebasisfor
anurbandesignframework,developmentbrief,designguideorotherpolicyorguidance.
Countryside design summary Supplementaryplanning guidance prepared by a local authority to
encourageamoreregionallyandlocallybasedapproachtodesignandplanning.
CrimePatternAnalysisCarriedoutbythePoliceandisavailablethroughliaisonwiththeArchitectural
Liaison Officer/Crime Prevention Design Adviser. It comprises four components: crime series
identification,trendidentification,hotspotanalysisandgeneralprofileanalysis.Thislastaspectincludes
anexaminationofdemographicandsocialchangeanditsimpactoncriminalityandlawenforcement.
Defensible space Public and semipublic space that is defensible in the sense that it is surveyed,
demarcatedormaintainedbysomebody.DerivedfromOscarNewmans1973studyofthesamename,
and an important concept in securing public safety in urban areas, defensible space is also dependent
upontheexistenceofescaperoutesandthelevelofanonymity,whichcanbeanticipatedbytheusersof
thespace.
DensityThefloorspaceofabuildingorbuildingsorsomeotherunitmeasureinrelationtoagivenarea
of land. Built density can be expressed in terms of plot ratio (for commercial development) number of
unitsorhabitableroomsperhectare(forresidentialdevelopment)sitecoverageplusthenumberoffloors
oramaximumbuildingheightoracombinationofthese.
DesignadvisorypanelAgroupofpeople(oftenarchitects)withspecialistknowledge,whichadvisesa
local authority on the design merits of planning applications or other design issues. Also known as an
architectspanel.
DesignassessmentAnindependentassessmentofadesignusuallycarriedoutforalocalauthorityby
consultants,anotherlocalauthorityorsomeotheragency.
Design guide A document providing guidance on how development can be carried out in accordance
with the design policies of a local authority or other organization often with a view to retaining local
distinctiveness.
Design principle An expression of one of the basic design ideas at the heart of an urban design
framework,designguide,developmentbrieforadevelopment.
DesignstandardsSpecific,usuallyquantifiablemeasuresofamenityandsafetyinresidentialareas.
Designstatement(a)Apreapplicationdesignstatementismadebyadevelopertoindicatethedesign
principlesonwhichadevelopmentproposalinprogressisbased.Itenablesthelocalauthoritytogivean
initial response to the main issues raised by the proposal. (b) A planning application design statement
setsoutthedesignprinciplesthattheplanningapplicanthasadoptedinrelationtothesiteanditswider
context,asrequiredbyPPG1.
Desire line An imaginary line linking facilities or places, which people would find it convenient to travel
betweeneasily.
DevelopmentbriefAdocument,preparedbyalocalplanningauthority,adeveloper,orjointly,providing
guidance on how a site of significant size or sensitivity should be developed. Sitespecific briefs are
sometimesknownasplanningbriefs,designbriefsanddevelopmentframeworks.
ElevationThefacadeofabuilding,orthedrawingofafacade.

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EnclosureTheuseofbuildingstocreateasenseofdefinedspace.
EnergyefficiencyTheextenttowhichtheuseofenergyisreducedthroughthewayinwhichbuildings
areconstructedandarrangedonsite.
FeasibilityTheviabilityofdevelopmentinrelationtoeconomicandmarketconditions.
FenestrationThearrangementofwindowsonafacade.
Figure and ground (or figure/ground, or Nolli) diagram A plan showing the relationship between built
formandpubliclyaccessiblespace(includingstreets)bypresentingtheformerinblackandthelatterasa
whitebackground(ortheotherwayround).
FormThelayout(structureandurbangrain),density,scale(heightandmassing),appearance(materials
anddetails)andlandscapeofdevelopment.
FruinanalysisAmethodofanalyzingpedestrianmovementdevisedbyBernardFruin.Itappliesalevel
ofserviceconcepttopedestrianflows.Fruindefinedcapacityandspeedsofmovementinvariousforms
ofcorridors,pavementsandotherpedestrianroutes.
FutureSearchAparticipationtechniqueenablinggroupsofpeopletoidentifycommoninterests,discuss
ideasandshareinformationandexperience.Openspaceisasimilartechnique.GrainSeeurbangrain.
HeightTheheightofabuildingcanbeexpressedintermsofamaximumnumberoffloorsamaximum
heightofparapetorridgeamaximumoverallheightanyofthesemaximumheightsincombinationwith
amaximumnumberoffloorsaratioofbuildingheighttostreetorspacewidthheightrelativetoparticular
landmarksorbackgroundbuildingsorstrategicviews.
HumanscaleTheusewithindevelopmentofelements,whichrelatewellinsizetoanindividualhuman
beingandtheirassemblyinaway,whichmakespeople,feelcomfortableratherthanoverwhelmed.In
curtilage parking Parking within a buildings site boundary, rather than on a public street or space.
Independent design audit an assessment of a design, carried out for a local authority by consultants,
anotherlocalauthorityorsomeotheragency.
Indicative sketch A drawing of building forms and spaces, which is intended to convey the basic
elementsofapossibledesign.
Landmark A building or structure that stands out from its background by virtue of height, size or some
otheraspectofdesign.
LandscapeThecharacterandappearanceofland,includingitsshape,form,ecology,naturalfeatures,
colors and elements and the way these components combine. Landscape character can be expressed
throughlandscapeappraisal,andmapsorplans.Intownstownscapedescribesthesameconcept.
LayoutThewaybuildings,routesandopenspacesareplacedinrelationtoeachother.
LayoutstructureTheframeworkorhierarchyofroutesthatconnectinthelocalareaandatwiderscales.
LegibilityThedegreetowhichaplacecanbeeasilyunderstoodandtraversed.
Live edge Provided by a building or other feature whose use is directly accessible from the street or
space,whichitfacestheoppositeeffecttoablankwall.
Local distinctiveness The positive features of a place and its communities, which contribute to its
specialcharacterandsenseofplace.

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Lynchian analysis The widely used method of context appraisal devised by the urban designer Kevin
Lynch.Itfocusesongatewaystoanarea,nodes,landmarks,viewsandvistas,andedgesandbarriers.
Massingthecombinedeffectoftheheight,bulkandsilhouetteofabuildingorgroupofbuildings.
MixedusesAmixofuseswithinabuilding,onasiteorwithinaparticulararea.Horizontalmixeduses
are side by side, usually in different buildings. Vertical mixed uses are on different floors of the same
building.
Modal split How the total number of journeys in an area or to a destination is split between different
meansoftransport,suchastrain,bus,car,walkingandcycling.
Movement People and vehicles going to and passing through buildings, places and spaces. The
movementnetworkcanbeshownonplans,byspacesyntaxanalysis,byhighwaydesignations,byfigure
and ground diagrams, through data on origins and destinations or pedestrian flows, by desire lines, by
detailsofpublictransportservices,bywalkbandsorbydetailsofcycleroutes.
Naturalsurveillance(orsupervision)Thediscouragementtowrongdoingbythepresenceofpassersby
or the ability of people to be seen out of surrounding windows. Also known as passive surveillance (or
supervision).
NodeAplacewhereactivityandroutesareconcentratedoftenusedasasynonymforjunction.
Performancecriterion(pl.criteria)Ameansofassessingtheextenttowhichadevelopmentachievesa
particular functional requirement (such as maintaining privacy). This contrasts with a standard, which
specifieshowadevelopmentistobedesigned(bysettingoutminimumdistancesbetweenbuildings,for
example).Theartofurbandesignliesinbalancingprincipleswhichmayconflict.Standardsmaybetoo
inflexible to be of use in achieving a balance. Performance criteria, on the other hand, make no prior
assumptionsaboutthemeansofachievingabalance.
PermeabilityThedegreetowhichanareahasavarietyofpleasant,convenientandsaferoutesthrough
it.
PerspectiveIllustrationshowingtheviewfromaparticularpoint,asthehumaneyewouldseeit.
Place check A type of urban design audit advocated by the Urban Design Alliance, based on the
ConnectedCityapproach.Alocalcollaborativeallianceorpartnershipusescheckliststoinvestigatethe
connectionsinthebuiltenvironment,initsmovementnetworkandamongthepeoplewhoshapeit.The
Placecheckbecomesthefirststepinacontinuingcollaborativeprocessofurbandesign.
Planning brief This guide refers to sitespecific briefs as development briefs. Other names, including
planningbriefs,designbriefsanddevelopmentframeworksarealsoused.
PlanningforRealAparticipationtechnique(pioneeredbytheNeighbourhoodInitiatives
Foundation)thatinvolvesresidentsandotherswithaninterestcomingtogethertomakeamodel
oftheirareaandusingittohelpthemdeterminetheirprioritiesforthefuture.
PlanningPolicyGuidancenotes(PPGs)DocumentsembodyingGovernmentguidanceongeneraland
specificaspectsofplanningpolicytobetakenintoaccountinformulatingdevelopmentplanpoliciesand
inmakingplanningdecisions.
PlotratioAmeasurementofdensitygenerallyexpressedasgrossfloorareadividedbythenetsitearea.
Proactive development control Any process by which a local authority works with potential planning
applicants to improve the quality of development proposals as early as possible before a planning
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PublicartPermanentortemporaryphysicalworksofartvisibletothegeneralpublic,whetherpartofthe
buildingorfreestanding:canincludesculpture,lightingeffects,streetfurniture,paving,railingsandsigns.
PublicdomainThepartsofavillage,townorcity(whetherpubliclyorprivatelyowned)thatareavailable,
withoutcharge,foreveryonetouseorsee,includingstreets,squaresandparks.Alsocalledpublicrealm.
Public/privateinterfaceThepointatwhichpublicareasandbuildingsmeetprivateones.
PublicrealmSeepublicdomainQualityauditAreviewofitsmanagementofthedesignandplanning
processbyalocalauthorityorotherorganization.
Scale The impression of a building when seen in relation to its surroundings, or the size of parts of a
buildingoritsdetails,particularlyasexperiencedinrelationtothesizeofaperson.Sometimesitisthe
totaldimensionsofabuilding,whichgiveititssenseofscale:atothertimesitisthesizeoftheelements
and the way they are combined. The concept is a difficult and ambiguous one: often the word is used
simplyasasynonymforsize.SeeHumanscale.SectionDrawingshowingaslicethroughabuildingor
site.
Settlement pattern The distinctive way that the roads, paths and buildings are laid out in a particular
place.
Sightlinesthelineofsightfromatravelingvehicleorperson.Sightlineswillhelptodeterminehowfast
vehiclesarelikelytomoveandhowsafeotherroadusersarelikelytobe.
Space syntax analysis A technique for analyzing movement through urban space and predicting the
amountofactivitylikelytoresultfromthatmovement.
SpineStreetorstreetsalongwhichactivityisconcentrated.
StrategicviewThelineofsightfromaparticularpointtoanimportantlandmarkorskyline.
StreetfurnitureStructuresinandadjacenttothehighwaywhichcontributetothestreetscene,suchas
busshelters,litterbins,seating,lighting,railingsandsigns.
SuccessfactorOneofthecharacteristicsofaplace(orplacesingeneral)thattendstomakeitattractive
tolivein,workin,orvisit.Successfactorscanbeexpressedasdesignprinciples.
SurveillanceThediscouragementtowrongdoingbythepresenceofpassersbyortheabilityofpeople
tobeseenfromsurroundingwindows.
Sustainable development Defined by the Brundtland Commission (1987, and quoted in PPG1) as
Development which meets present needs without compromising the ability of future generations to
achievetheirownneedsandaspirations.TheUK'sstrategyforsustainabledevelopmentAbetterquality
oflifewaspublishedinMay1999andhighlightstheneedforenvironmentalimprovement,socialjustice
andeconomicsuccesstogohandinhand.
Tissue study Comparison of scale and layout of different settlements. This technique makes use of
overprinting or tracing maps of successful places over the proposed development site or area, at the
samescale.Itsgivesthedesigneracluetothecapacityofaplaceandhowitmaybestructured.
TopographyAdescriptionorrepresentationofartificialornaturalfeaturesonoroftheground.
Urban design The art of making places. Urban design involves the design of buildings, groups of
buildings,spacesandlandscapes,invillages,townsandcities,andtheestablishmentofframeworksand
processes,whichfacilitatesuccessfuldevelopment.

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Urban design framework A document which informs the preparation of development plan policies, or
setsoutindetailhowtheyaretobeimplementedinaparticularareawherethereisaneedtocontrol,
guide and promote change. Area development frameworks are also called a variety of other names,
includingurbandesignstrategies,areadevelopmentframeworks,spatialmasterplans,andplanningand
urbandesignframeworks.
UrbangrainThepatternofthearrangementandsizeofbuildingsandtheirplotsinasettlementandthe
degreetowhichanareaspatternofstreetblocksandstreetjunctionsisrespectivelysmallandfrequent,
orlargeandinfrequent.
Vernacular the way, in which ordinary buildings were built in a particular place, making use of local
styles,techniquesandmaterialsandrespondingtolocaleconomicandsocialconditions.
ViewWhatisvisiblefromaparticularpoint.
VistaAnenclosedview,usuallyalongandnarrowone.
VisualclutterTheuncoordinatedarrangementofstreetfurniture,signsandotherfeatures.
VillageappraisalAstudyidentifyingalocalcommunitysneedsandpriorities.
VillagedesignstatementAnadvisorydocument,usuallyproducedbyavillagecommunity,suggesting
how development might be carried out in harmony with the village and its setting. A village design
statement can be given weight by being approved as supplementary planning guidance. The use of
villagedesignstatementsispromotedbytheCountrysideAgency.
WalkbandAlineonamaporplanshowingthefurthestdistancethatcanbewalkedfromaparticular
pointatanaveragepaceinacertaintime(usuallyfiveortenminutes).

Advocacy planning: the preparations of plans or planning proposals and their advocacy by
professionalsplannersonbehalfofanorganization,interestgroup,orcommunityasanalternativeorin
oppositiontoplans,orplanningproposalspreparedbyanofficialagency.
Agora:theprincipalpublicspaceofaGreekcity,whichwasthecommercialandsocialcenterofthecity.
Meaningassembly.EarliertheAcropolishadbeenthecenter.
Airconditioning:thecontrolofairinabuildingtoadesiredtemperatureandhumidity,anditscleaning
andcirculation,obtainedbymeansofplantsdesignedandinstalledforthepurpose.
Airpollution:pollutionoftheairbysmokeiscausedmainlybytheincompletecombustionoffossilfuel,
whichemitcarbonmonoxide,finecarbonaceousparticles,andtarrydroplets.
Apartment: a building, generally of several stories, contains a number of separate dwellings with a
commonentrancefromthestreetandoftenwithserviceslikeheatingandlightingincommon.
Activityanalysis:activityanalysisisstudiesconcernedwithpatternedwaysinwhichhouseholds,firms,
andvariousotherinstitutionalentitiespursuetheiraffairsintimeandspace.Thesestudiesclassifyentity
systemsintosubsystems,andtheyidentifypatternintheflowofactivitiesortransactionsofeachsystem
asitevolvesintimeandspace.
Aqueduct: a duct or conduit for conveying water from place to place but commonly regarded as an
elevatedstructurecarryingtheduct.
Arcade:aseriesofarchesasdistinctfromlintelssupportedoncolumnssuchasisseeninmedieval
cloisters,theinteriorsofbasilicasandchurchesandinRenaissancepiazzas.

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BIOTECHNIC:Thisandothersimilarterms(paleotechnic)werecoinedbyPatricGeddes.Alltheterms
applytomoderntechnologyanditseffectoneconomicandsociallife.
LewisMumfordtechniquesandcivilization.
Thecultureofcities.
BLIGHT:sometimescalledPLANNINGBLIGHTbutamongplanneroftenreferredtosimplyasblight.It
stemsfromdepreciationinthevalueoflandandbuildingsastheresultofplanningproposalsorplanned
development.Thishappenswhen
Alternativeplanningproposalsforpublicdiscussion.
Whereaspecific,confirmedproposal.
Blightcanberegardedastheoppositeofbetterment.
Pavements:1:50minimumslopeofisdesirableformostpavedsurfaces.
Path=0.9m,twoabreast2.2m,threeabreast3.2m
Ramp:aninclinedplanefootwayorroadwayconnectingtwolevels.
Reclamation: in connection with land use, reclamation means in its widest sense, the recovery or
conversionoflandmainlyagriculturalpurposedbutoccasionallyalsoforconstructionpurposes.
Recreation: is the process where by individuals and communities renew and refresh themselves by
pleasantoccupants,amusementsandentertainsbothphysicalandmentalafterworkorstudy.
Ribbondevelopment:urbanspreadalongmainroads,especiallythoseleadingtoacity.Thepracticeof
building on either side of a main transport route has been common since the Middle Ages, and many
Villagesandtownshavearisesonthisway.
Buildingalongtransportroutesisrelatedtooneformofthelinearcity.
Radialplan:adevelopmentofradiatingroadsfromacitycentres,withurbanaccretionsalongtheroads.
It is a plan that results from natural uncontrolled haphazard growth. But it often forms the bias of good
planningofcombinedwithconcentricringroads,inwhichthespiderwebplanevolves.
Scale: the term scale as applied to the appearance of a building describes a quality of the relationship
between dimensional of the building. And its components and the modest range of dimensions and
distancesimpliedbythesizeofahumanbeingandbyhisphysicallimitations,thatis,thehumanscale.
Buildingmustalsobeinscalewiththeirsurroundingsandotherbuildings.
At1200mheightshumanformisjustdetectable.
25mapersonarerecognizable.
15mhisfaceisfullydiscernable.
13m,directandsignificanthumanrelationship.
Whentheheight:distanceratiois

1:4,14qrelativelysmall

1:3withan18qconeofvisionobjectisvisible.
1:2,30qcomprehensible.
1:1,40qstrongexperience.
Sculpture:inadditiontopublicmonumentsinappropriateplacesincitiesandtowns,sculptureisoften
introducedtoprovidedecorativeitemsofinterestso,ascanbeseeninsomeofthenewurbanareasin
Germany
Semeiology:themodernscienceofSemeiologyisconcernedwiththemeaningofsignsandformsthat
appearandareemployedinallsocialactivities.
Space:urbandesign,likearchitecture,ispartlyanartofenclosingspaceandtheproportionorareaof
spaceinrelationtobuilding,therelationshipofvoidstosolids,oftengreatlycontributestothesuccessor
failureofanurbandevelopment.
PiazzasanpetroRome.
Placedeconcorde
Paris
Champdemars
Paris.

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They are kept, as valuable urban space because they have been traditionally used for various
recreational civic and religious purposes, because the aesthetic result is pleasurable and become it is
satisfactorytokeepthemsodespitethefactthattheirpracticalusefulnesshasdecreased.
Suburbs and suburban growth: suburbs are the compactly developed and developing areas
surroundingthecentralcityinametropolitanarea.Theseareasaredistinguishedfromthecentralcityby
their more homogeneous socioeconomic and physical character, although they are seldom as unvaried
astheyarepicturedinmuchcurrentliterature.
Twilight area: an area, commonly adjacent to or even surrounding a city center, which the need for
redevelopment is considerable where buildings are in poor condition and decrepit in appearance and
wherethewholeenvironmentisrundownanddeteriorate.
Theseareasareareasoftransition.
Ziggurat:anancientBabylonianandAssyrianstructurelikeasteppedpyramid,withatempleatthetop
andapproachedbyaprocessionalway.

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