Psychology as a science

and its methods

Snehlata Jaswal

WHAT IS PSYCHOLOGY?
Psyche + Logos

Science of Soul
Science of Mind
Science of Consciousness
Science of Behavior
Science of Behaviour and Cognitive Processes

IS PSYCHOLOGY A SCIENCE ?
Aims of Science
Description
Explanation
Prediction
Control
Assumptions of Science
Determinism
Invariance
Empiricism
Operationism
Objectivity????
Method of Science
Scientific research is a systematic, controlled, empirical,
and critical investigation of natural phenomena guided by
theory and hypotheses about the presumed relations
among such phenomena (Kerlinger, 1986)

IS PSYCHOLOGY A SCIENCE ?
Psychology is a science because it shares the
aims, assumptions, and the method of science.
But:
Difficulties in studying human subjects:
Problems of Availability
Lack of Predictability: Individual differences, Complexity
Lack of Control: Social desirability, Researchers subjectivity
Applied aspect of psychology

Laymans view differs

Parapsychology

METHODS OF PSYCHOLOGY
What is research?
Research is a systematic investigation of phenomena and
their relationships

Kerlinger (1986): Scientific research is a systematic,

controlled, empirical, and critical investigation of natural
phenomena guided by theory and hypotheses about the
presumed relations among such phenomena.

Process of research
Gap in
knowledge:
Framing the
problem

Gap in
knowledge
Reduced???

Hypothesis
testing and
statistical
inference

Review of
literature and
framing
hypotheses

Designing the
study and
collecting
data

Problem
Every study implies a problem to be studied by the researcher
The researcher begins with a general, diffuse, and even a
confused notion of the problem. Eventually the problem
becomes precise, focused, and clear.
Every interesting question is not a scientific problem.
E.g., Moral dilemmas or philosophical enquiries may not
be classed as scientific questions.

What is a good Problem?

Three criteria:
Problem should express a relation between two or
more variables
Problems should be stated in a question form. Ideally
problems should be stated in mathematical terms!
Problems should imply possibilities of empirical
testing (must meet assumptions of empiricism and
operationism)

Hypotheses
Every study whether correlational or experimental
implies a problem to be studied by the researcher.
The probable answer or solution to the problem is
known as the hypothesis.
A good hypothesis has two essential qualities:

It is precisely stated so that it is testable.

It is not wild or improbable. It has a basis in
previous research or theories.

Utility of problems and hypotheses

Provide guidance to research
Provide precision to research design
Make empirical testing possible
Hypotheses ARE explanations
Aid prediction and (eventually) control
Informative even if hypotheses are not confirmed

Literature search
Every researchers goes to literature at least thrice:
To specify the problem(s)
To generate the hypotheses
To design the study

Where to search
Databases containing abstracts (Bibliographic resources)

Web of knowledge
Web of science
JSTOR
PUBMED
Google / Google Scholar

Full text resources:

Annual reviews
Journals
Authors

Systematizing literature search

Literature review should systematized in a form that is
Easily accessible
Allows flexible referencing
Various systematizing software:
End note
Reference Manager
Bibtex
NONE OF THEM WRITES REFERENCES PERFECTLY !!!
Learn referencing style for Psychology: APA Style www.apa.org
American Psychological Association Style Guide 6th Edition

Designing the study and collecting data

Three types of research
Experimental
Manipulation of independent variable(s) to study
the effect on dependent variable

Independent samples design

Repeated measures design

Correlational
No manipulation of variables possible
Reveal covariation rather than causation
Observational
No control of variables is intended

METHODS OF PSYCHOLOGY
Experimentation
Correlational
Observation
Introspection

Experimentation
Manipulation of independent variable(s) to study the effect on
dependent variable(s) whilst other relevant variables are
controlled.
Direct control possible. Independent variable must have at least
two values, whilst controlled variables have the same value.
Reveals causation
Reliable and replicable results
Artificial environment problem of external validity.
Cannot study all types of variables because some variables can
not be directly manipulated.

Correlational research
No manipulation of variables possible
Control possible only through selection of sample
Reveals co-variation but not causation
Useful when variables are inherently not amenable to
manipulation
Almost all variables can be studied in this manner
Basis of survey research
Closer to reality which usually has multiple variables
operating at the same time
Study has external validity

Observational research
No manipulation of variables is sought
Recording and classification of data is done
Hypotheses generating (but not confirming!)
Useful when variables are inherently not amenable to
manipulation
All variables can be studied in this manner
Efficient use of reality which usually has multiple variables
operating at the same time
Always has external validity
Observer bias is the problem

Introspection
Observation and reporting of ones own experiences or
mental processes.
Introspection can be in response to external stimuli.
Recording and classification of data is done
Observer or subjective bias exists
Training given to rule out subjectivity (by structuralists)
On the other hand, some psychologists hold subjective
evaluation as important and desirable. E.g., in the study of
Self.
Heavily criticized by behaviorists, but a resurgence of the
method occurred with the cognitive psychologists.
Useful method for variables which cannot be accessed or
observed by others. E.g., Studies of imagery, strategies in
problem solving etc.

Hypothesis testing and statistical inference

Every study whether correlational or experimental implies a problem
to be studied by the researcher. The probable answer or solution to a
problem is the hypothesis.
A hypothesis has two essential qualities:

It is precisely stated so that it is testable.

It is not wild or improbable. It has a basis in previous research.
Types of hypotheses: Null and Alternate hypotheses
Alternate hypotheses are of further two types: One tailed and two tailed
Whenever a hypothesis is specified, the level of significance at which it
is to be tested, should also be specified.

Levels of significance
Level of significance refers to the arbitrarily decided probability of
error accepted by a science.
The probability of error tolerated in any prediction varies from one
science to another. Since greater control and precise measurements
are possible in physical sciences such as physics and chemistry, they
test hypotheses at levels of significance as low as p < .001 or p <
.002.
Social sciences such as economics or sociology accept levels of
significance as high as p < .10. Psychologists generally test
hypotheses at either p < .05 or p < .01 (these may also be expressed
as respectively = .05 and = .01)
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Errors in statistical decision making

Two types of error are always present in statistical decision-making
Type I: Rejecting the null hypothesis H0 when in fact it is true.
Type II: Accepting the null hypothesis H0 when in fact it is false.
Decision
Reject H0

Decision
Accept H0

H0 true

Type I error
p=

Correct
decision

H0 false

Correct
decision

Type II error
p=

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Errors in statistical decision making

The probability of making a Type I error is directly indicated by .
We are less likely to make an error of Type I if we have a smaller
value of . The trouble is that as we decrease , we automatically
increase the chances of making Type II error accepting the null
hypothesis when it is actually false. Thus the researcher has to
decide which of the errors is more acceptable.
Since scientists abhor the Type I error more than the Type II error,
they generally choose as small as .05 or .01. Type I error implies
rejecting the null and accepting the alternate hypothesis to be true.
Thus a wrong idea, hypothesis or theory may be accepted. The
extremely cautious researchers prefer to make a Type II error. By
accepting the null hypothesis when it is actually false, they leave
the problem unsolved as it existed before the statistical test. Thus
they do not add any erroneous ideas / facts to the general body of
knowledge that exists in the science.
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Errors in statistical decision making

Actually, the choice of should depend on the nature of
the problem, and practical as well as theoretical
considerations. For example, if a researcher is testing the
effects of a new medicine, which may be harmful if taken
in an overdose, a much smaller alpha is demanded. On
the other hand, if a researcher tries to devise a test for
identifying people at risk for committing suicide, such a
test is useful, even if it makes very few correct
predictions. A higher probability of error such as p < .10
may be quite acceptable in such cases. Thus, hypothesis
testing is more a process of logical reasoning than
statistical reasoning.
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Gap in knowledge - Reduced???

Despite a small reduction in the original gap in
knowledge, most often research throws up new
questions to be addressed with further research.

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Thank you

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