Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)

A CRO is a versatile instrument that can be used to measure voltage, time intervals, and
the phase angle between two
sinusoidal voltages of the same frequency. It is also used as a visual display of
waveforms, and in more advanced CROs
to display signals that occur only for short intervals of time.
The best way of investigating an electronic system is to monitor signals at the input and
output of each system block,
checking that each block is operating as expected and is correctly linked to the next.
There are 8 vertical divisions and 10 horizontal divisions indicated with grid lines or
graticules. A standard screen size is
8 cm by 10 cm. The screen is coated with phosphor that emits light when struck by the
electron beam.

An outline explanation of how an oscilloscope works can be given using the block
diagram shown below:

Like a television screen, the screen of an oscilloscope consists of a cathode ray tube.
Although the size and shape are
different, the operating principle is the same. Inside the tube is a vacuum. The electron
beam emitted by the heated
cathode at the rear end of the tube is accelerated and focused by one or more anodes,
and strikes the front of the tube,
producing a bright spot on the phosphorescent screen.
The electron beam is bent, or deflected, by voltages applied to two sets of plates fixed in
the tube. The horizontal
deflection plates, or X-plates produce side to side movement. As you can see, they are
linked to a system block called
the time base. This produces a sawtooth waveform. During the rising phase of the
sawtooth, the spot is driven at a
uniform rate from left to right across the front of the screen. During the falling phase,
the electron beam returns
rapidly from right ot left, but the spot is 'blanked out' so that nothing appears on the
screen.
In this way, the time base generates the X-axis of the V/t graph.
The slope of the rising phase varies with the frequency of the sawtooth and can be
adjusted, using the TIME/DIV control,
to change the scale of the X-axis. Dividing the oscilloscope screen into squares allows
the horizontal scale to be
expressed in seconds, milliseconds or microseconds per division (s/DIV, ms/DIV, s/DIV).
Alternatively, if the squares
are 1 cm apart, the scale may be given as s/cm, ms/cm or s/cm.
The signal to be displayed is connected to the input. The AC/DC switch is usually kept in
the DC position
(switch closed) so that there is a direct connection to the Y-amplifier. In the AC position
(switch open) a capacitor is

placed in the signal path. As will be explained in Chapter 5, the capacitor blocks DC
signals but allows AC signals to
pass.
The Y-amplifier is linked in turn to a pair of Y-plates so that it provides the Y-axis of the
the V/t graph. The overall gain
of the Y-amplifier can be adjusted, using the VOLTS/DIV control, so that the resulting
display is neither too small or
too large, but fits the screen and can be seen clearly. The vertical scale is usually given
in V/DIV or mV/DIV.
The trigger circuit is used to delay the time base waveform so that the same section of
the input signal is displayed on
the screen each time the spot moves across. The effect of this is to give a stable picture
on the oscilloscope screen,
making it easier to measure and interpret the signal.
Changing the scales of the X-axis and Y-axis allows many different signals to be
displayed. Sometimes, it is also useful
to be able to change the positions of the axes. This is possible using the X-POS and YPOS controls. For example, with
no signal applied, the normal trace is a straight line across the centre of the screen.
Adjusting Y-POS allows the zero
level on the Y-axis to be changed, moving the whole trace up or down on the screen to
give an effective display of
signals like pulse waveforms which do not alternate between positive and negative
values.

In this article we are going to have some introductory information about general
functionality of a cathode ray oscilloscope that is an instrument used for
communication study purposes, requirement of study of waveform of various type of
signal, be it DC of AC, is performed. Generally it deals with electronic branch of
science that involves very complex and integrated circuitry for operation. This way it
becomes a complete system comprising of circuitry for performing various tasks like
amplification of input weak signals, their calibration according to the scale for their
representation upon the screen.
Cathode ray oscilloscope being a very useful and versatile can be used for
measurement and analysis in laboratories of an electronic instrument. Not only
measurements, it can also be used for study of many other electrical and electronic
phenomenon and properties. Taking it to the most basic level it is actually a XY plotter
that is capable of displaying an input signal against another signal or time, in most
common case. There exists a spot that moves along the screen in response of an
applied input signal, this spot is a luminous spot that appears because of staking of
electron been over florescent screen. This beam is produced by the input applied
voltage at the input section of the oscilloscope having negligible inertia effect
with them. The beam is having relatively very low inertia when it is compared with
metallic conductors which are used in other oscillators like Duddell's oscilloscope.
This capability of cathode ray oscilloscope over other oscilloscopes makes it faster
than them on the basis of their frequency acceptance for measurement.
A horizontal voltage, as input voltage, is used in this oscilloscope that is actually a
voltage that is generated internally in it and termed as ramp voltage. This is the
voltage which is responsible for movement of luminous spot across the screen in
horizontal direction and in specified direction i.e. from left to right. On the other hand
movement of spot along y direction is governed by applied input voltage in such a

way that the spot moves up or down in accordance with applied input voltage and
whose magnitude depends directly upon magnitude of testing signal. In this way this
spot while moving from left to right actually traces the whole wave form of applied
signal and makes it possible to observe an analyse the signal under test. When it
becomes the case that the input signal repeats itself, then moving trace appears to
be stationary upon the screen. In this way a mean of visualizing input signal in
obtained with this type of oscilloscope. And it becomes such a tool in field of electrical
and electronics that provides wide possibility of measurement and analysis of
electrical properties and phenomenon. As CRO works upon application of voltage
to it that may be obtained from a variety of sources. In this way if we apply some
proper type of transducer and convert different physical quantities like velocity,
acceleration, speed, pressure, poser consumed in circuits or power stations,
movement of extra terrestrial and terrestrial bodies into their equivalent electrical
form them it becomes possible to study them by visualizing their change and pattern
that they follow with respect of time or any other parameter. They can also be used
for the study of transient phenomenon, time varying quantities.
With a continuous advancement in technology they have been evolutions so far that
now it is possible with them to measure the signal of frequency up to 1 GHz. There is
arrangement of traditional features associated with them like:

Digital multi-meter

Counter

Additional amplifiers etc.

In this way it is perceived that they are continuously getting smarter and smarter with
time. It can be even seen by the fact that some of them are controlled by
microcontrollers. These are found to be capable of performing many different
functions with the given input signal like:

Calculation of rise time

Calculation of pulse width

To display these quantities along with their concerned waveform

Such internal routine are available that acts as a guide for the user to make it user
friendly. Now a day it has become possible to make such oscilloscope having IEEE
488 bus capabilities with that enables them to be a part of measurement test bed
along with a control set at a distant location and reading being digitized and retrieved
so that recording and analysis may be performed upon it.
As a traditional basis most of the oscilloscopes are monochromatic i.e. black and
white that can plot the wave form in single colour. But now many coloured
oscilloscopes are finding their place in market.

Use of oscillator in immerging technology

1. Waveform analysis in communication system design.
2. Output analysis designed electronic circuits and their response to wards
different voltage and current inputs.
3. In determination of time constant, phase shift, frequency, pulses width, and
amplitude variations of the signal under test.
4. Study of noise spectrum in received signals at the receiver section of
communication systems.
5. For study of wave propagation of in laboratories.
6. For visualization of physical quantities after their conversion into proper
electrical form so that the changes occurring over there may be observe and
study may become even simpler.

Disadvantages of cathode ray oscilloscope

Although these are proven to be very useful by the virtue of their application in wave
form analysis but still them come up with their own embedded limitations. Some of
them can be summarized as followed:
1. It is a very sensitive device and is often noise prone i.e. upon application small
signals to them noise may enter in the system through open wiring, exposed
metallic components and unprotected parts. So they require complete isolation
from noise prone sources.
2. When it comes to analyse very high frequency signals a general cathode ray
oscilloscope becomes incapable to produce some reliable result because that
much of variations are not supported by normal electronic components used in
them.
3. Very sudden changes cannot be observed with normal CRO, particularly when
they are occurring at very high frequency because they occur for a very small
instant of time and human eye remains incapable of observing them.
4. Cathode ray oscilloscope cannot be used for study of high voltage signals and in
order to study them they first need to be converted to low voltage, this puts a
limiting mark upon application of these instruments.

5. They are a lot of control terminals over the control panel that leads to a greater
complexity of the device making it difficult to use.

What is the significance of applying saw tooth

wave to horizontal plates of cro?
1. saw tooth signal means the trigger given to the cro after regular interval of time. hence
at every trigger the graph shifts towards right. hence possible to distinguish separate
signal.
2. That sawtooth is to get the electron that collides -getting a green dot to light- with screen
to move from left to right. It is to make the 'electronic pencil' move. Meanwhile vertical
plates receive the changes in volts of the signal to display. Combination among two
effects makes you see evolution in time axis of the signal.