VECTOR CALCULUS

Part1: Curves and Surfaces

Part 1 (syllabus)
-Coordinate Transformations
-Parametric representations of curves and surfaces
-Elements of length and area in curvilinear coordinates
-Vector valued functions of a scalar variable
-Scalar and Vector Fields
-Surface and volume integrals

3-D Euclidean Spaces

Spaces whose geometry satisfies the axioms of Euclid (parallel lines dont
meet etc.). Arose from the first attempts to describe the space we live in.
These are called "intrinsically flat spaces".
In such spaces a coordinate system OX1X 2 X 3 can be
found such that the "metric element of length" dl between neighbouring
points (x1, x 2 , x 3 ),(x1 + dx1, x 2 + dx 2 , x 3 + dx 3 ) is given by
2

dl 2 = dx1 + dx 2 + dx 3

These are the familiar rectangular cartesian (RC) coordinate systems.

The vector algebra developed in first year was based on
such spaces and coordinate systems.

NOTATION : We use x = (x1 ,x2 .x3 ) to be the position vector of a

point in a rectangular coordinate system (RC) OX1 X 2 X 3 . Unit vectors
in direction of coordinate axes are (e1 ,e 2 ,e 3 ).
Equivalently,we sometimes use r = (x,y,z) to be the position vector of a
point in a rectangular coordinate system (RC) OXYZ. Unit vectors
in direction of coordinate axes are then (i, j,k).
All coordinates systems are assumed to be right handed (RH).
[a,b] represents closed interval a " t " b
(a,b) represents open interval a < t < b
A function f is
- - of class C 0 if it exists and is continuous.
- - of class C1 if its first partial derivatives exist and are continuous.
- - -of class C 2 if its second partial derivatives exist and are continuous.

Coordinate Transformations in 2D Euclidean Space

Consider a RH RC coordinate system (x1 ,x2 ) and the C1 transformation :
x1 = f1 (u,v), x2 = f2 (u,v)
or x = f (u,v)
We can look at this as a mapping from
a region Ruv in (u,v) space onto a region
R in (x1 ,x2 ) space.
The Jacobian of the transformation is

"f1 "f1
J = "u "v
(definition)
"f 2 "f 2
"u "v
We choose transformations that are
(1-1) on Ruv - that is J # 0.
Geometrically, the Jacobian measures the distortion of area.

Note :
From the transformation, and the differentiability
of f1 (u,v) and f2 (u,v) , we have
"f1
"f1
dx1 = du + dv
"u
"v
"f 2
"f 2
dx2 =
du + dv
"u
"v
For these equations to be invertible, (solvable for (du, dv))
we require

"f1 "f1
J = "u "v # 0
"f 2 "f 2
"u "v
(see Adams section 14.4)
6

Note that the Jacobian of the inverse transformation is

"u "u
"(u,v) "x "y
=
"(x,y) "v "v
"x "y
It can be shown that
"(x,y)
"(u,v)
=1
,
"(u,v)
"(x,y)

"(x,y)
=1
"(x,y)

- - - - - (show using chain rule)

We also have transitivity

"(x,y) "(x,y) "(u,v)
=
"(s,t) "(u,v) "(s,t)
7

Coordinate Curves (and curvilinear coordinates)

By keeping one parameter fixed and varying the other,
we get coordinate curves
C1 : x = f (u,vP ) = f1 (u,vP )e1 + f2 (u,vP )e2
C 2 : x = f (uP ,v) = f1 (uP ,v)e1 + f2 (u p ,v)e2
Along C1 , u varies. This is the u - coordinate curve through P.
(u,v) are sometimes called curvilinear coordinates.

Example : Plane polar coordinates

x = f1 (r," ) = rcos"
y = f2 (r," ) = r sin"
r = c = const
# x = ccos" ,

(" coordinate curves)

y = csin"

# x 2 + y 2 = c 2 $ $ $ $circle

" = % = const
(r coordinate curves)
# x = rcos% , y = r sin %
# y = x tan % $ $ $ $ $ straight lines through origin

Elements of length and area

Element of length
"f
"f
Notation : f u =
, fv =
etc.
"u
"v
The distance between two points P(u,v),Q (u + du, v + dv) is given by
2

dl 2 = d x.d x = dx1 + dx2 = ( f u du + f v dv).( f u du + f v dv)

= f u . f u du 2 + 2 f u . f v dudv + f v . f v dv 2
Elements of length along u and v coordinate curves are
2

dlu = f u . f u du 2 = h1 du 2
dlv = f v . f v dv 2 = h2 dv 2
h1 = f u =

"f
"f
, h2 = f v =
"u
"v
10

We can form unit tangents " 1 to C1 and " 2 to C2 at P :

1 $# f '
1 $# f '
" 1 = & ) ," 2 = & )
h % #u (
h % #v (
1

#f
h1 =
,
#u P

u P ,v P

#f
h2 =
#v

u P ,v P

1 +# f # f .
"1 *" 2 =
, * / e3
h1h2 - #u #v 0 P

#f1 #f1
1 #f1 #f2 #f2 #f1
1 #u #v
=
(
1
)e 3 =
e3
h1h2 #u #v #v #u
h1h2 #f2 #f2
#u #v P
Note that for a non - degenerate transformation (i.e distinct families of
of coordinate curves required for a 1-1 transformation),we require
" 1 * " 2 2 0 . Since the Jacobian is non - zero, this is guaranteed.

11

Orthogonal curvilinear systems

If " 1 and " 2 satisfy
"1 #" 2 = e3
or equivalently if

$f1
$u
$f 2
$u

$f1
$v = h h
1 2
$f 2
$v P

we have an orthogonal curvilinear coordinate system.

Through any point, the two coordinate curves are
orthogonal to each other.
12

Element of area
dA = (h1du " 1 )#(h2dv " 2 ) = f u # f v dudv

$f1
= Abs value of $u
$f 2
$u
$ ( f1 , f2 )
dA =
dudv
$(u,v)
or equivalently

$f1
$v dudv
$f 2
$v

$ ( f1 , f2 )
dx1dx2 =
dudv
$(u,v)
For an orthogonal system,
dA = h1h2dudv

13

Example : x = r cos" , y = r sin" (plane polar coordinates)

#x #x
#(x,y) #r #" cos" $r sin"
=
=
=r
#
y
#
y
sin" r cos"
#(r," )
#r #"
#(r," ) 1
=
(check directly)
#(x,y) r
#(x,y)
dA =
drd" = rdrd"
#(r," )
Note :
#f
#f
#f
h1 =
= ( 1 )2 + ( 2 )2 = cos 2 " + sin 2 " = 1
#r
#r
#r
#f
#f1 2 #f2 2
h2 =
= ( ) + ( ) = r 2 sin 2 " + r 2 cos 2 " = r
#"
#"
#"
dA = (h1dr)(h 2d" ) $ $ $ $ $ because coordinate curves orthogonal

14

Area integrals by coordinate transformation

Single integrals :

x = x(u)

dx
du
du
x
u
Double Integrals; x = x(u,v)
x2

u2

" f (x)dx = " f (x(u))

#(x1 ,x2 )
dudv
"" f (x1 ,x2 )dA = "" f ((x1 (u,v),x2 (u,v))
# (u,v)
R
R
or using (x,y) as variables
uv

#(x,y)
dudv
"" f (x,y)dxdy = "" f ((x(u,v),y(u,v))
#(u,v)
R
R
uv

15

Choose a transformation which simplifies the boundaries

or the integrand or both
No Obvious
advantage

Clear
Advantage!

16

EX : Calculate area bounded by the curves

y = 0, y = x 2 , y = 1" x 2 , y = 4 " x 2 .
The form of the boundaries suggests that we
cook up a transformation that makes the two
famlies of curves coordinate curves : So we
take
y = ux 2 , y = v " x 2
The four boundaries are u = 0, u = 1, v = 1, v = 4
# u = y x2 , v = x2 + y
3

2y
$(u,v) " 3
= x
$(x,y) 2x

$(x,y)
="
$(u,v)

1
2 y
(u +1) 2
2 ="
( 2 +1) = "2
x
1
x
x
1
v2
v

1
2

2(u +1)

3
2

17

"(x,y)
dudv
## dA = ## dxdy = ##
"(u,v)
1 v=4 u=1
$ ## dA = # ( #
2 v=1 u=0

1
2

(u +1)

3
2

du )dv

u=1
1 v=4 2
= ( # v dv)( #
2 v=1
u=0

1
(u +1)

3
2

du

3
1
+ (
1 2% 2( %
2
=
'v * '+2(u +1) *
2 3 & )1 &
)0

7
= ( 2 +1)
3
18

Transformation to plane polar coordinates

For area integrals where the boundaries are circular, it is
often helpful to make a transformation to plane polar
coordinates :
x = r cos"
y = r sin"
$(x,y)
#J=
=r
$(r," )

(shown previously)

$(x,y)
drd"
$(r," )
R
= %% f (r cos" ,r sin" )rdrd"

%% f (x,y)dxdy = %% f (r cos" ,r sin" )

R

r"

Rr"

19

Ex : Evaluate "" ydA where R is the area between the circles

R

x 2 + y 2 = ax and x 2 + y 2 = 2ax in the first quadrant.

2

1
a
The two circles are : (x # a)2 + y 2 = : (x # a)2 + y 2 = a 2
2
4
Put x = r cos$ , y = r sin$
y

Boundaries : r 2 = ar cos$ % r = a cos$

r 2 = 2ar cos$ % r = 2a cos$
The integrals must be taken between $ = 0,&/2

r
!

2a

x
20

$ /2

2a cos "

a cos "

I = ## r sin" rdrd" = # sin"d" # r 2dr

Rr"
2a cos "

%r 3 (
= # ' *
sin"d"
0 & 3 )a cos "
$ /2

7 3
a cos 3 " sin"d"
0 3
7 3 $ /2 3
= + a # cos " (d cos" )
3 0
4 ($ / 2
%
7 cos "
7 3
= + a 3'
=
a
*
3 & 4 )0
12
$ /2

= #

21

Example : Evaluate
"

I=

"

# #e
0

$(x 2 +y 2 )

dxdy

by transforming to polar coordinates. Hence show that

"

#e

$t 2

dt = %

22

Vector valued functions

of a scalar variable
Example : The position vector r(t) of a particle moving in a plane :
where t is the time.
r(t) = t 2 i + t 3 j

(0 " t < #)

r(t)

Example : The acceleration vector a(t) of a particle moving in a plane :

a(t) = 2i + 6t j
(0 " t < #)
a(t)
23

Differentiation
Consider a vector v which is function of the scalar u.
v could be the velocity of a particle, and u the time.
We define its derivative in the standard way :
dv
"v
= lim
du "u#0 "u
v(u + "u) $ v(u)
= lim
"u#0
"u
v1 (u + "u) $ v1 (u)
v2 (u + "u) $ v2 (u)
v3 (u + "u) $ v3 (u)
= lim
i + lim
j + lim
k
"u#0
"u#0
"u#0
"u
"u
"u
dv1 dv2
dv3
=
i+
j+
k
du
du
du
That is, simply differentiate the components, and sum vectorially
24

Example : A particle moves so that its position vector is

given by
r(t) = ti + t 2 j + t 3 k " " " " " " " "a vector valued function
The first derivative gives the velocity
dr
v(t) =
= i + 2t j + 3t 2 k - - - - another vector valued function
dt
and the derivative of the velocity the acceleration
dv
a(t) =
= 2 j + 6t k - - - - another vector valued function
dt
v(t)
a(t)

!
r(t)

25

Differentiation of sums and products

If a(u), b(u), c(u) are vector valued functions, and
f (u) is a scalar valued function, the following can be
proved .
d
d
d
(a(u) + b(u)) = a(u) + b(u)
du
du
du
d
df
d
( f (u)a(u)) = a(u) + f (u) a(u)
du
du
du
d
da(u)
db(u)
(a(u) . b(u)) =
.b(u) + a(u).
du
du
du
d
da(u)
db(u)
(a(u) " b(u)) =
"b(u) + a(u)"
du
du
du
26

Example : To prove

d
df (u)
da(u)
( f (u)a(u)) =
a(u) + f (u)
du
du
du

d
( f (u)a(u))
du
f (u + "u)a(u + "u) - f (u)a(u)
lim
"u#0
"u
( f (u) + f $(u)"u + ..)(a(u) + a$(u)"u + ..) - f (u)a(u)
= lim
"u#0
"u
= f $(u)a(u) + f (u)a$(u)
Example :
p(u) = p1 (u)e1 + p2 (u)e 2 + p3 (u)e 3
d
dp1 (u)
de1
p(u) =
e1 + p1 (u)
+ ....... ( only because basis vectors constant)
du
du
du
dp1 (u)
dp2 (u)
dp3 (u)
=
e1 +
e2 +
e 3 ..(simply differentiate components)
27
du
du
du

Differentiating triple products

d
da
db
dc
(a .( b "c)) =
. (b "c) + a . ( "c) + a .( b " )
du
du
du
du
d
da
db
dc
(a "( b "c)) =
" (b "c) + a " ( "c) + a "( b " )
du
du
du
du
Rule : differentiate term by term preserving order of vectors
in each expression.

!
28

Example
d
(1) ( p. p " p) = p . p " p + p. p " p + p. p " p
dt
= p. p " p

(2)

d
( p " p ) = p " p + p " p
dt
= p " p

29

Taylors Series
p(a + h) = p(a) + p"(a)h + ......+

1 (n)
p (a)h n + ....
n!

Proof by taking components in a RC coordinate system;

Now
p(a + h) = p1 (a + h)e1 + p2 (a + h)e 2 + p3 (a + h)e 3
and
1 (n)
p1 (a + h) = p1 (a) + p1" (a)h + ......+ p1 (a)h n + ....(Taylor's series )
n!
1 (n)
p2 (a + h) = p2 (a) + p"2 (a)h + ......+ p2 (a)h n + ...
n!
...............................................
# p(a + h) = [ p1 (a)e1 + p2 (a)e 2 + p3 (a)e 3 ]+[ p1" (a)e1 + p"2 (a)e 2 + p"3 (a)e 3 ]h + ...
$ p(a + h) = p(a) + p"(a)h + ......+

1 (n)
p (a)h n + ....
n!

30

If a vector is a function of more than one scalar variable,

we can define partial derivatives.
Suppose p(u,v)

"p
p(u + #u,v) % p(u,v)
pu =
= lim
"u #u$0
#u
provided the limit exists.
The rules we had previously carry over also to partial derivatives :
Thus

"
" a(u,v)
" b(u,v)
(a(u,v) . b(u,v)) =
.b(u,v) + a(u,v).
"u
"u
"u
etc.
31

Scalar and Vector Fields

Consider a doman D " R 3
Scalar Field # (x)
For every point P $ D assign a scalar # $ R
# (x) = # (x1 ,x2 ,x3 )
2

Ex : # (x) = x1 + x2 + x3 = r

(distance from origin)

%(x) = density at position x in a fluid

Vector Field v(x)
For every point P $ D assign a vector v $ R
v(x) = v1 (x1 ,x2 ,x3 )e1 + v2 (x1 ,x2 ,x3 )e 2 + v3 (x1 ,x2 ,x3 )e 3
Ex : v(x) = x
v= v = x =r

(Big bang model of universe)

32

Example : v = (x,0,0)
Velocity has only a "x" component.
The magnitude is
v = x2 + 0 + 0 = x

Example : v = (y,0,0)
Velocity has only a "x" component.
The magnitude of the velocity is
v(x,y,z) = y 2 + 0 + 0 = y
x
y
,
,0)
2
2
2
2
x +y x +y
The magnitude of the velocity is
1
1
1
v = 2 2 x 2 + y2 =
=
x +y
x 2 + y2 r
Example : v = (

33

Curves and Surfaces

34

Curves
A curve C is a set (" R 3 ) of points having
at least one parametric representation
x = f (t) = f1 (t)e1 + f2 (t)e 2 + f3 (t)e 3
where f is continuous in [a,b] (that is f # C 0 )
We say that f maps Ct :[a,b] onto C.
C is an arc if f (a) $ f (b)
C is a closed curve if f (a) = f (b)

35

C is simple if there exists at least one C 0 mapping f (t) of [a,b] on to C

which is one to one on [a,b]. That is, a simple curve cannot intersect
itself
C is smooth if there exists at least one C1 mapping
df j
( = f j" continuous) with
dt
2

f "(t) =

f3" + f2" + f3" # 0

on [a,b]

(the latter is the requirement for the curve to have a tangent)

A simple
piecewisesmooth curve

A simple curve C is piecewise smooth if the images C1 ,C2 ,C3 ....CN

(N finite) of [a,t1 ],[t1 ,t 2 ],........[t N $1 ,b] are smooth.
36

Each simple curve has two orientations. A simple curve with a sense of
orientation is said to be a oriented simple curve or a directed simple
curve.
Q
Q
P

A plane curve (e.g. x3 = f3 = 0)

x(t) = f1 (t)e1 + f2 (t)e 2
is said to be positively directed if t increasing
corresponds to counter clockwise
passage in the x1 " x2 plane.

37

Suppose C is a simple smooth curve given by x = f (t) a " t " b.

Let P and Q be two adjacent points on C
P : x = x P = f (t)
Q : x = x Q = f (t + #t)
Then PQ = #x = f (t + #t) $ f (t)
Thus #x #t is a vector in direction PQ. In limit #t % 0,
PQ becomes tangent to curve at P. Thus
dx
#x d f
T=
= lim
=
= f &(t)
#t%0
dt
#t dt
is a vector which is tangent to the curve at P.
Unit Tangent

'=

f &(t) 1
d x dt
=
= f &(t)
d x dt
f &(t) h

h = f &(t) is related to arc length along curve

38

P(t)
x

Element of Length
2

dl = d x = dx1 + dx2 + dx3

dl=IdxI = hdt
Q(t+dt)

x +dx

(" dx %2 " dx %2 " dx %2 + 2

2
2
2
2
1
2
3
= *$ ' + $
' + $ ' -dt = f1. + f2. + f3. dt
)# dt & # dt & # dt & ,

dl =

f1. + f2. + f3. = f .(t) dt = hdt

and the arc length is given by

t

s(t) = l(t) = / dl = / h(t.)dt.

t0

Note that d x can be looked upon as a vectorial element of length

along the curve. We sometimes write
dl = d x = (hdt)0
39

Curvature
Suppose that C is a simple smooth curve parametrised as
x = f (s)

a" s"b

where s is the arc length along the curve (for an arbitrary parametrisation t,
ds
to change variables from t # s)
dt
With this parametrisation the tangent
use

dx
T=
ds
is now also the unit tangent because the
scale factor
dx
h=
=1
ds
dx
$% =
ds

(Q d x = ds)

40

Since " ." = 1

d" d"
d"
" . + ." = 0 # 2" . = 0
ds ds
ds
which implies that " is perpendicular to

d"
.
ds

We define the curvature of x(s) to be

d"
ds
and the principal normal n by
d"
= $n
ds
The plane containing " and n at any point P of the curve
is called the osculating plane.
Note that

$=

1 d " 1 d 2 x(s)
n=
=
$ ds $ ds 2

41

#%
d"
#"
= lim
= lim
=&
#s$0
#s$0
ds
#s
#s
So curvature measures the
rate of rotation of the
unit tangent as we move along the curve.

1
Radius of Curvature: " =
#
42

Ex : Consider the circular helix defined by

x(t) = coste1 + sinte 2 + te 3
X3
dx
T=
= "sinte1 + coste 2 + e 3 " " " " tangent
dt
dx
ds = d x =
dt = 2dt # scale factor h = 2
dt
ds
and
= 2
dt
dx dx 1 dx 1
$=
/
=
=
("sinte1 + coste 2 + e 3 ) - - - unit tangent
dt dt h dt
2
d$ 1
=
(" coste1 " sinte 2 )
dt
2
d $ dt d $ 1 1
% =
=
(" coste1 " sinte 2 )
ds ds dt
2 2
d$ 1
%& =
= and
ds 2
Principal normal is n = "(coste1 + sinte 2 )

X2

X1

43

Torsion
Define the unit bi - normal vector by
b(s) = " (s)#n(s)
(i.e. complete the orthonormal triad).
db(s)
b(s).b(s) = 1 $ 2b(s).
=0
ds
db
$
is perpendicular to b
ds
Also
d"
db
" .b = 0 $ .b + " . = 0
ds
ds
db
% n.b + " . = 0
ds
db
". = 0
ds
db
$
is perpendicular to "
ds
db
&
is in the direction of n
ds

44

We define torsion by
db
= "# n
ds
That is,
db
ds
Since b is a unit vector, we see as before that #
is the rate of rotation of b, or equivalently of
the osculating plane with distance along the curve.

#=

# is positive if b rotates positively (in a right handed

sense) around t as s increases.
The torsion of a curve can also be seen to be the extent
to which a curve fails to be planar.
45

Ex : Calculate the torsion of the circular helix x(t) = coste1 + sinte 2 + te 3

X3
We had
ds
= 2
dt
1
"=
(#sinte1 + coste 2 + e 3 ) - - - unit tangent
2
n = #(coste1 + sinte 2 ) - - - - - - - - - unit normal
e1
e2
e3
1
1
$b = " %n =
#sint cost 1 =
(sinte1 # coste 2 + e 3 )
2
2
# cost #sint 0

X2

X1

- - - -unit binormal
db 1
=
(coste1 + sinte 2 )
dt
2
db db dt 1
&
=
= (coste1 + sinte 2 )
ds dt ds 2
db
1
Using
= #' n, torsion ' =
ds
2

46

Example : Show that

dn
= "# t + $ b
ds
(Hint : differentiate n = b % & )
Collecting all the results, we have a set of three
equations which are known as the Frenet - Serret Relations.
d&
= #n
ds
dn
= "# t + $ b
ds
db
= "$ n
ds
47

Line Integrals
Line integrals along a path C may be of one of
several forms;
" A(x).d x, " A(x)#d x , " $ (x)dl , " A1 (x)dx2
C

etc.

where A(x) is a vector field and $ (x) is a scalar field.

Now, " A(x).d x = " A1 (x)dx1 + " A2 (x)dx2 + " A3 (x)dx3 etc.
C

Therefore, all such line integrals can be built up from the following two
basic elements :
b

# " (x)dl = # " ( f (t)) f $(t) dt

C

and
b

# " (x)dxk = # " ( f (t)) fk$(t)dt

C

(k = 1,2,3)

where " (x) is some scalar field.

48

Explicit representation
If we have an explicit representation of C
C : x2 = g(x1 ), x3 = h(x1 ) a " x1 " b
where h and g are continuous functions in [a,b],
the parametric representation is
x = e1 x1 + e 2 x2 + e 3 x3
= e1 x1 + e 2 g(x1 ) + e 3h(x1 ) (t = x1 )
d x = e1dx1 + e 2 g#(x1 )dx1 + e 3h#(x1 )dx1
dl = ds = d x = 1+ g# 2 + h# 2 dx1
Then these basic elements become
b

% $ (x)dl = % $ (x1 ,g(x1 ),h(x1 )) 1+ g# 2 + h# 2 dx1

C

a
b

% $ (x)dx1 = % $ (x1 ,g(x1 ),h(x1 ))dx1

C

a
b

% $ (x)dx2 = % $ (x1 ,g(x1 ),h(x1 ))g#(x1 )dx1

C

...etc.

49

Example : Evaluate " xy 2ds where C is the quarter circle

C

x = cost, y = sint (0 # t #

$
)
2

r = (x,y) = (cost,sint)
ds =

dr
dt = sin 2 t + cos 2 tdt = dt
dt
$ /2

%sin 3 t (
1
2
2
2
=
" xy ds = " cost sin tdt = " sin td(sint) = '
*
3
C
0
0
& 3 )0
$ /2

$ /2

Example : Evaluate " xy 2dx , " xy 2dy along the parabola y = x 2 from (0,0) to (2,4).
C

r = (x,y) = (x,x 2 )
(dx,dy) = (dx,2xdx)

(using explicit representation with x as parameter)

2

% x 6 ( 32
2
4
" xy dx = " x.x dx = ' * =
C
0
& 6 )0 3
2

% x 7 ( 256
2
4
" xy dy = " x.x .2xdx = 2' * =
7
C
0
& 7 )0
2

50

Example : Calculate work done by force F = (0,0,-mg) in

moving particle from a = (x0 ,y0 ,z0 ) to b = (x,y,z)
along a straight line.
Work done :
W = " F.dr
C

= " (Fx ,Fy ,Fz ).(dx,dy,dz)

C

= " (Fx dx +Fy dy + Fz dz)

C
z

= - " mgdz = #mg(z # z0 )

z0

51

Usual method for complex paths : parametrise path

Equation of path C (a straight line in this case)
r = a + t(b " a) = (x0 ,y0 ,z0 ) + (x - x0 ,y " y0 ,z - z0 )t
(0 # t # 1)
1
dr
Work done : W = $ F.dr = $ F(r(t)). dt
dt
C
0
1

= $ ((0,0,-mg)).(x - x0 ,y " y0 ,z - z0 )dt = "mg(z " z0 ) $ dt = "mg(z " z0 )

Note : Answer depends only on end points!
In fact,

W = $ F.dr = $ F.dr
C1

independently of path because

the force field is "conservative" (Shown later)

52

Circulation
Integral

x2

x1

If C is a closed curve,
I = " A.d x or " A.dl
is called the CIRCULATION of A about C and written
Example : Calculate the circulation of v = (x1 ,0) over unit circle.
Parametrise circle : x = (cost,sint)
(0 # t # 2$ )
2$
dx
" v.d x = " v. dt = " (cost,0).(%sint,cost)dt
dt
unit circle
unit circle
0
2$

= - " sint costdt = 0

0

53

Another type of integral is

I = # A "d x
C

This is interpreted as
I = # (e1 A1 + e 2 A2 + e 3 A3 )"(e1dx1 + e 2dx2 + e 3dx3 )
C

= e1 # (A2dx3 $ A3dx2 ) + e 2 # (A3dx1 $ A1dx3 ) + e 3 # (A1dx2 $ A2dx1 )

C

Components are
I1 = # A2dx3 $ # A3dx2 etc. of the standard form.
C

!
54

Example : In the previous example with v = (x1 ,0) calculate

I = " v #d x
x2

unit circle

I1 = " (v2dx3 $ v3dx2 ) = 0

C

I 2 = " (v3dx1 $ v1dx3 ) = 0

x1

I3 =

" v1 dx2 $
unit circle

" v1 dx2 =
unit circle

" v2dx1
unit circle
2%

2%

2
x
dx
=
cost
d(sint)
=
cos
t dt
" 1 2 "
"
unit circle

1 2%
= " [1+ cos 2t] dt = %
2 0
and " v2dx1 = 0
unit circle

& I = % e3

55

Surfaces
Not all surfaces can be represented as a graph of a function
of 2 variables using rectangular cartesian coordinates
z = f(x,y)
Thus, it is not possible to represent the surface of a doughnut
by such an equation.
We are therefore led to consider more general parametric
representations of surfaces.
Just as curves can be seen as mappings of a straight line
surfaces can be seen as being mappings of the plane
56

Parametric Surfaces
Cuv is positively directed (simple piecewise smooth) curve in the (u,v) plane.
Suv is the union of Cuv and its interior.
A surface S is a set (" R 3 ) of points having at least one parametric representation
x = g(u,v) = e1g1 (u,v) + e 2 g2 (u,v) + e 3g3 (u,v) u,v # Suv
g(u,v) is continuous on Suv . As u,v vary, the tip of x describes a
surface in x1 x2 x3 space. g is a mapping of Suv onto S.
If g(u,v) # C1 , we say that the surface is differentiable,
or a C1 surface.

Mapping

57

S is simple if there exists at least one mapping x = g(u,v)

(of Suv onto S) that is one to one.

"g
"g
S is smooth if the functions
and
are continuous
"u
"v
on Suv (that is, g # C1 ) with
"g "g
$
%0
" u "v

( u, v # S)

(This is the condition for there to be a tangent plane at

every point - int uitively,no corners)
If S is simple, Cuv maps onto the edge of C.

Note: These surfaces can be looked upon as 2-D subspaces

of 3-D Euclidean space.
!

58

Example : Consider the parametrised surface

x = g(r," ) = r cos " e1 + r sin " e 2 + re 3
Here
g1 (r," ) = r cos " , g2 (r," ) = r sin " , g3 (r," ) = r

x3

(r # 0)

and
(0,0) $ (0,0,0).

x2

45

Clearly, all partial derivatives of g are continuous everywhere

in (r," ) plane. But

r
!

%g
T1 =
= cos " e1 + sin " e 2 + e 3
%r
%g
T2 =
= &r sin " e1 + r cos " e 2
%"
and
T 1 'T 2 = 0 at (o,o)
This is a differentiable surface, but it is not smooth (by definition).

x1

Note : This is the surface of a cone of semi vertex angle 45 0 because

2

x3 = x1 + x2

59

Coordinate Curves
Let S be a simple smooth surface. Consider a point P " (u P ,v p ) on S.
The curves
C1 : x = g(u,v P )
C 2 : x = g(uP ,v)
which clearly lie on S and pass through P, are
called the coordinate curves through P.
We can form tangents T1 to C1 and T 2 to C2 at P.
$# g '
$# g '
T1 = & )
,T 2 = & )
%#u (uP ,v P
% #v (uP ,v P

#g #g
*
+0
# u #v P

(smooth , coordinate curves through P are distinct).

60

Unit tangents to coodinate curves :

#g #g 1 #g
#g #g 1 #g
"1 =
=
, "2 =
=
#u #u h1 #u
#v #v h2 #v
h1 ,h2 can be identified as the length scales
along the coordinate curves (see below)

The plane containing " 1 , " 2 is called the tangent plane at P.

Every tangent to the surface at P lies in the tangent plane
through P.

Now for any two adjacent points P,Q on surface,

#g
#g
dl = d x = du + dv = gu du + gv dv
#u
#v

61

The distance between two points P(u,v),Q (u + du, v + dv) is given by

2

dl = dx1 + dx2 + dx3 = d x.d x = ( gu du + gv dv).( gu du + gv dv)

= gu .gu du 2 + 2gu .gv dudv + gv .gv dv 2
dl is called the "metric element" of the surface.
Length element between two points P(u,v), S (u + du, v)
along u coordinate curve is

"g
dlu = gu .gu du =
du = h1du (dv = 0)
"u
Similarly, along v coordinate curve
"g
dlv = gv .gv dv =
dv = h2dv (du = 0)
"v

h2dv

T(u,v+dv)

P(u,v)
h1du

R (u+du,v)

62

If every u curve is perpendicular to every v - curve, we have an orthogonal

curvilinear coordinate system. A necessary condition is that
gu .gv = 0 (" 1 ." 2 = 0 - tangent curves orthogonal)
In this case
2

dl 2 = h1 du 2 + h2 dv 2

63

Intrinsically curved 2D surfaces

If one can find a parametric representation (t,w) such that
dl 2 = dt 2 + dw 2
everywhere, we say that the surface is flat (or equivalently "Euclidean").
Otherwise, the surface has intrinsic curvature.
The surface of a sphere has intrinsic curvature, but the surface
of a cylinder does not (see next two examples)
As with curves it is possible to define the curvature of
a surface. However, this is beyond the scope of the
present course.

64

Example : Parametric representation on the surface of a sphere

using co - latitude " and longitude # .
x = g(" ,# ) = Rsin" cos # e1 + Rsin" sin # e 2 + R cos" e 3

$g
T1 =
= R(cos" cos # e1 + cos" sin # e 2 % sin" e 3 )
$"
$g
T2 =
= R(%sin" sin # e1 + sin" cos # e 2 )
$#
T 1 .T 2 = 0 & orthogonal curvilinear coordinates

X3

$g
h1 =
=R
$"
$g
h2 =
= Rsin"
$#

! R
X2

"
X1

& dl 2 = R 2d" 2 + R 2 sin 2 "d# 2

65

Example : Parametric representation on the surface of a cylinder :

(" ,z) : " is plane polar angle, and z in vertical coordinate.
x = g(" ,z) = R cos " e1 + Rsin " e 2 + ze 3

#g
= R($sin " e1 + cos " e 2 )
#"
#g
T2 =
= Re 3
#z
T 1 .T 2 = 0 % orthogonal curvilinear coordinates
T1 =

#g
h1 =
=R
#"
h2 =

z coordinate
curve

! coordinate
curve

#g
=1
#z

R coordinate
curve

dl 2 = R 2d" 2 + dz 2

!
X

66

Now make the transformation

(" ,z) # (t,w)
through
t = R" , w = z
Clearly
dt = Rd" , dw = dz
and so
dl 2 = dt 2 + dw 2
This is the metric for a flat space.
So the surface of a cylinder is a (globally) flat space!
Note : A similar transformation is not possible of the
surface of a sphere (check it out!)

67

A surface has two normals at every point

We can form everywhere on S two unit normals
gu " gv #
+
+
n =
, n = -n
gu " gv
Note that what we define as the + and - is arbitrary
and which we get depends on our parametrisation.

!
68

Element of area dS
Now, between adjacent points on surface,
"g
"g
dl = d x = du + dv = gu du + gv dv
"u
"v
and along coordinate curves
dl u = gu du, dl v = gv dv
dS is the area of the parellelogram formed by dlu and dlv .
This can be seen to be
dS = dl u #dl v = (dlu $1 )#(dlv $ 2 ) = gu # gv dudv

Vector element of area dS

dS = dl u #dl v
= ( gu # gv )dudv = gu # gv dudv n

69

Example : On surface of sphere

x = g(" ,# ) = Rsin" cos # e1 + Rsin" sin # e 2 + R cos" e 3
g" = R(cos" cos # e1 + cos" sin # e 2 $ sin" e 3 )
g# = R($sin" sin # e1 + sin" cos # e 2 )
dS = (g" % g# )d"d# = R 2 sin"d"d# (sin" cos # e1 + sin" sin # e 2 + cos" e 3 )
= R 2 sin"d"d# e r
(e r is unit vector in radial direction)
h1 =

&g
=R
&"

&g
h2 =
= Rsin"
&#
Note : Since this is an orthogonal curvilinear coordinate system, we also
could have written directly
dS = h1h2d"d# = R 2 sin"d"d#

70

An orientable surface is a two sided surface with one side specified as the outside
or positive side and the other side the inside or the negative side.
Not all surfaces are two sided, even though we can assign two normals to every
point on the surface. For a two sided surface we can assign a unit normal n at
every point of the surface such that the resulting vector field n(x) of
normals is continuous everywhere. For such a surface, when the foot of n describes
any closed curve not crossing C, the initial and final directions of n are the same.
Such a surface has two orientations (two sides) determined
by the normals n(x), - n(x).

Non orientable
-Mobius strip-

Orientable
71

If the direction of C and n(x) form a RH system, C is said to be positively

directed with respect to n(x).
+

C is positively directed with respect to and n (x) in accompanying figure.

One orientation of a
two sided surface
72

The other orientation

Note: the direction of C2 is again positively directed with respect to

the normal n73

A piecewise smooth surface need not be orientable even if

each component is separately orientable.
The sum is orientable
(i) If each component is orientable
(ii) An orientation can be induced on each piece such that positive
direction on common boundaries are opposite.

74

Two Orientations of S

n+

Mobius Strip-non orientable sum

n-

Orientable Sums

75

Surface Integrals
Surface integrals can be of one of many types :
" a(x).dS, " # (x)dS
S

where
" a(x).dS = "" a(x).(ndS) = " a1 (x)n1dS + " a2 (x)n2dS + " a3 (x)n3dS
S

etc.
The above integral is called a flux integral (more later)

76

Surface integrals can be built up from

$g $g
dudv
## " (x)dS = ## " [g(u,v)] %
$u $u
S
S
and
'$g1 $g2 $g2 $g1 *
+
&
dudv
## " (x)n3 dS = ## "[g(u,v)])
,
( $u $v $u $v +
S
S
uv

uv

+
1

+ two similar integrals (with n ,n2 )

If we have an explicit representation of a surface,
x3 = f (x1 ,x2 ) x1 ,x2 - Sx x
1 2

the parametric representation is

x = g(x1 ,x2 ) = e1 x1 + e 2 x2 + e 3 f (x1 ,x2 )

(x1 = u, x2 = v)

where Sx x is simply the projection of S onto the OX1X 2 plane.

1 2

77

% $"f (
% "f (
"g "g
#
= e1 '
* + e2 ' * + e3
"x1 "x2
& "x1 )
& "x 2 )
2

% "f ( % "f (
"g "g
#
= ' * + ' * +1
"x1 "x2
& "x1 ) &"x2 )
% "g "g (
dS = ' #
*dx1dx2
& "x1 "x2 )

% $f ( 2 % $f ( 2
## " (x )dS = ## " (x1, x 2, f (x1, x 2)) '&$x *) + '& $x *) + 1 dx 1dx 2
1
2
S
S
x1x2

## " (x )n3+ dS = ## " (x1, x 2, f (x1, x 2))dx1dx 2

S

S x1x2

78

EX : Find the surface area of the paraboloid of revolution z = 4 " x 2 " y 2

about the z axis for z > 0.
We use the explicit parametrisation (x,y) since the equation of the
surface is given in the form z = f (x,y). Any point on this surface
Z
can be written in vector notation as
r(x,y) = xi + y j + (4 " x 2 " y 2 )k

#r
= i " 2xk
#x
#r
= j " 2yk
#y
Element of area is
Sxy
#r #r
dS = ( $ )dxdy = (2xi + 2y j + k)dxdy " " " (outward)
#x #y

(0,0,4)

r(x,y)
Y
X

dS = 4 x 2 + 4 y 2 +1 dxdy " " " Note : chosen to be positive

S = %% 4 x 2 + 4 y 2 +1 dxdy
Sxy

79

We do this integral by changing to

plane polar coordinates;
Sxy " Sr#
2% 2

S = $ $ 1+ 4r 2 rdrd#
0 0
2

&1
%
2 3/2 )
= 2% ( (1+ 4r ) + = (17 3 / 2 ,1)
'12
*0 6

80

Outward flux of a vector field across a closed surface

S : Closed surface about P with outward
unt outward normal n
V : Interior of S
a(x) : Vector field
(a.n)dS ="flux" of a across dS
a.n = flux of a per unit area of surface
Flux of a out of S is
"" a.dS = "" a.n dS (definition)
S

If a is velocity (m s-1 ), flux is rate of outflow of volume of fluid.

m 2 m3
volume
Dimension of "" a.dS :
m =
=
s
s
time
S

81

If " (r) is the density of a fluid and v(r) is the velocity of a fluid,
the "mass flux" across element of area dS is " v.n dS.
## " v.n dS
S

represents the total rate of outflow of mass across S and has

Mass
dimension [
]
time
Ex : calculate the upward flux of the vector field
F = (i + j + (x 2 + y 2 )k) across the unit disc x 2 + y 2 = 1.
Of the two normal directions of the disc we select n = k (upward).
2

unit disc

unit disc

1 2$

2
## F .n dS = ## (i + j + (x + y )k).k dS = ## (x + y ) dS = # # r (rdrd% ) =
unit disc

0 0

1
2$
4

82

Coordinate Transformations in 3D Euclidean Space

A coordinate transformation is a mapping
x = f (u) = e1 f1 (u1 ,u2 ,u3 ) + ...+ e 3 f3 (u1 ,u2 ,u3 )

( f continuous)

with u " D u # x = f (u) " D

where f and D u are so chosen such that for every point u " D u

$f j
(1) The functions
are continuous
$u k
(2) The mapping is one to one ( f(u) = f(u 0 ) % u = u 0 )
with the Jacobian J
$f1
$u1

& x1 ,x2 ,x3 )

J(
+=
' u1 ,u2 ,u3 * $f
3
$u1

$f1
$u 2

$f1
$u 3
,0

$f 3
$u 3
83

Curvilinear coordinates, coordinate surfaces

and coordinate curves
Set u1 = const = k1 , (and let u2 ,u3 vary).
x = f (k1 ,u2 ,u3 ) describes a two parameter (u2 ,u3 ) " coordinate surface.
Set u1 = k1 ,u2 = k2 (and let u3 vary)
x = f (k1 ,k2 ,u3 ) describes a one parameter u3 " coordinate curve.
Suppose P # D and has parametric coordinates (u1P ,u 2P ,u 3P )
S12P : (u1 " u2 surface)

x = f (u1 ,u2 ,u3P )

S31P : (u1 " u3 surface)

x = f (u1 ,u2P ,u3 )

S23P : (u2 " u3 surface)

x = f (u1 p ,u2 ,u3 )

84

C1P : (u1 curve)

C2P : (u 2 curve)
C3P : (u 3 curve)

#f
#u1

#f
#u1

x = f (u1 ,u2P ,u3P )

"1 =

x = f (u1P ,u2 ,u3P )

#f
"2 =
#u 2

#f
#u 2

x = f (u1P ,u2P ,u3 )

#f
"3 =
#u 3

#f
#u 3
85

The Element of Length

Element of length is given by
#" f
&#" f
&
"f
"f
"f
"f
2
dl = d x.d x = % du1 +
du2 +
du3 (.% du1 +
du2 +
du3 (
"u 2
"u 3
"u 2
"u 3
$"u1
' $"u1
'
2

"f
"f
"f
2
2
2
=
du1 +
du2 +
du3 + (....)du1du2 + (.........)du2du3 + (.........)du3du1
"u1
"u 2
"u 3
Note that in the (u1 ,u2 ,u3 ) coordinate system, the form of the metric element
of length may be such that it is not immediately obvious that the underlying
space is Euclidean ( flat).
That is, it may not be obvious that there is a transformation
(u1 ,u2 ,u3 ) ) (r,s,t) such that
dl 2 = ds 2 + dt 2 + dw 2

86

Element of length along u k curve is implied by arc length

parameter
dk l =
hk =

$k =

"x
du k = hk du k
"u k
"x
=
"u k

(k = 1,2,3)

"x1 2
"x
) + ..+ ( 3 ) 2
"u k
"u k

"f1 2
"f
) + ..+ ( 3 ) 2 # 0
"u k
"u k

1 "x
1 "f
=
hk "u k hk "u k

1
"x "x "x
{
&
%
}
h1h2 h3 "u1 "u2 "u 3
"f "f "f
1
1
=
{
&
%
} =
J
h1h2 h3 "u1 "u 2 "u3
h1h2 h3
Note : J # 0 ' $ 1 ,$ 2 ,$ 3 are not coplanar, and none are null.

$ 1 .($ 2 % $ 3 ) =

87

Any vector a can be resolved into components in directions

" 1 ," 2 ," 3 :
a = #1 " 1 + # 2 " 2 + # 3 " 3
The components are the lengths of the sides of the
parellogram as in diagram.
(Note : #1 $ a." 1 )

88

Volume Integrals
(change of variable)
### " (x)dV
D

= ### " (x)dx1dx2dx3

D

$(x1 ,x2 ,x3 )

= ### " (x(u1 ,u2 ,u3 ))
du1du2du3
$(u1 ,u2 ,u3 )
D
u

= ### " (x(u1 ,u2 ,u3 )) J du1du2du3

Du

!
89

Example : Consider the ellipsoid

x 2 y2 z2
+ 2 + 2 =1
2
a b c
We can find the volume by changing variables
(x,y,z) " (u,v,w) via
x = au,y = bv,z = cw
In (u,v,w) space the ellipsoid is the sphere
u 2 + v2 + w2 = 1

#x
#(x,y,z) #u
J=
= .
#(u,v,w)
.

#x #x
a 0 0
#v #w
.
. = 0 b 0 = abc
.
.
0 0 c

V = $$$ dxdydz =

$$$ abcdudvdw =

ellipsoid

unit sphere

4%
abc
3

90

Orthogonal Curvilinear Coordinates

If " 1 .(" 2 # " 3 ) = 1 curvilinear coordinate system
orthogonal (RH : +1, LH : -1).
Arc length :
2

dl 2 = h1 du1 + h2 du2 + h3 du3

Element of volume :
dV = h1h2h3du1du2du3

Volume integrals :
%%% $ (x)dV = %%% $ (x(u))h1h2h3du1du2du3
V

91

Spherical Polar Coordinates

(orthogonal curvilinear)
Spherical Polars : u = (r," ,# )
x = r sin" cos # e1 + r sin" sin # e 2 + r cos" e 3

$x
= (sin" cos # ,sin" sin # ,cos" )
$r
$x
= r(cos" cos # ,cos" sin # ,%sin" )
$"
$x
= (%sin" sin # ,sin" cos # ,0)
$#
$x
h1 =
=1
$r
$x
h2 =
=r
$"
h3 =

$x
= r sin"
$#

! coordinate
curve

Z
r coordinate
curve

P
" r

" coordinate
curve
Y

!
X

dV = r 2 sin" drd"d#
92

Cylindrical Polar Coordinates

(orthogonal curvilinear)
Cylindrical Polars : u = (R," ,z)
x = R cos " e1 + Rsin " e 2 + ze 3

#x
= (cos " ,sin " ,0)
#R
#x
#x
= R($sin " ,cos " ,0), = (0,0,1)
#"
#z
#x
h1 =
=1
#R
h2 =

#x
=R
#"

h3 =

#x
=1
#z

z coordinate
curve

! coordinate
curve

R coordinate
curve

z
!

dV = R dRd"dz
93

EX : Find the volume of the region bounded above

by the sphere x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = a 2 and below by the cone

x 2 + y 2 = tan 2 " z 2
O

Use spherical polars : dV = r 2sin#drd#d$

3
2
&
a
V = % % % r 2sin#drd#d$ =
(1' cos " )
3
0 0 0
2& " a

94

VECTOR CALCULUS
Part 2: Vector differential operators

95

Part 2 (syllabus)
-Vector differential operators: grad, div and curl
-Irrotational and Solenoidal Fields
-Scalar and Vector potentials
-Integral Theorems (Greens, Gausss, Stokess)
-Grad, Div and Curl (cylindrical and spherical polar coordinates)

96

Grad, div and curl in Cartesians

The vector differential operator "Del" or "Nabla" is defined by it effect on a
scalar or vector functions;

" = e1

#
#
#
+ e2
+ e3
#x1
#x 2
#x 3

" operates on a scalar field $ (x) as follows :

Gradient :
grad $ = "$ (x) =
#
#
#
#$
#$
#$
(e1
+ e2
+ e3
)$ (x) = e1
+ e2
+ e3
#x1
#x 2
#x 3
#x1
#x 2
#x 3
So when "del" operates on a scalar field $ (x), the result is the
vector field grad $ .

97

"del" operates on a vector field a(x) in two different ways, producing either
another scalar field, or another vector field :

#
#
#
+ e2
+ e3
). (a1 e1 + a2 e 2 + a3 e 3 )
#x1
#x 2
#x 3
#a1 #a2 #a3 #a p
=
+
+
=
(implied summation over p)
#x1 #x2 #x3 #x p

Divergence : div a = ". a = (e1

#
#
#
Curl : curl a = " $ a = (e1
+ e2
+ e3
) $ (a1 e1 + a2 e 2 + a3 e 3 )
#x1
#x 2
#x 3
e1
#
=
#x1
a1

e2
#
#x 2
a2

e3
#
#a 3 #a 2
=(
%
)e1 + ..........
#x 3
#x 2 #x 3
a3

The above definitions of grad, div and curl use cartesian components. However,
there are coordinate free definitions which allow us to interpret these in a 98
geometrical way;

Example :
Y

F = r = xi + y j + zk
F = x 2 + y2 + z2 = r

#x #y #z
divF = ".F = + + = 3
#x #y #z
div measures divergence
Example :
F = $yi + x j (2D field)
F = x 2 + y2 = r

(in 2D)

i
j k
# # #
curl F =
= 0i + 0 j + 2k
#x #y #z
$y x 0
= 2k
Curl measures rotation

99

Grad: a coordinate free

definition

" = " (x) - Scalar Field

Consider level (equipotential) surfaces
through neighbouring points P,P#
" (x) = " P , " (x) = " P + $" P
n is unit normal in direction of " increasing :

Rate of change of " in direction n (unit normal)

%"
"N ' "P
= lim
%n NP&0 NP
Rate of change of " in arbitrary direction u (unit vector)
%"
" '"
" ' "P
= lim P# P = lim { N
(u.n)}
P
#
P&0
NP&0
%u
P#P
NP
%"
= (u.n)
%n
%"
(maximum rate of change of " is
(when u.n = 1)
%n

100

Define vector field by

$#
"# = n (n direction of # increasing)
$n
$#
Then
= u."#
$u
"# is a vector perpendicular to # = const
at every point on surface. It is in the direction of
# increasing
n."# gives maximum rate of change of #

"#

"#
"#
"#
= e1 .$#,
= e2 .$# ,
= e 3 .$#
"x 1
"x 2
"x 3
"#
"#
"#
%$# =
e1 +
e2 +
e 3 as before
"x 1
"x 2
"x 3

101

Relation to directional derivative

Alternative Notation :
Derivative of " in direction u
#"
" (x + hu) % " (x)
Du" =
= lim
#u h$0
h
Du" = u.&" (as shown before)
Max[Du" ] = Dn" = n.&" = &"

"#

!
102

Ex : Calculate a unit normal to the surface

2

S: x + y + z =1
r

Consider the scalar field " (x,y,z) = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 #1

The surface S corresponds to the equipotential " (x,y,z) = 0.
$ The required direction is given by %" .
%" = (2x,2y,2z)
%"
1
1
r
n=
=
(2x,2y,2z)
=
(x,y,z)
=
%"
r
r
4 x 2 + 4 y 2 + 4z 2
n is in the radial direction, which is not surprising because S is a sphere.
Note : had we chosen " (x,y,z) = 1- x 2 # y 2 # z 2 , we would have obtained
r
n=#
103
r

Tangent plane to a surface

Ex : Calculate equation of tangent plane to the surface
at r0 = (1,1,3)

x 2 + 2y 2 + xz = 6

" (x, y, z) = x 2 + 2y 2 + xz # 6
$" = (2x + z, 4y,x)
$"(r0 ) = (5, 4,1)
Equation of tangent plane is
(r # r 0 ).$" (r 0 ) = 0
5(x #1) + 4(y # 1) + 1(z # 3) = 0
5x + 4 y + z = 12
104

Divergence: coordinate free definition

S : Closed surface about P with outward
unt normal n such that x - x P < ",

x#S

V : Interior of S
a(x) : Vector field (visualise as fluid velocity)
(a.n)dS ="flux" of a across dS
a.n = "flux" per unit area
%% a.n dS
[div a]P = lim
" $0
vol V
& total outward flux of a through S)
= lim (
+*
" $0 '
vol V
If a is velocity, flux is rate of outflow of fluid.

div a measures divergence of fluid flow per unit volume

105

Demonstration for a rectangular volume element

Q,R belong to S,

x R = x Q + e1"x 1

$& #a1 '

$
) = & #a1 ') + o(1),
% #x1 ( Q % #x1 ( P

$& #a1 '

$
) = & #a1 ') + o(1)
% #x 1 ( R % #x1 ( P

$ #a '
* a1R + a1Q = & 1 ) "x1 + o("x 1 )
% #x1 ( P
, rate of outflow .
lim
volume
/
, 0 #a 1
.
3
(
) "x + o("x1 )4"x 2"x 3 + two similar expressions
6 12 #x 1 P 1
7
5
= lim6
7
"x1"x 2"x 3
6
7
/
#a
#a
= 1 + ...+ 3
#x 1
#x 3
= div a
limit independent of shape of boundary (later)

106

Curl: coordinate free definition

m : unit vector in some direction
C : boundary of a (small) plane surface

Curl

having area A normal to m and such that

x - x p < ",

x#C

$ : unit tangent to C with direction related to m

by RH rule
Then
1
m. (curl a) = lim & a.$ dl
(dl element of length)
"%0 A
C
= lim {
"%0

circulation of a about closed loop C

}
area A

Exercise: Show this for a rectangular area

Curl a measures circulation per unit area

107

Example 1: v = (x,0,0)
div v = ".v = 1, curl v = " #v = 0
Excess of flux leaving region ABCD
No rotation imparted to region.
1
Note : v = "( x 2 ) - -can be derived from scalar potential
2
Example 2 : v = (y,0,0)
div v = ".v = 0, curl v = " #v = (0,0,$1)
Flux leaving region balances flux
entering region.
Rotation about - Z direction
No scalar potential exists for flow.
x
y
Example 3 : v = ( 2 2 , 2 2 ,0)
x +y x +y
div v = ".v = 0
(except at origin)
curl v = " #v = 0
Zero net flux and rotation
1
v = "[ ln(x 2 + y 2 )]
2

108

Some properties of del

#
#
#
+ e2
+ e3
(cartesians)
#x 1
#x 2
#x 3
" behaves essentially like b in b f , b.a, b$ a but since " is a differential
operator, the sequence in which the symbols are written matter. Thus
(a.b) c = c (a.b),
but (a.") c % (".a) c
#
#
#
(a.") c = (a1
+ a2
+ a3
) (e1c 1 + e 2c 2 + e 3c 3 )
#x 1
#x 2
#x 3
#a1 #a2 #a3
(".a) c = (
+
+
) (e1c 1 + e 2c 2 + e 3 c 3 )
#x1 #x 2 #x3
" = e1

109

Differentiation of Sums
If " and# are scalar fields, a and b are vector fields and
$ and % are scalars
& ($" + %# ) = $&" + %&#
&. (a + b) = &. a + &. b
& '(a + b) = & ' a + & ' b
These, and other identities can be proved by
taking components
110

Differentiation of Products
div (" a) = " diva + grad" . a
curl ( " a) = " curla + grad" $a
div (a $b) = b.curla - a.curl b

#. (" a) = "#.a + #" . a

# $(" a) = "# $a + #" $a
#. (a $b) = (# $a).b - (# $b).a

curl (a $b) = a divb - b diva

+ (b .grad)a - (a .grad)b
grad (a.b) = a $curlb + b $ curla + (b .grad)a + (a .grad)b
# $(a $b) = (b.#)a % b(#.a) % (a.#)b + a(#.b)
#(a.b)
= b $(# $a) + a $(# $b) + (b.#)a + (a.#)b

111

Example of proof by components :

#("a3 ) #("a2 ) #"
#a3 #"
#a 2
[curl " a]1 =
$
=
a3 + "
$
a2 $ "
#x 2
#x 3
#x 2
#x 2 #x 3
#x 3

#a 3 #a 2
#"
#"
$
)+(
a3 $
a2 )
#x 2 #x 3
#x 2
#x 3
= "[curl a]1 +[grad" %a]1
&curl " a = " curl a + grad" %a
= "(

112

Example : If " (r) = f (r) then

df $ r ' df
#" = & ) = r (r a unit vector in radial r direction)
dr % r ( dr
1
1
Thus # = * 2 r
r
r

Example :
1
1
1
curl ( 2 r) = 2 curlr + grad( 2 )"r
r
r
r
1
2r
= 2 0 # 3 "r = 0
r
r r
113

Second Order Operators

LAPLACIAN : " 2
" 2# = div grad # = ".("# )

- - - (coordinate free definition)

$ 2# $ 2# $ 2#
= 2 + 2 + 2 - - - (in R - Cartesians)
$x1 $x2 $x3
" 2 a = grad (div a) - curl(curl a)
Caution ...

- - - - - (coordinate free definition)

" 2 a = (" 2a1 ," 2a2 ," 2a3 ) only in RC system. In any other system, must
take into consideration the fact that th eunit vectors are functions of positions
in space. Their rates of change must also be allowed for (see later)
114

Two important identities

curl (grad " ) = # $#" = 0
div (curl a) = #.# $a = 0

Proof (by taking components in RC system)

$# $# $#
"# = ( , , )
$x1 $x2 $x3
e1
$
" %a =
$x1
a1

e2
$
$x 2
a2

e3
$
$x 3
a3

$ ' $# * $ ' $# *
&[" %"# ]1 =
) ,) ,= 0
$x 2 ( $x 3 + $x 3 ( $x 2 +
similarly for other two components
&curl grad # = " %"# = 0

115

Two partial differential equations of

mathematical physics
" 2# (x,y,z) = 0

Laplace's Equation

" 2# (x,y,z) = $ (x,y,z)

Poisson's Equation

where $(x,y,z) is a source term.

A scalar function is said to be harmonic, if it satisfies Laplaces equation.
Laplaces and Poissons equation occurs in many branches of applied
mathematics.
Electrostatics
Gravitation theory
Incompressible Fluid Flows
Discussed in partial differential equations course
116

Greens Theorem in the Plane

C : Closed positively directed plane curves
S : Union of C and its interior
Under suitable restrictions
&"# "% )
,, ( $ +dxdy = , %dx + #dy
"y *
S ' "x
C
(a) standard domain (convex) region with simple piecewise smooth
boundary curve C with % ,# - C1 on S (functions and first partial derivatives
continuous) - proved below for this case.
(b) Also true for sum of standard domains Sn where the boundary C n is
simple piecewise smooth with % ,# - C1 on Sn , % ,# - C 0 on S.

117

Simple domain :
g1 (x) " y " g2 (x), f1 (y) " x " f2 (y) describe C
$ #dx = $ #dx + $ #dx
C

C1

C2

= $ # (x,g1 (x))dx + $ # (x,g2 (x))dx

b

= % $ [# (x,g2 (x) % # (x,g1 (x)]dx

a

'g ( x) &# *
&#
=%$) $
dy,dx = % $$
dxdy
a ( g ( x) &y
S &y
+
Similarly
&dy
=
+
dxdy
$
$$
C
S &x
Hence
'&- &# *
$ #dx + -dy = $$ ) % ,dxdy
&y +
C
S ( &x
b

118

Example : Evaluate
I = " (y 2 + sin x 2 )dx + (cos y 2 # x)dy
over the square C : 0 $ x $ 1: 0 $ y $ 1
&%
)
% 2
2
2
I = "" ( (cos y # x) # (y + sin x )+dxdy
%y
S '%x
*
1 1

0 0

(using Green's Theorem)

= " " (#1# 2y)dxdy = # " (1+ 2y)dy = #2

Note : In this case area integral is easier to evaluate than
line integral!
119

For more complicates regions, divide into sub - regions each

of which is standard (convex).
S = S1 + S2 + ...Sn
Contributions to line integrals from common boundaries
cancel (because ak " C 0 ,k = 1,2,3))
## a.dS = ## a.dS + ## a.dS
S1 +S2

S1

S2

= # a.dl + # a.dl + # a.dl + # a.dl

C1

C3

C4

C2

But # a.dl = $ # a.dl

C3

C4

% ## a.dS = # a.dl + # a.dl

S1 +S2

C1

C2

120

EX : Verify Green's theorem for

" y dx + 2xdy
C

x 2 + y 2 = 9.
%#
# 2(
" y dx + 2xdy = "" '&#x (2x) $ #y (y )*) =
C
S
2

"" [2 $ 2y ]dxdy
S

To evaluate the area integral, use plane polar coordinates;

x = rcos+, y = rsin+, dA = rdrd+
2, 3

RHS :

2,

"" [2 $ 2y ]dxdy = " " (2 $ 2.3r sin+ )rdrd+ = " (9 $18sin+ )d+ = 18,
S

To evaluate the line integral, parametrise circle by

x = 3cost, y = 3sint (0 - t - 2, )
2,

LHS :

2
y
" dx + 2xdy =
C

2,

2
9sin
t($3sin t)dt + " 2.3cos t.3cos tdt = 0 + 18,
"
0

121

EX : Show that for a closed plane curve C

-ydx + xdy
= 2#
- if C encircles origin
"
2
2
x +y
C
=0
- otherwise
-y
x
$ = 2 2 ,% = 2 2
x +y
x +y

&$
y2 ' x 2
&%
y2 ' x 2
= 2 2 2,
= 2 2 2
&y (x + y )
&x (x + y )
First order partial derivatives are continuous except at (0,0).
Expect to be able to apply Green's theorem to any region
not containing origin.
122

Case 1: C excludes origin;

-ydx + xdy
=
2
2
x +y
C

"#

&% &$
= # $dx + %dy = ## ( ' )dxdy
&x &y
C
S
y2 ' x 2
y2 ' x 2
= ## [ 2 2 2 ' 2 2 2 ]dxdy = 0
(x + y )
S (x + y )

!
123

Case 2 : C encloses origin. In this case construct a closed contour which excludes
the origin (see diagram). Here we take C0 to be a small circle of radius a.
-ydx + xdy
=0
becase C + L1 + L2 + C0 excludes O.
"
2
2
x +y
C+L +L +C
-ydx + xdy
-ydx + xdy
=#"
"
2
2
x +y
x 2 + y2
C
C
On circle set x = a cost, y = a sint
(Note : t decreases from 2$ to 0)
1

0 #a sint(#a sint) + a cost (a cost)

-ydx + xdy
=# "
dt
"
2
2
2
x +y
a
C
2$
= 2$
Note : C + C0 is traversed so that the S is to the "left " of C

(positively directed - with respect to enclosed area which has

a normal in the k direction).

L1
L2
124

Divergence Theorem (3D)

Notation : f (x) " C m on domain D if f has continuous partial
derivatives (formed by values of f on D only) of orders 0,1,.....m
(e1,e1,e1 ) # (i, j,k)
(x1, x 2 , x 3 ) # (x, y,z)

S : Closed surface outward normal n

V : Volume of S and its interior

"#
$$$ "x dV =
k
V

$$ n k# dS

(k = 1,2, 3)

Under suitable restrictions :

[ Rule :

"
on V becomes nk on S]
"x k

125

Standard Domain
V : f (x,y) " z " g(x,y),

f ,g continuous on Sxy

+ two similar expressions describe V

g #$
#$
%%% dxdydz = %% dxdy % dz
V #z
S
f #z
= %% $ (x,y,g)dxdy & %% $ (x,y, f )dxdy
xy

Sxy

Sxy

nz dS = dxdy

on z = g(x,y)

nz dS = &dxdy

on z = f (x,y)

#$
' %%% dxdydz = %% nz $dS
V #z
S
Similarly
#
#
,
%%%
%%%
V #x
V #y

z = g(x,y)

n = n + ( nz > 0)

Z
z = f(x,y)

n = n - (nz< 0 )

Sxy

126

Alternative form :
Set " = ak
(k = 1,2,3)
a = (a1 ,a2 ,a3 ) = (a x ,a y ,az )

#a1
dxdydz = $$ n1a1dS
$$$
V #x
S
#a 2
dxdydz = $$ n2a2dS
$$$
V #y
S
#a 3
dxdydz = $$ n3a3dS
$$$
V #z
S
and sum;
#a1 #a2 #a3
+
+
)dxdydz = $$ (a.n)dS
$$$ (
#x #y #z
V
S

""" diva dV = "" (n.a)dS = "" a.dS

V

127

(a) Proved for simple domain V

(b) True for sum of simple domains Vn :
Apply result to each V n : Integrals along common boundaries
Vn " Vm = Sn " Sm cancel :
(c) Sufficient Restrictions :
Boundary Sn of each Vn is orientable sum of simple smooth surfaces
# $ C 1 on each Vn
# $ C 0 on V
Finite number of standard domains
V1

V2
128

Example : A surface S encloses a volume V .

Show that the volume V is given by
1
V = "" (r.n)dS
3S
where r is the position vector.
We use the divergence theorem :
1
1
"" (r.n)dS = "" r.dS
3S
3S
1
= """V div r dV
3
1
= """V 3 dV
3
= """ dV = V
129

EX : Verify the divergence theorem for the tetrahedron bounded

by the coordinate planes and the plane x + y + z = 1 and the vector field
A = 3x 2 i + xy j + zk
div A = 6x + x +1 = 7x +1
11`
""" (7x +1)dV = " " " (7x +1)dzdydx =
24
V
0 0
0
1 1# x1# x# y

"" A.ndS = "" (3x 2 i + xy j + ok).(#k)dS = 0

Sxy

Sxy

"" A.ndS = "" (0i + xy j + zk).(#i)dS = 0

Syz

Syz

2
A.ndS
=
(3x
i + 0 j + zk).(# j)dS = 0
""
""
Szx

Szx
130

On inclined plane, we parametrise explicitly in terms of (x,y) :

Equation of plane is
r = xi + y j + (1- x - y)k

"r
= i # k,
"x
"r
= j#k
"y
"r "r
$ =i+ j+k
"x "y
dS = (i + j + k)dxdy
2
A.
dS
=
(3x
i + xy j + zk).(i + j + k)dxdy
%%
%%
S

Sxy
1 1# x

= % % ( 3x 2 + xy + (1# x # y))dydx =
0 0

11
24

131

2D Divergence Theorem (Greens Theorem)

"" div a dxdy = " a.# dl
S

(Divergence Theorem - 2D)

Now
dy
dx
$j
(dl - element of length : dl 2 = dx 2 + dy 2 )
dl
dl
dx
dy
(% = i + j
, % &k = #)
dl
dl
Set
a = i' $ j(

# =i

)' )(
$
)x )y
)' )(
dy
dx
"" [ $ ] dxdy = " [i' $ j( ].[i $ j ]dl
)y
dl
dl
S )x
C

div a =

"" [
S

)' )(
$ ] dxdy = " (dx + 'dy
)x )y
C

Greens Theorem again!

132

2D Stokes Theorem
Let a be a 2 - D vector field.
Set a = i" + j# and let k be unit vector in z direction.

%" %#
curla = (0,0,$ + )
%y %y
%" %#
k. && curla dxdy = && ($ + )dxdy
%y %y
S
S
= & " dx + # dy
(using 2D Green's Theorem)
C

= & (a.' ) dl
C

= & a. dl
C

( k. && curla dxdy = & a. dl

S

(2D Stoke's Theorem)

133

A plausibility argument
div (curl a) = 0 identically
" ## curla.dS = ### div curl a dV = 0 - any closed S
S

Let S = S1 $ S2 :

C common boundary

## curla. ndS + ## curl a. ndS = 0

S1

S2

## curla. n1dS + ## curl a. (-n2 )dS = 0

S1

S2

## curla. n1dS = ## curla. n 2dS

S1

S1

With n 2 taken as the inward normal, C is positively

directed with respect to both surfaces.
% Surface integral over orientable surfaces with same boundary
must have same value!. Value can depend only on integral over the
boundary.

134

135

Stokess Theorem (3D)

(The Curl Theorem)
S : orientable surface with a field of normals n
C : Edge of S positively directed with respect to n
Under suitable restrictions :
(i) %% n "#$ dS = % $ d x = % $ &dl
S

(ii) %% (# "a ).dS = % a.& dl ' ' ' ' ' (standard form)
S

136

Consider a simple smooth surface S : Let x = g(u,v) be a mapping

which shows it to be so.
Then
+

n "#$dS =

xu " xv
"#$ x u " x v dudv
xu " xv

= [(x u .#$ )x v % (x v .#$ )x u ]dudv

' &$ &x1 &$ &x2 &$ &x3 * &xi
+
[n "#$ ]i = (
+
+
+
)&x1 &u &x2 &u &x3 &u , &v
' &$ &x1 &$ &x2 &$ &x3 * &xi
-(
+
+
+
)&x1 &v &x2 &v &x3 &v , &u
&$ &xi &$ &xi
=
%
&u &v &v &u
& &xi
& &xi
= ($ ) % ($ )
&u &v &v &u

137

& , ,xi
, ,xi )
& +
)
' %% n "#$dS* = %% ' ($ ) - ($ )*dudv
(S
+i S (,u ,v ,v ,u +
,xi
,xi
= % ($
du + $
dv) (by Green's Theorem for plane)
,u
,v
C
= % $dxi
u

. %% n "#$dS = % $d x
S

(ii) For an orientable sum of simple smooth surfaces, apply the result to each,
integrals along common boundaries Sn / Sm = Cn /Cm cancel.
Sufficient Restrictions : $ 0 C1 on each Sn , $ 0 C on S
138

(iii) Set " = ai , take the i th component of above, and sum.

+

%% n #$"dS = % "d x &

S

'"
'"
( n3
)dS = % "dx1
%% (n2
'x 3
'x 2
S
C
'a1
'a1
(n
(
n
)dS = % a1dx1 (putting " = a1 )
%% 2
3
'x 3
'x 2
S
C
Similarly
'a 2
'a 2
(n
(
n
)dS = % a2dx2
%% 3
1
'x1
'x 3
S
C
'a 3
'a 3
( n2
)dS = % a3dx3
%% (n1
'x 2
'x1
S
C
Now sum
%% n.curla dS = % a.d x = % a.)dl
S

139

 The divergence theorem can be used to justify the

coordinate free definition of divergence (recall we previously
used the special case of a rectangular volume element to demonstrate
its plausibility)
Likewise, Stokess theorem can be used to justify the
coordinate free definition of curl.

140

Example: 3D Stokes theorem

Consider a surface S given by the part of the sphere
Z

x 2 + y2 + z2 = 1
1
bounded by the planes z = 0, z = ; a = zi + x j + yk
2

C2
!/3

n
Y

Unit outward normal (radial) :

n = sin" cos # i + sin" sin # j + cos" k

C1

$
$
( % " % ,0 % # % 2$ )
3
2

&r &r
' d"d# = sin"d"d#
&" &#
)) (( 'a ).ndS = )) (i + j + k).(sin" cos # i + sin" sin # j + cos" k) sin"d"d#

dS =
S

S"#

$ 2 2$

= ) ) ( sin 2 " cos # + sin 2 " sin # + sin" cos" )d"d#

$ 3 0
$ 2

$
= 2$ ) sin" cos"d" =
4
$ 3

141

Now consider the line integrals along C 1 and C 2 .

On C1 : r = costi + sin t j + 0k
2#

dr
a
.dr
=
a
.
$
$ dt dt =
C
0
1

(t : 0 " 2# )

2#

$ (0i + cost j + sintk).( % sin ti + cost j + 0k)dt

0

2#

2
cos
$ tdt = #

Z
n

C2

3 2
On C2 : x + y = ( )
2
3
3
1
r=
costi +
sint j + k (t : 2# " 0)
2
2
2
0
dr
3#
$ a.dr = $ a. dt dt = % 4 (check!)
C
2#
2

Y
X

C1

Hence sum is

#
4

142

Now consider the line integrals along C 1 and C 2 .

On C1 : r = costi + sin t j + 0k
2#

dr
a
.dr
=
a
.
$
$ dt dt =
C
0
1

2#

$ cos

(t : 0 " 2# )

2#

$ (0i + cost j + sintk).( % sin ti + cost j + 0k)dt

Z

tdt = #

C2

3 2
2
2
On C2 : x + y = ( )
2
3
3
1
r=
costi +
sint j + k (t : 2# " 0)
2
2
2
0
dr
3#
$ a.dr = $ a. dt dt = % 4 (check!)
C
2#

Y
X

C1

Hence sum is

#
4

143

Greens Theorems (I and II)

&$
dS
&n
V
S
where " ' C1 piecewise on V, $ ' C 2 piecewise on V
2
%%% ("# $ + #" .#$ )dV = %% "

&$
&"
( $ )dS
&n
&n
V
S
where " ,$ ' C 2 piecewise on V
2
2
%%% ("# $ ( $# " )dV = %% ("

!
144

Proof of first theorem

2
%%% ("# $ + #" .#$ )dV = %% "
V

&$
dS
&n

Using
div(" a) = " diva + #" .a
" div(grad$ ) = div(" grad$ ) ' grad" .grad$
%%% " div(grad$ )dV = %%% [div(" grad$ ) ' grad" .grad$ ]dV
V

= %% " grad$ .dS ' %%% grad" .grad$dV

S

&$
( %%% (" # $ + #" .#$ )dV = %% " dS
&n
V
S
2

145

An application of integral Identities

Equation of continuity in fluid dynamics :
Rate of increase of mass of material within
a fixed surface S = rate of flow of mass (mass flux) intoS

"
"#
i.e. $$$ #dV = $$$ dV = % $$ (# v.n)dS
"t V
V "t
S
"#
(
+ div # v)dV = 0
applying divergence theorem.
$$$
"t
V
But above is true for every volume V.
"#
+ div # v = 0 % % % % % at all points of material.
"t

146

Irrotational (or conservative) vector fields

Definition: F(x) is said to be irrotational (or curl free)
if curl F=0.
Theorem
If F(x)(" C1 ) is irrotational on a simply connected volume D, then
there exists a scalar potential # such that F = $# . Conversely,
if there exists # such that F = $# , then F is irrotational.
(a) suppose $ % F = 0 (that is, F is irrotational)
Take a fixed reference point B " D, and define
P

# (x P ) = & F.d x
B

# is independent of the path joining B and P because

& F.d x ' & F.d x =
BMP

BNP

& F.d x = && n.curlF dS (Using Stoke's Theorem)

BMPNB

=0

147

Now consider neighbouring points P and Q where PQ is

in the x1 direction : x Q = x P + e1"x1
$ "# '
#Q * # P
& ) = lim
PQ
%"x1 (P
! 1 x ++x
= lim
. F1 (- ,x2P ,x3P )d- = F1 (x P )
+x ,0 +x
1 x
(using MVT)
Similarly for the other two components of /#
0 F = /#
(b)Now suppose F = /#
Then we have, using the standard identity,
/ 1 F = / 1/# = 0
1P

1P

curl F = 0 " F = #$
148

Uniqueness
Suppose # " is another potential for the vector field F.
Then F = $# " and F = $# . Writing U = # % # " we see that
$U = 0
or
&U &U &U
=
=
=0
&x &y &z
'U = # % # " = a constant.
The scalar potential is unique apart for an arbitrary constant.

!
149

An equivalent theorem
F is irrotational on a simply connected domain D
if and only if the work integral
" F.d x
C AB

is independent of path connecting A and B,

for all pairs of points A,B in D.
Note : In a more general form of the above theorems,
F is allowed to be undefined at an "exceptional point".
A scalar potential still exists, but it is also not defined
at this point (cf : force field of gravity)
150

Irrotational fields (example)

Example : Given a = (x,0,0) show that a is
irrotational, and find a potential that describes the field.
i
"
curl a =
"x
x

j k
" "
=0
"y "z
0 0

Consider a field point P (x,y,z) and take as

reference point P0 (0,0,0).
Take C : r = (tx,ty,tz) (0 # t # 1) $ (straight line joining P0 and P)
t=1
dr
% (x,y,z) = & a.dr = & a(r(t)). dt
dt
C
t=0
t=1
1
1
= & (tx,0,0).(x,y,z) dt = & x 2tdt = x 2
2
t=0
0

151

(b) Integrate PDE s directly

%#
%#
%#
Set a = "# $
= x,
= 0,
=0
%x
%y
%z
%#
=x
%x
1 2
# = x + g(y,z)
2
%#
%g(y,z)
=0 $
= 0 $ g = c + h(z)
%y
%y
1
& # = x 2 + c + h(z)
2
%#
dh
=0 $
= 0 $ h = const
%z
dz
1
# = x2 + d
2

152

Solenoidal Fields and the Vector Potential

Definition: A vector field v is solenoidal (or divergence free) if div v=0
Theorem
If v (" C1 ) is a solenoidal on a domain D with the property that
every closed surface in D bound a domain contained in D,
then # a vector potential A such that v = curl A.
Conversely, if v = curl A, then v is solenoidal.
Note : In this case, the vector field is not allowed
to have exceptional points - thus there is no vector potential
for the gravitational field.
Pr oof (part b) :
Clearly if v = curl A, then
div v = div(curl A) = 0
Hence v is solenoidal

153

Suppose
" (y,z) = F1 (0, y,z)
is the values of the x - component of F, at the
point(0, y,z) of the plane x = 0. If F2 and F3
are the y and z components of F,

consider
x

A(x, y,z) = ( $ F3 ( x #, y,z)dx # % $ " (y, z#)dz#) j % ( $ F2 ( x #, y,z)dx #)k

0

where

$ F dx and $ F dx are the integrals of F (x, y,z) and F (x, y,z)

2

with (y,z) fixed from Q(0, y,z) to the point P(x, y,z) and

$ "dz is the integral

0

from R(0, y,0) to the point Q(0, y,z).

154

Now
x

A(x, y,z) = ( # F3 ( x ", y,z)dx " $ # % (y, z")dz") j $ ( # F2 ( x ", y,z)dx ")k
0

&'A =(

(A ( A
(Az (Ay
(A ( A
$
)i + ( x $ z ) j + ( y $ x )k
(y
(z
(z ( x
(x ( y

z
(Az (Ay ( x
( x
$
= (- # F2 ( x ", y,z)dx ") $ ( # F3 ( x ", y,z)dx " $ # % (y, z")dz")
(y
(z (y 0
(z 0
0
x

(F ( x ", y,z)
=-# 2
dx " $
(y
0

(F3 ( x ", y,z)

# (z dx " + % (y,z)
0

(Ax (Az
$
= F2
(z (x
(Ay (Ax
$
= F3
(x (y
155

# x
# x
Curl A = (" $ F2dx " $ F3dx + % )i + F2 j + F3 k
#y 0
#z 0
& x #F2 #F3
)
= "' $ (
+
)dx " % *i + F2 j + F3 k (Q F continuously differentiable)
( 0 #y #z
+
#F #F #F
But divF = 1 + 2 + 3 = 0
#x #y #z
& x #F3
)
,CurlF = ' $
dx + % *i + F2 j + F3 k
( 0 #x
+
x

= ([F1 ]0 + % )i + F2 j + F3 k
= F1 i + F2 j + F3 k
Uniqueness :
If F = - . A and F = - . A/ then
- .( A/ " A) = 0
Hence there exists a scalar field 0 such that
A/ " A = -0
, A/ = A + -0

156

As for the case of scalar potentials, vector potentials can also be obtained by solving
PDEs. Suppose v is solenoidal (i.e. div v = 0). We have to solve the PDEs
"A3 "A2
#
= v1
"y "z
"A1 "A3
#
= v2
"z "x
"A2 "A1
#
= v3
"x "y
We have 3 equations relating the 9 independent partial derivatives
of the 3 components of A. So we have 6 degrees of freedom at our disposal
in finding a solution, which can be used in many ways.
All we need to show is that we can find a potential satisfying above
equations. Here is one method - (the potentials are not unique!.).
We demonstrate the result by example - a formal proof follows a similar
argument but is not given here

157

Example : Show that B = zi + x j + yk is solenoidal and find a vector potential.

"z "x "y

divB = + + = 0
"x "y "z
# B is solenoidal
Look for a vector field A with Ay = 0 (as in example in book);
(we use 3 degrees of freedom here).
"Az
=z
"y
"Ax "Az
$
=x
"z "x
"A
$ x=y
"y
First equation gives

"Az
=z
% Az = yz + f (x,z) = yz (take f (x,z) = 0)
"y
(we have used up 2 degrees of freedom here)

158

Second equation gives

"Ax "Az
"Ax
#
=x $
= x $ Ax = xz + g(x,y)
"z "x
"z
We cannot set g(x,y) = 0 (that will mean using 2 more degrees of freedom),
so we try to evaluate it using 3rd eqn :

"Ax
"g
1 2
#
=y
$ # = y $ g = # y + h(x)
"y
"y
2
Take h(x) = 0 (last degree of freedom used here)
1 2
A = (xz # y )i + (yz) k
2
Vector potentials are not unique. Another possible vector potential is (check)
1
A = {(zx # y 2 )i + (xy # z 2 ) j + (yz # x 2 )k }
3
159

Summary: B(x) is said to be solenoidal if div B=0.

F(x) is said to be irrotational if curl F=0.

div B = 0 " B = curl A

curlF = 0 " F = grad #

Vector potential
Scalar potential

Helmholtzs Theorem: Any vector field F for which curl F and

div F tend to zero as x tends to infinity can be written as the sum
of two parts, one solenoidal and one irrotational

F = "# + " $ B
Scalar potential

Vector potential
160

Gradient (orthogonal curvilinear coordinates)

Q1

"Q % " P
"Q & + o('u1 ) % " P
grad " : # 1 .$" = lim
= lim
PQ
h1'u1 + o('u1 )
("
'u1 + o('u1 )
1 ("
(u1
= lim
=
h1'u1 + o('u1 )
h1 (u1
1 ("
1 ("
1 ("
$" = # 1
+ #2
+ #3
h1 (u1
h2 (u2
h3 (u3

#f 1 #f
1 #f
"f = ( ,
,
) & & & Spherical Polars
#r r #$ r sin$ #%
#f 1 #f #f
"f = ( ,
, )
- - - - - Cylindrical Polars
#R R #% #z

(all evaluated at P)

161

Gradient (orthogonal curvilinear coordinates)

"Q % " P
"Q& + o('u1 ) % " P
grad " : # 1 .$" = lim
= lim
PQ
h1'u1 + o('u1 )
("
'u1 + o('u1 )
1 ("
(u
= lim 1
=
h1'u1 + o('u1 ) h1 (u1
1 ("
1 ("
1 ("
$" = # 1
+#2
+#3
h1 (u1
h2 (u2
h3 (u3

(all evaluated at P)

#f 1 #f
1 #f
"f = ( ,
,
) & & & Spherical Polars
#r r #$ r sin$ #%
#f 1 #f #f
"f = ( ,
, )
- - - - - Cylindrical Polars
!
#R R #% #z

h1 = hr = 1
h2 = h" = r
h3 = h# = r sin"

162

Divergence (orthogonal curvilinear coordinates)

div a : let ("1 ," 2 ," 3 ) be components of a in directions # 1 ,# 2 ,# 3
(Note : (# 1 ,# 2 ,# 3 ) and ("1 ," 2 ," 3 ) can change with position in space)
$$ a.n dS
]
V
' &
*
1
= lim
([ ("1h2%u2h3%u3 )]%u1 + two similar terms+
h1%u1h2%u2h3%u3 ) &u1
,

div a = lim [

*
1 '&
&
&
=
(" 2h3h1 ) +
(" 3h1h2 )+
( ("1h2h3 ) +
h1h2h3 )&u1
&u 2
&u 3
,

Spherical polars
1 #(r 2 Fr )
1 # (sin$F$ )
1 #F%
".F = 2
+
+
r
#r
r sin$
#$
r sin$ #%

163

Divergence (orthogonal curvilinear coordinates)

div a : let ("1 ," 2 ," 3 ) be components of a in directions # 1 ,# 2 ,# 3
(Note : (# 1 ,# 2 ,# 3 ) and ("1 ," 2 ," 3 ) can change with position in space)
$$ a.n dS
]
V
' &
*
1
= lim
([ ("1h2%u2h3%u3 )]%u1 + two similar terms+
h1%u1h2%u2h3%u3 ) &u1
,

div a = lim [

*
1 '&
&
&
=
(" 2h3h1 ) +
(" 3h1h2 )+
( ("1h2h3 ) +
h1h2h3 )&u1
&u 2
&u 3
,
h1 = hr = 1
h2 = h" = r
h3 = h# = r sin"

Spherical polars
1 #(r 2 Fr )
1 # (sin$F$ )
1 #F%
".F = 2
+
+
r
#r
r sin$
#$
r sin$ #%

164

Curl (orthogonal curvilinear coordinates)

Exercise : Show by taking a (curvilinear) rectangular area bounded
by coordinate curves perpendicular to " 3 that

" 3 .Curl a = Lim

# a." dl
area A

( %
+
1
%
=
('&1h1$u1 )]$u2 ,
)[ (& 2 h2$u2 )]$u1 + [
h1h2$u1$u2 * %u1
%u2
Proof follows since :
Circulation of vector field about rectangle has a contribution
from sides parallel to u1 curves of
%
("#1h1$u1 ) u2 +$u2 + .(#1h1$u1 ) u2 =
("#1h1$u1 )]$u2 ....(using Taylor's theorem incrementing in u2 )
%u2
and from sides parallel to u2 curves of
%
(# 2 h2$u2 )]$u1 ...........(using Taylor's theorem incrementing in u1 )
%u1
165

Curl (orthogonal curvilinear coordinates)

Exercise : Show by taking a (curvilinear) rectangular area bounded

by coordinate curves perpendicular to " 3 that
*
1 '$
$
# a." dl
" 3 .Curl a = Lim
=
(%1h1 )+
( (% 2h2 ) &
area A h1h2 )$u1
$u 2
,
and hence
h1 " 1
1
$
Curl a =
h1h2h3 $u1
h1%1

h2 " 2
$
$u 2
h2% 2

h3 " 3
$
$u 3
h3% 3

Spherical polars

1 ( %(sin $F& ) %F$ + 1 ( 1 %Fr % (rF& ) +

" #F =
'
'
)
,, )
,,
r sin$ *
%$
%& - r * sin $ %&
%r 1 (%(rF$ ) %Fr +
'
)
,
r * %r
%$ -

166

Laplacian (general orthogonal)

Now
grad V =

1 "V
1 "V
1 "V
#1 +
#2 +
#3
h1 "u1
h2 "u2
h3 "u3

and
(
1 %"
"
"
div a =
($ 2h3h1 ) +
($ 3h1h2 ))
& ($1h2h3 ) +
h1h2h3 '"u1
"u 2
"u 3
*
1
" - h2h3 "V 0 " - h1h3 "V 0 " - h1h2 "V 0
+, V = div(grad V ) =
[ /
2+
/
2+
/
2]
h1h2h3 "u1 . h1 "u1 1 "u2 . h2 "u2 1 "u3 . h3 "u3 1
2

167

Laplacian (spherical and cylindrical polars)

1
# $ h2h3 #V ' # $ h1h3 #V ' # $ h1h2 #V '
"V=
[ &
)+
&
)+
&
)]
h1h2h3 #u1 % h1 #u1 ( #u2 % h2 #u2 ( #u3 % h3 #u3 (
2

1 # $ 2 #V '
1
# $
#V '
1 # 2V
" V = 2 &r
, ,Spherical
)+ 2
&sin* ) + 2 2
2
r #r % #r ( r sin* #* %
#* ( r sin * #+
1 # $ #V ' 1 $# 2V ' # 2V
2
"V=
& R ) + 2 & 2 ) + 2 , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,Cylindrical
R #R % #R ( R % #+ ( #z
2

Spherical Symmetry; (V = V (r)) - e.g. gravitational potential of a star

1 # $ 2 #V '
2
" V = 2 &r
)
r #r % #r (
Cylindrical Symmetry; (V = V (R)) - e.g. gravitational potential of a galaxy
1 # $ #V '
2
168
"V=
&R )
R #R % #R (

Laplacian (spherical and cylindrical polars)

1
# $ h2h3 #V ' # $ h1h3 #V ' # $ h1h2 #V '
"V=
[ &
)+
&
)+
&
)]
h1h2h3 #u1 % h1 #u1 ( #u2 % h2 #u2 ( #u3 % h3 #u3 (
2

h1 = hr = 1
h2 = h" = r
h3 = h# = r sin"

1 # $ 2 #V '
1
# $
#V '
1 # 2V
" V = 2 &r
, ,Spherical
)+ 2
&sin* ) + 2 2
2
r #r % #r ( r sin* #* %
#* ( r sin * #+
1 # $ #V ' 1 $# 2V ' # 2V
2
"V=
& R ) + 2 & 2 ) + 2 , , , , , , , , , ,!, , , ,Cylindrical
R #R % #R ( R % #+ ( #z
2

Spherical Symmetry; (V = V (r)) - e.g. gravitational potential of a star

1 # $ 2 #V '
2
" V = 2 &r
)
r #r % #r (
Cylindrical Symmetry; (V = V (R)) - e.g. gravitational potential of a galaxy
1 # $ #V '
2
169
"V=
&R )
R #R % #R (

Some Applications

170

Inverse square force laws

Force of Gravity (attractive) :

Apple
of mass

Earth of
of mass

GMm
GMm r
r

F(r) = " 2 r = " 2

= "GMm 3
r
r r
r

Electron
of charge

-e
plectron
of charge

+e

Electrostatic Force (between charges e1 ,e 2 )

ee
ee r
r
F(r) = 1 2 2 r = 1 2 2 = e1e2 3
r
r r
r
In both cases, force law is an inverse square law
r
F = k 3 - - - - Inverse square law
r

171

A force field representing an inverse square law

is conservative because
kr
k
k
k
" # 3 = " #[ 3 r] = 3 " #r + "( 3 )#r
r
r
r
r
k r
= 0 $ 3 4 #r = 0
r r
From our previous theorem, a scalar potential exists, and

can be found by carrying out a line intregral from a reference

point P(r B ) to a field point P(r)
P (r )
P (r) kr
P (r)
k
" (r) = # F.dr = # ( 3 ).dr = # ( 3 )(r.dr )
P (r )
P (r ) r
P (r ) r
1 P (r) k
1 P (r ) k
2
=
# ( 3 )d(r.r ) =
# ( 3 )d(r )
2 P (r ) r
2 P (r ) r
P (r ) k
1 P (r) k
k k
k
=
# ( 3 )2rdr = # 2 dr = $ + = $ + const
2 P (r ) r
r rB
r
P (r ) r
B

172

Some properties of the 1/R potential

We shift the source to a general point
Q(" ) = Q("1 ," 2 ," 3 )
and consider the force at a field point
P(x) = P(x1 ,x2 ,x3 )

R = x - " - - - - - -relative position vector of P relative to Q

2

R = (x1 # "1 ) + (x2 # " 2 ) + (x3 # " 3 )

$R 1 2(xi # "i ) (xi # "i )

=
=
$xi 2
R
R
$ 1
1 $R
1
%
=# 2
= # 3 (xi # "i )
$xi R
R $xi
R
x#"
1
R
or & = # 3 = # 3
R
R
R

(i = 1,2,3)

P
x
O

(i = 1,2,3)

Thus the inverse square law derives form a

1
as we have already seen (i.e F ' & )
R

1
type potential
R
173

1/R is a harmonic function

1 # # 1
# # 1
# # 1
=
(
)+
(
)+
(
)
R #x1 #x1 R #x2 #x2 R #x3 #x3 R
#
1
#
1
#
1
=
($ 3 (x1 $ %1 )) +
($ 3 (x2 $ % 2 )) +
($ 3 (x3 $ % 3 ))
#x1 R
#x 2 R
#x 3 R
3 (x $ % )
(x $ % )
(x $ % )
3
= 4 [ 1 1 (x1 $ %1 ) + 2 2 (x2 $ % 2 ) + 3 3 (x3 $ % 3 )]$ 3
R
R
R
R
R
3 (x1 $ %1 )2 + (x1 $ %1 )2 + (x1 $ %1 )2
3
3
3
= 4[
]$ 3 = 3 $ 3 = 0
R
R
R
R R
"2

A more elegant proof :

1
1
1
1
1
" 2 = div grad = div (- 3 R) = $[ 3 divR + grad( 3 ).R]
R
R
R
R
R
3
3 R
= $[ 3 $ 4 .R] = 0
R R R

174

Appendix 1
Vector Algebra (Revision)

175

Products of Vectors (revision)

Scalar or dot product

If a and b are any two vectors in R 3 , then the scalar, or "dot" product of
the two vectors is
a.b = a b cos" = abcos"

(0 # " # $ )

From definition
(i) a.b = b.a
(ii) a.b = 0 % either a = 0, b = 0 or " = $ 2
(iii) Unit basis vectors for RC system satisfy
e 1.e 2 = 0, e 2 .e 3 = 0 , e1 .e1 = e 2 .e 2 = e 3 .e 3 = 1
(iii) a.b = (a1 e 1 + a2 e 2 + a3 e 3 ).(b1 e1 + b2 e 2 + b3 e 3 )
= a1b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3

176

Vector or cross product

Let n be a unit vector orthogonl to both a and b such that a, b, n form a
right - handed system. The vector product of a and b is defined to be the vector
a "b = a b sin# n = absin# n

(0 $ # $ % )

(i) b "a = &ba sin# (&n ) (because b,a and - n form a RH system)
'a "b = &b "a ....anti - commutative
(ii) a "b = 0 ( either a = 0, b = 0 or sin# = 0 (# = 0, % )
(iii) e1 "e1 = 0, e 2 "e 2 = 0, e 3 "e 3 = 0
e1 "e 2 = &e 2 "e1 = e 3
e 2 "e 3 = &e 3 "e 3 = e1
e 3 "e1 = &e1 "e 3 = e 2
177

(iv) a "b = (a1 e1 + a2 e 2 + a3 e 3 )"(b1 e1 + b2 e 2 + b3 e 3 )

= (a1 e1 )"(b1 e1 ) + (a1 e1 )"(b2 e 2 ) + (a1 e1 )"(b3 e 3 ) + (a2 e 2 )"(b1 e1 ) + ..
= 0 + a1b2 e 3 # a1b3 e 2 # a2b1 e 3 + ....
= (a2b3 # a3b2 )e1 + (a3b1 # a1b3 )e 2 + (a1b2 # a2b1 )e 3
e1
= a1
b1

e2
a2
b2

e3
a3
b3

(v) The area of a triangle whose sides are b and c

1
1
A = bcsin$ = b "c
2
2
We can also define a directed quantity known as the vector area by
1
A = b "c
2
178

Products of Three Vectors

The Triple Scalar Product
Given three vectors a,b and c , we can form two types of products which make
mathematical sense : the triple scalar product and the triple vector product.
The triple scalar product is defined to be
a.(b "c).
From diagram
b "c = bcsin# n
a.(b "c) = a b "c cos $ = (bcsin# )a cos $
= volume of parellepiped formed by a,b,c
(area of base % height)
& a.(b "c) = b.(c "a) = c.(a "b)
= 'a.(c "b) = ...........................

179

Expanding using components

a = a1 e1 + a2 e 2 + a3 e 3
e1
b "c = b1
c1

e2
b2
c2

e3
b3 = (b2c3 # b3c2 )e1 + (b3c1 # b1c3 )e 2 + ......
c3
a1

a2

a3

a.(b "c) = a1 (b2c3 # b3c2 ) + ..... = b1

c1

b2
c2

b3
c3

a1

a2

a3

c1

c2

c3

but b1
c1

b2
c2

b3 = a1
c3 b1

a2
b2

a3
b3

$a.(b "c) = c.(a "b) = (a "b).c

Rule : The dot and the cross can be interchanged in a triple scalar
180
product : a.(b "c) = (a "b).c

Example : Find the volume of the parallelepiped spanned by

the vectors i + j - k, 2i - 3 j + 4k, - i + 2 j - 3k
Solution :
1 1 "1
V = 2 "3 4 = 1(9 " 8) "1("6 + 4) "1(4 " 3) = 2
"1 2 "3

181

The Triple Vector Product

a "(b "c)

b "c is perpendicular to both b and c, and is therefore

perpendicular to the plane containing b and c

!
a "(b "c) is perpendicular to a and b "c and is
therefore a vector in the plane containing b and c.
a "(b "c) = # b + c
Similarly
(a "b)"c = $ a + % b

( # , constants)
( $ ,% constants)

a "(b "c) and (a "b)"c are usually different vectors.

An Important Identity

a "(b "c) = (a.c)b # (a.b)c

182

Now,

a = a1 e1 + a2 e 2 + a3 e 3

e1
b "c = b1

e2
b2

e3
b3 = (b2c3 # b3c2 )e1 + (b3c1 # b1c3 )e 2 + ......

c1

c2

c3

e1
a "(b "c) =
a1
b2c3 # b3c2

e2
a2
b3c1 # b1c3

e3
a3
b1c2 # b2c1

= [a2 (b1c2 # b2c1 ) # a3 (b3c1 # b1c3 )]e1 + ..........

= [(a2c2 + a3c3 )b1 # (a3b3 + a2b2 )c1 ]e1 + ...........
= [(a1c1 + a2c2 + a3c3 )b1 # (a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3 )c1 ]e1 + .....
$[a "(b "c)]1 = [(a.c)b # (a.b)c]1
% a "(b "c) = [(a.c)b # (a.b)c]

183

Vector Equation of a Straight Line

Parametric equation of a straight line passing

through a point A(a) containing the direction vector l is
r = a + "l
( " a parameters)
(r # a) $ l = 0
Equation of straight line passing through two points A(a), B(b) is
r = a + "(b # a)
( " a parameter)
or
r = %a + & b
% + & =1
184

Vector Equation of a Plane

Parametric equation of a plane passing through

A(a) containing direction vectors l and m is
r = a + "l + m
(" , parameters)
(r # a).l $ m = 0
Equation of plane passing through three points A(a),B(b) and C(c) is
r = a + " (b # a) + (c # a)
or
r = %a + &b + ' c
% +& +' =1

(" , parameters)

185

Appendix 2
Area and Volume Integrals (Revision)

186

Area Integrals
Consider a 2 - D Euclidean space. In a RC system points have coordinates
(x,y)
Suppose f (x,y) " C 0 in some closed region R of x,y plane.
Partition R into n sub - regions Rk
(i) area of Rk is #Ak
(ii)(xk ,yk ) " Rk
The area integral (a Riemann integral) is defined as
the limit of a sum of the function value weigthed
by the areas;
n

lim ' f (xk ,yk )#Ak

&& f (x,y)dA = n$%
R

#Ak $0

k=1

The limit must exist independently

of the nature of the partitioning.

187

Geometrical interpretation of an area integral

Consider a 3D RH RC coordinate system
OXYZ.
We assume f (x,y) > 0 on R.
Each element of the region R
defines an element of volume
defined by the surface
z = f (x,y)
So the area integral is the volume under
this surface :
V = "" f (x,y)dA
R

188

Changing the order of summation

Consider a rectangular partitioning;
I = "" f (x,y)dA = lim# # f (xi ,y j )$xi $y j
R

This double summation can first be sumed

in the x direction
I = lim # { # f (xi ,y j )$xi }$y j
j

or we can reverse the order of summation, and

first sum in the y direction :
I = lim # { # f (xi ,y j )$y j }$xi
i

In the limit, this leads to the following rule

for evaluating double integrals.
189

Double Integral
as a repeated integral
Consider a simple region which can be
specified as;
f1 (y) " x " f2 (y) for y1 " y " y2
g1 (x) " y " g2 (x) for x1 " x " x2
Then
y2

f2 ( y )

y1

f1 ( y )

## f (x,y)dA = # { # f (x,y)dx }dy

R

x2

g 2 ( x)

x1

g1 ( x)

"" f (x,y)dA = " {

R

" f (x,y)dy }dx

190

Example : Evaluate
2 y
x
"" e dA
R

where R is the area bounded by x = 1, y = x, y = 2x.

We choose to integrate in the y direction first because then there
is a single equation for each of the boundaries
2 y

2x

2 y
x
e
dxdy
=
x
""
" ( " e dy )dx
R

= " [x e
0

2 y

2x

dx = " x 2 (e 2 x # e x )dx
x

1 2
7
= e #e+
4
4

(integrating by parts)
191

(i) Choose order of integration (x first and then y or vice - versa) carefully
to make calculations easy (in the previous example, y first, then x).
Had we done it the other way, we have to evaluate two integrals
over two simple regions;
1

y
2

y
2

I = " { " x e dx }dy + " { " x 2 e y dx }dy

#more complicated!

(ii) For more complex regions, divide into sum

of simple regions as required (as in second method above)
"" ...dA = "" .....dA + "" .....dA
R1 +R2

R1

R2

192

Example : Determine the area bounded by the curves

2y = 16 " x 2 , x + 2y = 4.
Sketch curves and find points of intersection :
(-3,7/2),(4,0)
8"

x2
2

x2
x
A = # { # dy }dx = # (8 " " 2 + )dx
x
2
2
"3
"3
2"
4

x2 x
= # (6 " + )dx
2 2
"3
2
3 '4
$
x x
343
= &6x + " ) =
2 6 ("3 12
%
4

193

Volume Integrals
f (x,y,z) continuous in some closed region " of x,y,z plane.
Partition " into n sub - regions "i
(i) volume of "i is #Vi
(ii) (xi ,yi ,zi ) $ "i
n

lim ( f (xi ,yi ,zi )#Vi independently of partitioning.

% f (x,y,z)dV = n&'

"

#Vi &0

i=1

Using rectangular cartesian coordinates,

% f (x,y,z)dV = %%% f (x,y,z)dxdydz
"

As in the case of area integrals, a volume integral over a

simple region can be evaluated by repeated integrals.
194

Example :
Evaluate """ zdV over the region between planes z = 0, y = 0, y = x
V

and cylinder x 2 + z 2 = a 2 .
a

a2#x2

a2#x2

""" zdV = " dx " dy " zdz = " [ " [ " zdz]dy]dx
0

a $a 2 # x 2 '
$a 2 # x 2 '
= "["&
)dy]dx = " &
)xdx
2 (
2 (
0 0%
0%
a

$ (a 2 # x 2 )2 ' a 4
= &#
) =
8
%
(0 8

!
195