1

Sequences

Definition 1. A Sequence of real numbers is a function whose domain is the set of natural
numbers and codomain is set of real numbers.
X:NR
Notation: The value of the function X at n, namely X(n) is called n-th term of the
sequence, also denoted by xn .
The sequence X is also denoted by (x(n)) or (xn ) or (xn | n N) or {xn }n1 .
Note: Throughout the course, by sequence we mean an infinite sequence.

Caution: Note the difference between notations for sequence (xn | n N) and for set
{xn | n N}.

1.1

Examples

Examples 2.

1. Constant sequence (1, 1, 1, )

2. Sequence of approximations of : (3, 3.1, 3.14, 3.142, 3.1416, 3.14159, )

56
, 0, 0, 10000, )
3. (1, 8, 0, 3498, 2.4, 23

4. (1, 1, 1, 1, ) = ((1)n | n N). Note that this as a set is {1, 1}

5. X = ( n1 | n N) = (1, 12 , 31 , 14 , )
6. Note that the sequences (1, 2, 3, 4, ) and (1, 3, 2, 4, ) are different, although the
underlying sets are same.
7. One can also define sequences recursively, where n-th term is constructed using
previous term(s)
e.g. xn = xn1 + xn2 . This is the well-known Fibonacci sequence
Remark 1. For more interesting examples of integer sequences, have a look at The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. URL: oeis.org

1.2

Convergence of a sequence

Consider a simple example of a sequence given by xn = n1 .

x1 = 1
x2 = 0.5
x3 = 0.3333333333
x10000 = 0.0001
x100000000 = 0.00000001
Note that here as n becomes large the values of X are getting closer and closer.
But how close are they? What do we mean by close? Do they ever stabilize as n
becomes arbitrarily large?
1

In previous example we see that the terms of sequence are approaching 0.

In general if the terms of a sequence approach the number ` as n increases, we say
that the sequence converges to the limit `.
Now lets have a formal definition of Convergence of a sequence.
Definition 3. A sequence (xn ) of real numbers is said to be convergent if there exists a
real number ` such that for every > 0 there is a positive integer N such that
|xn `| <

whenever

n > N.

We say ` is a limit of (xn ) OR (xn ) converges to ` and we write

lim xn = ` OR xn `.

If no such ` exists, then we say the sequence is divergent.

In other words, the terms of the sequence (xn ) can be made as close to ` as one wishes
to!
Examples 4. Here are some examples of convergent sequences:
1. Any constant sequence, converges to the same constant
2. X = ( n1 | n N) converges to 0
1

3. xn = 2 n converges to 1
4. A sequence (xn ) where xn =

2n2 +5n7
.
9n3 16

What is the limit?

Here are some examples of divergent sequences:

1. A sequence 1, 2, 3,


2. (1)n = (1, 1, 1, 1, 1, )
3. A sequence (xn ) where xn =


)
4. sin( n
2

2n3 +5n7
9n2 16

Exercise:
Find/guess the limit of convergent sequences listed above.
Examples 5. What can you say about the convergence of the following examples? Find
the limit if convergent.


1. (2, 4, 6, 8, )
4. (1)n (1 n1 )
2n+5
5. ( 5n+2
)

2. (1, 2, 1, 3, 1, 4, 1, 5, )


3. (1)n n1

6. (n ) where || < 1.

1.3

Properties of Convergent Sequences

Result 1. The limit of a convergent sequence is unique.

Proof. Suppose ` and `0 are both limits of (xn ). Then for each > 0, there exists N N
such that |xn `| < for every n > N . Also there exists N 0 N such that |xn `0 | <
for every n > N 0 . Suppose N > N 0 . Now consider,
|` `0 | = |` xn + xn `0 |
|` xn | + |xn `0 |
< + = 2.
But is arbitrarily small, therefore we can conclude that |` `0 | = 0 and hence ` = `0 .
Result 2. Let (xn ) be a sequence of real numbers and let ` R. Then the following
statements are equivalent.
(xn ) converges to `.
For every > 0 there is a positive integer N such that for all n > N ,
|xn `| < .
For every > 0 there is a positive integer N such that for all n > N ,
` < xn < ` + .
Result 3. Let xn x and yn y be two convergent sequences. Then
1. xn + yn x + y
2. xn x, for any real number .
3. |xn | |x| Hint: Use Triangle inequality
4. xn yn xy
xy

6. Let m N Suppose m xn and m x are defined. Then m xn m x

5. If yn 6= 0 and y 6= 0, then

xn
yn

Exercise:
Check the above properties if either of the sequences (xn ) and (yn ) is divergent.


Examples 6.
1. The sequence n1 converges to ` = 0.


To see this, let > 0 be given. Then |xn `| =  1 0 = 1 .
n

1
n

1
.

Thus < if n >

Now note that how-so-ever small be, (i.e. 1 is very large),
one can always find a natural number N bigger that 1 . (We will see the proof of this
1
later.) Therefore for all n > N , we have n1 < N
< . Hence lim xn = 0.
n



2. The sequence (1)n is not convergent.
Note that every odd term of this sequence is 1 and every even term is 1. Thus
clearly we can see that the terms are not getting closer and closer. To see the
proof, assume that xn ` for some ` R. Thus for = 12 there must exist a
natural number N such that |xn `| < = 12 for all n > N .
`

1
2
+ 1
2

1
< xn ` <
2
<
xn
< `+

1
2

which is not possible for any `, and hence the sequence is divergent.

1.4

Bounded Sequences

It is easily seen that the terms of the sequence (n) keep growing bigger and bigger. This
motivates the following definition:
Definition 7. Let (xn ) be a sequence.
1. We say (xn ) is bounded above if there is some real number such that xn for
all n.
2. We say (xn ) is bounded below if there is some real number such that xn for
all n.
3. We say (xn ) is bounded if it is both bounded above and bounded below.
4. We say (xn ) is unbounded if it is not bounded.


n
is bounded above.
Examples 8.
1. The sequence (1)
n2
Since for every n 1,

(1)n
n2

< 1.

2. The sequence (n2 ) is bounded below.

Since for every n 1, n2 > 0.
3. The sequence (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, ) is unbounded.
Remark 2. Note that a sequence which is bounded below can be unbounded.
Result 4. Every convergent sequence is bounded.
Proof. Suppose (xn ) ` be a convergent sequence. Now take = 1, therefore there
exists N N such that for every n > N , we have |xn `| < 1. i.e.
` 1 < xn < ` + 1 n > N.
Thus all xn s, except x1 , x2 , . . . , xN , lie between ` 1 and ` + 1. Now let
= min{x1 , x2 , . . . , xN , ` 1}

= max{x1 , x2 , . . . , xN , ` + 1}

Thus xn for all n 1.

4



Remark 3. However the converse of this is not true. e.g. (1n ) , which is bounded but
not convergent.
Corollary 9. A sequence which is not bounded cannot be convergent.
Result 5. Let (xn ) be a bounded sequence such that there exists N N satisfying <
xn < for all n N . If xn ` then ` .
Remark 4. In the aboce result, even if xn < for all n 1, it may happen that
lim xn = . e.g. n1 > 0 for all n, but lim n1 = 0.
Result 6. Let (xn ) be a sequence and x R. Suppose (an ) is a sequence of positive real
numbers with an 0. If there exists a constant > 0 and a natural number N such that
|xn x| < an

n > N,

then (xn ) converges to x.

Proof. Hint: Let > 0. Now since an 0, there exists N N such that |an | = an <
for all n > N . Thus, |xn x| < an <
n > N,
Result 7 (Sandwich Theorem). Let (xn ), (yn ), (zn ) be sequences such that xn yn zn
for all n N. If both (xn ) and (zn ) converge to the same limit `, then (yn ) also converges
to `.
Proof. Let > 0. Then there exist N1 , N2 N such that
|xn `| <

n > N1

and |zn `| <

n > N2 .

Let N = max{N1 , N2 }. Then

< xn ` yn ` zn ` < ,
i.e. |yn `| < for all n > N , i.e. yn `.
1

Example 10. Show that (5n + 4n ) n 5.

1
1
Note that the 5 < (5n + 4n ) n < 2 n 5 for each n 1. Now we have lim 5 = 5 and
n

lim 2 n 5 = 5 lim 2 n = 5, as we have already seen that lim 2 n 1.

n
n
n
Therefore by Sandwich Lemma,
1

5 lim (5n + 4n ) n 5
n

Hence, lim (5n + 4n ) n = 5.

n

Exercise:
Show that the following sequences are convergent and find the limits.

1.

1
n2 +1

1
n2 +2

+ +

1
n2 +n


3.

2. ( sinn n )

4.

q
n

2+(1)n
2n

1+

2
1 n
n2

Result 8. Let (xn ) x be a convergent sequence and xn 0 for all n 1, then x 0.

Proof. Suppose x < 0. Let = x > 0. Then N N such that
x < xn < x +

n > N.

In particular, xN +1 < x + = x + (x) = 0 contradiction, since xn 0 for all n.

Exercise:
What if xn > 0 in the above statement? Justify with example.

Result 9 (Comparison Test). Let (xn ) x and (yn ) y be convergent sequences with
xn yn for all n 1. Then x y.
Proof. Hint: use the above result for zn = yn xn .
xn+1
n xn

Result 10. Let (xn ) be a sequence of positive real numbers such that L = lim
exists.
1. If L < 1 then (xn ) converges and lim xn = 0.
n

2. If L > 1 then (xn ) diverges.

Proof.
1. Note that since xn 0 for all n 1, L 0. Choose r R such that
L < r < 1 and let = r L. Then there exists N N such that




x
n+1

 lim
n xn L < .
Thus, limn

xn+1
xn

< L + = L + (r L) = r.

Now for n > N , we have 0 < xn+1 < rxn < r2 xn1 < < xN rnN +1 . Set = xrNN .
Then 0 < xn+1 < rn+1 for all n > N . But 0 < r < 1, therefore lim rn = 0 and
n
hence lim xn = 0.
n

2. Exercise :-)
Example 11. Let xn =

n
. Then
2n

xn+1
n xn

Thus L = lim

n+1
2n+1

n
2n



1
1
=
1+
.
2
n
n
1
= < 1. Therefore lim
= 0.
n 2n
2
xn+1
=
xn

Exercise:
Discuss the convergence of the following sequences
n
k
(i) n! where R
(ii) nn where > 1 and k N.
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