1

Continuity of Functions

1.1

Limit of a function

Definition 1. Let f : R R be a function and let c be a real number. We say a real

number ` R is a limit of f at c if f (x) approaches ` when x approaches c.
i.e. The quantity |f (x) `| can be made arbitrarily small whenever x is sufficiently
close to c.
i.e. Given > 0, there exists > 0 such that |f (x) `| < for all x R satisfying
0 < |x c| < .
Notation: We write f (x) ` as x c OR lim f (x) = `.
xc

Definition 2 (-neighbourhood). Let c R and > 0. Then the interval

(c , c + ) = {x R | c < x < x + }
is called -neighborhood of c.
Notation: -nbd of c OR N (c).
Definition 3 (Deleted or Punctured Neighbourhod). The set N (c) without the point c
is called Deleted or Punctured -Neighborhood of c.
Notation: N (c).
Remark 1. lim f (x) gives a trend of f in a neighborhood of c, whereas f (c) gives just a
value of f at c.
Definition 4 (Limit of f , alternate definition). We say ` R is a limit of f at c if for
every non-constant, convergent sequence (xn ), such that xn c, we have f (xn ) `.
Remark 2. In view of the above definition, even if c does not lie in the domain of f , we
can talk about the limit of f at c. In fact the above definition does not calculate f (c).
Remark 3. The limit does not depend on the value of the function at that point.
Result 1. Let f : R R be a function such that lim f (x) exists, then the limit is unique.
xc

Proof. Easy exercise :-)

Result 2. Let f, g : R R be functions such that lim f (x) = L and lim g(x) = M . Then
xc

1. lim(f + g)(x) = lim f (x) + g(x) = L + M

xc

xc

2. lim(f g)(x) = lim f (x) g(x) = L M

xc

xc

3. lim(f g)(x) = lim f (x) g(x) = L M

xc

xc

4. lim f (x) = L for every R.

xc

xc

L
f (x)
=
xc g(x)
M

5. If M 6= 0, lim
6. For

p
q

Q, lim(f (x)) q = L q
xc

Proof. Easy exercise :-)

Result 3. if f (x) is a polynomial with real coefficients, then lim f (x) = f (c), i.e. value
xc

of f (x) at x = c.
Proof. Follows easily from the limit laws.
Corollary 5. In general, the result is applicable even for a rational function (i.e. ratio
of two polynomials), provided limit of the denominator is not zero.
i.e. if p(x), q(x) are polynomials such that q(x) 6= 0 in a neighborhood of c, then
p(x)
p(c)
lim
=
xc q(x)
q(c)
1. Let f : R R be defined as f (x) = x. Then for any c R, lim f (x) =

Examples 6.

xc

f (c).
2. Let f : R R be defined as f (x) = 1. Then for any c R, lim f (x) = 1.
xc

3. Let f (x) =

x2 1
x1

if x 6= 1 and f (1) = 1. Then lim f (x) = 2.

x1

Examples 7.
1. f (x) = 0 if x < 0 and f (x) = 1 if x 0. Then f does not have a limit
at x = 0.
2. Step function
3. f (x) =

1
x

if x 6= 0 and f (0) = 0. Then f does not have a limit at x = 0.

Result 4. Let f, g, h : R R are functions such that f (x) g(x) h(x) for all x in
some open interval containing c, except possibly at c. If lim f (x) = lim h(x) = L, then
xc

xc

lim g(x) = L.

xc

Definition 8 (Cluster Point). Let A R . A point c R is called cluster point of A if

for every > 0, there exists at least one point x(6= c) A such that |x c| < .
i.e. For every > 0, the deleted -neighborhood of c is non-empty, i.e. N (c) 6= .
Result 5. A real number c is a cluster point of A R if and only if there exists a
nonconstant sequence (xn ) in A such that lim xn = c and xn 6= c for all n 1.
Result 6. Let f : R R be a function and c R. Let lim = `. If ` > 0 then there
xc

exists > 0 such that f (x) > 0 for every x in -neighborhood of c, (i.e. x N (c) we
have f (x) > 0).
A similar result holds for ` < 0 as well.
Proof. Hint: Take = 2` .
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Definition 9. A function is said to be bounded in a neighborhood of c, if there exists a

-neighborhood, N (c) of c and a constant M > 0 such that |f (x)| M for all x N (c).
Result 7. If lim f (x) exists, then f (x) is bounded in some neighborhood of c.
xc

Proof. Let ` = lim f (x). Take = 1., then there exists > 0 such that for every
xc

x N (c) we have f (x) N1 (`). i.e. |f (x) `| < 1. Therefore

|f (x)| |`| < |f (x) `| < 1.
Therefore if x N (c), then |f (x)| |`| + 1.
Take M = max{f (c), |`| + 1}. Then |f (x)| M for all x N (c).
Definition 10 (Left-hand limit). Let A R and f : A R. If c R is a cluster point
of A (, c) then we say that ` R is a left-hand limit of f at c, if given > 0 there
exists > 0 such that for all x A with 0 < c x < we have |f (x) `| < .
We write
lim f (x) = `.
xc

Definition 11 (Right-hand limit). Let A R and f : A R. If c R is a cluster point

of A (c, ) then we say that ` R is a right-hand limit of f at c, if given > 0 there
exists > 0 such that for all x A with 0 < x c < we have |f (x) `| < .
We write
lim+ f (x) = `.
xc

These limits are called One-sided Limits.

Remark 4. It is possible that neither of the one-sided limits exist. Also, one of them
may exist without the other existing. Similarly, they may both exist and be different.
Result 8. Let A R and f : A R. If c R is a cluster point of A (c, ). Then
the following statements are equivalent:
1. limxc+ f (x) = `.
2. For every sequence (xn ) in A converging to c with xn > c for all n N, the sequence
f (xn ) converges to `.
A similar result holds for left-hand limit.
Result 9. Let A R and f : A R. If c R is a cluster point of both the sets
A (c, ) and A (inf ty, c). Then lim f (x) = ` if and only if limxc+ f (x) = ` and
xc

limxc f (x) = `.
Definition 12. Let f : R R. We say that f tends to as x c if for every R
there exists > 0 such that for all x R with 0 < |x c| < , we have f (x) > .
Notation:
lim f (x) = .
xc

Definition 13. Let f : R R. We say that f tends to as x c if for every R

there exists > 0 such that for all x R with 0 < |x c| < , we have f (x) < .
Notation:
lim f (x) = .
xc

Definition 14. Let f : R R. We say ` R is a limit of f (x) at infinity if given any

> 0 there exists K > 0 such that for any x > K, we have |f (x) `| < .
Notation:
lim f (x) = `.
x

Definition 15. Let f : R R. We say ` R is a limit of f (x) at minus infinity if given

any > 0 there exists K < 0 such that for any x < K, we have |f (x) `| < .
Notation:
lim f (x) = `.
x

1.2

Continuous Functions

Definition 16. Let f : R R and c R. We say f is continuous at c if lim f (x) exists

xc

and is equal to f (c).

i.e. Given > 0, there exists > 0 such that |f (x) `| < for all x R satisfying
|x c| < .
Definition 17. We say f is discontinuous at c if a f fails to be continuous at c.
Definition 18 (Alternate definition for continuity). We say f is continuous at c if for
every sequence (xn ), such that xn c, we have f (xn ) f (c).
Definition 19. We say f is said to be continuous on a set A R if f is continuous at
every point of A.
Definition 20. We say f is said to be continuous everywhere if f is continuous at every
point of its domain.
Result 10. Let f, g : R R be continuous functions. Then
1. f + g is continuous.
2. f g is continuous.
3. f g is continuous, where (f g)(x) = f (x) g(x).
4. f is continuous.
5.

f
g

is continuous provided g(c) 6= 0.

6. For

p
q

Q, then f q is continuous.

Corollary 21. Polynomial and rational functions are continuous.

Result 11. Composition of continuous functions is continuous.

Remark 5. Let S R and c R be a cluster point of S. Sometimes a function

f : S R is not continuous at a point c, because it is not defined at that point. However
if f has a limit ` at c and we define a new function F : S {c} R by

f (x) if x S
F (x) =
`
if x = c.
Then clearly F is continuous at c, since lim F (x) = lim f (x) = `. Why???
xc
xc
Then the function F is called Continuous Extension of f at c.


Examples 22.
1. Let f : (0, 1) R defined by f (x) = x sin x1 . Then f is not defined
at x = 0. However if we define

f (x) if x 6= 0
F (x) =
0
if x = 0.
Then F is a continuous extension of f .


2. The function f : (0, 1) R defined by f (x) = sin x1 cannot be extended continuously, as there is no value that we can assign at x = 0 to obtain the continuous
extension at x = 0.
Result 12 (Patching Lemma). Let S R and c S. Let S1 = {x S | x c} and
S2 = {x S | x c}. Define f1 : S1 R and f2 : S2 R such that f1 (c) = f2 (c).
Define f : S R by

f1 (x) if x S1
f (x) =
f2 (x) if x S2 .
Then f is continuous at x = c if and only if both f1 and f2 are continuous at x = c.
Proof. Easy Exercise :-)
Definition 23. Closed Set A subset S R is said to be Closed if every convergent
sequence (xn ) is S with xn c, we have c S.
Example 24. The following sets are closed:
Any finite set, N, [0, 1], R, [0, ).
Non Example 1. The following sets are not closed:
(0, 1), [0, 1), Q
Definition 25 (Compact Set). A closed and bounded subset of R is called Compact Set.
Result 13. Let S R be a compact set and f : S R be a continuous function. Then
1. f is bounded function.
2. f attains its bounds (maximum and minimum) in S. i.e. there exists r, s S such
that
f (r) = inf{f (x) | x S}
f (s) = sup{f (x) | x S}.
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Proof.
1. Suppose f is not bounded. Then for every n N, there exists xn S such
that |f (xn )| > n. Now S is bounded hence, (xn ) is a bounded sequence.
Therefore by Bolzano-Weierstrass theorem, there exists a convergent subsequence
(xnk ) c. But S is compact hence closed. Therefore c S.
Now f is continuous on S, f (xnk ) f (c). Therefore f (xnk ) is bounded. Which is
a contradiction as |f (xnk )| > nk for all k N.
Therefore f is bounded.
2. Exercise! (Another proof of this result can be given using Intermediate Value Property.)
Examples 26.

1. Let f : [2, 2] R defined by f (x) = x2 . Then

inf{f (x) | x S} = 0 = f (0)
sup{f (x) | x S} = 4 = f (2) = f (2)

2. If S is not closed, then f may not be bounded. For example f : (0, 1) R defined
by f (x) = x1 .
Result 14 (Intermediate Value Property - Version 1). Let I = [a, b] be a closed bounded
interval and let f : I R be a function continuous on I. If f (a) < 0 < f (b) or
f (b) < 0 < f (a) then there exists c (a, b) such that f (c) = 0.
Here are a more general statements.
Result 15 (Intermediate Value Property - Version 2). Let I = [a, b] be a closed bounded
interval. A function f : I R that is continuous on I takes every value between f (a)
and f (b).
In other words, if k R such that f (a) < k < f (b) then there exists c (a, b) such
that f (c) = k.
Result 16 (Intermediate Value Property - Version 3). Suppose that I = [a, b] and that
f : I R is a continuous function. Then the image set f (I) is also an interval, and
either it contains [f (a), f (b)], or it contains [f (b), f (a)]; that is,
f (I) [f (a), f (b)],

or

f (I) [f (b), f (a)].

Remark 6. Although IVP-3 says that f (I) is an interval, it does not mean that f (I) =
[f (a), f (b)]. In fact this may not be the case always.
For example sin(x) on the interval [a, b] = [0, 2]. Then sin(0) = 0 = sin(2). However sin([0, 2]) = [1, 1].
Proof of IVP-1. Suppose f (a) < 0 < f (b). Let S = {x I | f (x) < 0}. Clearly S 6=
as a S. Also S is bounded above by b. Therefore sup(S) exists. Let c = sup(S).
Then there exists a sequence (xn ) in S such that xn c. As I = [a, b] is closed, c I.
Now f is continuous on I, therefore f (xn ) f (c). But for all n N, f (xn ) < 0
therefore, f (c) 0. But c < b (i.e. c 6= b) since 0 < f (b).
. Then clearly bn I for all n N and bn c.
Consider a sequence bn = c + bc
n
Therefore f (bn ) f (c). But bn > c for all n N. Therefore f (bn ) 0 and hence
f (c) 0.
Therefore f (c) = 0.
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