Packet Networking Concepts

Module: Core Network and Internet Infrastructure
Unit: Packet Networking

Lesson: Packet Networking Concepts
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Packet Networking Concepts

Packet Networking
Packet-Switched connections in contrast to the circuit-switched connection are connectionless.
Each packet is transmitted independently of other packets and packets are routed based upon the
activity and availability of circuits connecting packet switches, which results in the selection of an
optimum route at a given time. This is analogous to sending a message by a letter - the packet is
simply received and forwarded. Since packets can traverse different paths, packets can be
received at a destination switch out of sequence. Thus, destination switches must be capable of
having sufficient memory to store packets until they can be sequenced into their appropriate order
prior to their delivery to their ultimate destination. Although packets from each source routed to a
common destination can take different paths, they are reassembled into their original order at their
destination nodes. There is no call setup phase. Thus, if a communicating device wishes to send
only one or a few packets, datagram delivery will be quicker. It is more flexible because if
congestion develops in one part of the network, incoming datagrams can be routed away from the
congestion. Datagram delivery is also more reliable because if a node fails, subsequent packets
may find an alternate route that bypasses that node.
In packet switching, there is no resource allocation for a packet. This means that there is no
reserved bandwidth on the links, and there is no scheduled processing time for each packet.
Resources are allocated on demand. The allocation is done on a first- come, first-served basis.
When a switch receives a packet, no matter what is the source or destination, the packet must wait
if there are other packets being processed. As with other systems in our daily life, this lack of
reservation may create delay. For example, if we do not have a reservation at a restaurant, we
might have to wait.
In a datagram network, each packet is treated independently of all others. Even if a packet is part of
a multipacket transmission, the network treats it as though it existed alone. Packets in this approach
are referred to as datagrams. Datagram switching is normally done at the network layer.
Figure 4.1.1 depicts a datagram-switching network in comparison to circuit-switched network.
Figure 4.1.1 - Datagram Switching Network Vs Circuit Switched Network
Comparison Between Circuit Vs Packet Switching Networks

In Packet Switching, it is up to routers to use store-and-forward transmission to send each packet
on its way to the destination on its own. This procedure is unlike circuit switching, in which the result
of the connection setup is the reservation of bandwidth all the way from the sender to the receiver.
All data on the circuit follows this path. Among other properties, having all the data follow the same
path means that it cannot arrive out of order. With packet switching there is no fixed path, so
different packets can follow different paths, depending on network conditions at the time they are
sent, and they may arrive out of order.
Packet-switching networks place a tight upper limit on the size of packets. This ensures that no user
can monopolize any transmission line for very long (e.g., many milliseconds), so that packetswitched networks can handle interactive traffic. It also reduces delay since the first packet of a long
message can be forwarded before the second one has fully arrived. However, the store-andforward delay of accumulating a packet in the router's memory before it is sent on to the next router
exceeds that of circuit switching. With circuit switching, the bits just flow through the wire
continuously.
Packet and circuit switching also differ in other ways. Because no bandwidth is reserved with
packet switching, packets may have to wait to be forwarded. This introduces queuing delay and
congestion if many packets are sent at the same time. On the other hand, there is no danger of
getting a busy signal and being unable to use the network. Thus, congestion occurs at different
times with circuit switching (at setup time) and packet switching (when packets are sent).
If a circuit has been reserved for a particular user and there is no traffic, its bandwidth is wasted. It
cannot be used for other traffic. Packet switching does not waste bandwidth and thus is more
efficient from a system perspective. Under- standing this trade-off is crucial for comprehending the
difference between circuit switching and packet switching. The trade-off is between guaranteed
service and wasting resources versus not guaranteeing service and not wasting resources.
Packet switching is more fault tolerant than circuit switching. In fact, that is why it was invented. If a
switch goes down, all of the circuits using it are terminated and no more traffic can be sent on any of
them. With packet switching, packets can be routed around dead switches.
A final difference between circuit and packet switching is the charging algorithm. With circuit
switching, charging has historically been based on distance and time. For mobile phones, distance
usually does not play a role, except for international calls, and time plays only a coarse role (e.g., a
calling plan with 2000 free minutes costs more than one with 1000 free minutes and sometimes
nights or weekends are cheap). With packet switching, connect time is not an issue, but the volume
of traffic is. For home users, ISPs usually charge a flat monthly rate because it is less work for
them and their customers can understand this model, but backbone carriers charge regional
networks based on the volume of their traffic.
Summarize the differences between circuit and packet switching based on following
characteristics.
Figure Table1 - Table 1
Additional Resource:
Packet Switching Animation:
http://www.pbs.org/opb/nerds2. 0.1/geek_glossary/packet_switc hing_flash.html
Virtual Circuits
A virtual-circuit network is a cross between a circuit-switched network and a datagram
network. It has some characteristics of both.
1. As in a circuit-switched network, there are setup and teardown phases in addition to the data
transfer phase.
2. Resources can be allocated during the setup phase, as in a circuit-switched network,
3. or on demand, as in a datagram network.
4. As in a datagram network, data are packetized and each packet carries an address in the
header. However, the address
in the header has local jurisdiction not end-to-end jurisdiction.
4.
The reader may ask how the intermediate switches know where to send the packet if there is
no final destination address carried by a packet. The answer will be clear when we discuss
virtual-circuit identifiers in the next section.
5. As in a circuit-switched network, all packets follow the same path established during the
connection.
6. A virtual-circuit network is normally implemented in the data link layer; while a circuit-switched
network is implemented in the physical layer and a datagram network in the network layer.
But this may change in the future.
Figure 4.1.2 is an example of a virtual-circuit network. The network has switches that allow traffic
from sources to destinations. A source or destination can be a computer, packet switch, bridge, or
any other device that connects other networks.
Figure 4.1.2 - Virtual Circuit Switching
In a virtual-circuit network, two types of addressing are involved: global and local (virtual-circuit
identifier).
Global Addressing: A source or a destination needs to have a global address-an address that
can be unique in the scope of the network or internationally if the network is part of an
international network. However, we will see that a global address in virtual-circuit networks is
used only to create a virtual-circuit identifier, as discussed next.
Virtual-Circuit Identifier: The identifier that is actually used for data transfer is called the virtualcircuit identifier (Vel). A vel, unlike a global address, is a small number that has only switch
scope; a frame between two switches uses it. When a frame arrives at a switch, it has a VCI;
when it leaves, it has a different VCl.
As in a circuit-switched network, a source and destination need to go through three phases in a
virtual-circuit network: setup, data transfer, and teardown. In the setup phase, the source and
destination use their global addresses to help switches make table entries for the connection. In the
teardown phase, the source and destination inform the switches to delete the corresponding entry.
Data transfer occurs between these two phases. We first discuss the data transfer phase, which is
more straightforward; we then talk about the setup and teardown phases.
Virtual-circuit networks are used in switched WANs such as Frame Relay and ATM networks. The
data link layer of these technologies is well suited to the virtual-circuit technology.uaranteed service
levels
1. Point-to-point and point-to-multipoint connections

2. Constant as well as variable bit rate services
3. Connection-oriented or connectionless application services
Scalability, both in terms of:
1. Distance - A single technology in the local area, campus, and wide area
2. Speed - Currently defined physical layer interfaces vary from 1.5 Mbps up to
622 Mbps
OSI Reference Model
Packet-Switching as discussed in the previous section finds its largest application in data
networking.
A layered-approach was adopted for effective communication between computers by the early data
networking architects and the International standards organization. The model developed is called
the ISO OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Reference Model because it deals with connecting
open systemsthat is, systems that are open for communication with other systems. We will just call it
the OSI model for short.
The OSI model has seven layers. The principles that were applied to arrive at the seven layers can
be briefly summarized as follows:
Each layer should perform a well-defined function.
The function of each layer should be chosen with an eye toward defining internationally
standardized protocols.
The layer boundaries should be chosen to minimize the information flow across the interfaces.
The number of layers should be large enough that distinct functions need not be thrown
together in the same layer out of necessity and small enough that the architecture does not
become unwieldy.
OSI model makes it possible to determine the specifications of each layer of the technology in
question and render each layer compatible with higher and lower layers. This also helps the
interoperability of equipment from various manufacturers. The seven layers proposed in the OSI
model are the following:
7.
Application: The application layer contains a variety of protocols that are commonly needed by
users.
6.
Presentation: Unlike the lower layers, which are mostly concerned with moving bits around, the
presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information transmitted.
5.
Session: The session layer allows users on different machines to establish sessions between them.
4.
Transport: The basic function of the transport layer is to accept data from above it, split it up
into smaller units if need be, pass these to the network layer, and ensure that the pieces all arrive
correctly at the other end.
3.
Network: The network layer controls the operation of the subnet. A key design issue is
determining how packets are routed from source to destination.
2.
Data Link: The main task of the data link layer is to transform a raw transmission facility into a
line that appears free of undetected transmission errors.
1.
Physical: is concerned with transmitting raw bits over a communication channel.
While the ISO model was being ratified, the Department of Defence (DoD) of the United States
began to develop its own model. The project, funded by the Defence Advanced Research Projects
Agency (DARPA), involved in the development of an experimental packet-switched network
(ARPANET), and the development of all the necessary protocols to deal with its functionality. The
result was an internetworking protocol suite known as The TCP/IP Internet Protocols; however, most
people nowadays simply refer to them as TCP/IP.
TCP/IP was the first protocol suite developed for use in an internet. The OSI seven-layer model
described in the previous section was defined before the idea of internetworking take up. The result
was that there was no provision for a layer for internet protocols.
Figure 4.1.3 shows the difference between the OSI and TCP/IP reference model.
Figure 4.1.3 - OSI Vs TCP/IP Reference Model
The OSI and TCP/IP reference models have much in common. Both are based on the concept of a
stack of independent protocols. Also, the functionality of the layers is roughly similar. For example,
in both models the layers up through and including the transport layer are there to provide an end-toend, network-independent transport service to processes wishing to communicate. These layers
form the transport provider. Again in both models, the layers above transport are applicationoriented users of the transport service.
Despite these fundamental similarities, the two models also have many differences. In this section
we will focus on the key differences between the two reference models. It is important to note that
we are comparing the reference models here, not the corresponding protocol stacks. Three
concepts are central to the OSI model:
1. Services.
2. Interfaces.
3. Protocols.
Probably the biggest contribution of the OSI model is that it makes the distinction between these
three concepts explicit. Each layer performs some services for the layer above it. The service
definition tells what the layer does, not how entities above it access it or how the layer works. It
defines the layer's semantics.
A layer's interface tells the processes above it how to access it. It specifies what the parameters are
and what results to expect. It, too, says nothing about how the layer works inside.
Finally, the peer protocols used in a layer are the layer's own business. It can use any protocols it
wants to, as long as it gets the job done (i.e., provides the offered services). It can also change them
at will without affecting software in higher layers.
1. Critique OSI Reference model and protocols

2. Critique TCP/IP reference model
3. Why is there a need for protocols? What was the main driving force behind designing
protocols?
4. How does OSI model fit into telephony?
Use the following references for the above research:
1. Tanenbaum, A. S. (2007). Computer Networks, 5-th Edition.
2. Roger.L.Freeman(1999), Fundamentals of Telecommunications, Wiley Publication
3. Roger.L.Freeman(1999), Fundamentals of Telecommunications, Wiley Publication
View a movie on TCP/IP Networks here

https://www.youtube.com/watch? v=PBWhzz_Gn10
TCP Animations
http://www.billingcollege.com/ animation/protocols.swf
WAN Technologies
Packet Switched technologies enables data networking. Networks of all size and scale exist today
starting from:
Personal Area Networks (PAN): They let devices communicate over the range of a person. A
common example is a wireless network that connects a computer with its peripherals.
Local Area Networks (LAN): A LAN is a privately owned network that operates within and
nearby a single building like a home, office or company.
Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN): covers a city. The best-known examples of MANs are the
cable television networks available in many cities.
Wide Area Networks (WAN) spans a large geographical area, often a country or continent.
Wide area network (WAN) can be defined as a collection of interconnected LANs. WANs allow
networks that are spread over a large geographical space to share data and network resources.
The sub-networks that comprise a WAN use routers to route their packets to the proper destination.
Routers are hardware devices that link different networks to provide the most efficient path for the
transmission of data. These routers are connected by high-speed telecommunications links. The
characteristics of some of these links are shown in figure 4.1.4
Figure 4.1.4 - List of WAN Technologies and their operating Speeds
T1 - comprised of 24 channels, each using 8 bits per channel. So, one T1 lines uses a twisted pair
for 24 voice signals. It uses baseband transmission. T1 lines can carry both voice and data. Voice
and data multiplexors are required if you plan to mix both voice and data channels. The lines are
fractional, meaning that they can be divided into channels for voice or data.
T2 - four T1 lines can be combined to form a T2 line.
T3 - 28 T1 lines or 7 T2 lines form the T3 line for users who need a higher bandwidth.
T4 - 3 lines are multiplexed into a T4(M) line, equivalent to 178 T1 circuits.
E1, E2, etc are used for European standard [5].
ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) - supports voice, data, video, electronic mail, and
numerous other services integrated together. It consists of D channel, B channel, and H channel.
B channel - voice, videos, and data (64 Kbps), can be used for packet and circuit switching
applications.
D channel - user signalling messages, uses out-of-band signalling (16 or 64 Kbps). The D channel
is used to transfer requests for services that are delivered on a B channel (384 Kbps).
H channel - higher transfer rate, real time video conferencing, etc. (1536 or 1920 Mbps).
ATM - cell-based (53-byte cell), fast-packet switching technology. ATM layer functions - switching,
multiplexing, routing, and congestion management.
Asynchronous Transfer Mode
ATM is a connection-oriented packet-switching technology that uses fixed-size packets, referred to
as cells, to carry the traffic in the network. ATM embodies various design objectives that include:
Integration of voice, video, image and data services into a single framework
Characterizing ATM as asynchronous indicates that cells may occur at irregular times
determined by the nature of the application rather than the framing structure of the transmission
system. In effect, ATM has isochronous support built in; consequently, ATM can transport
voice, data, and video, all on the same circuit.
Scalability, both in terms of: bullet style?
.-Distance - A single technology in the local area, campus, and wide area
.-Speed - Currently defined physical layer interfaces vary from 1.5 Mbps up to 622 Mbps
Because of its adaptability, ATM was viewed as the key technology for the future , However in the
recent times other WAN technologies such as SONET/SDH have become more prevalent in private
wide area networks, and on the campus as the multimedia LAN. One common misconception,
though, is to confuse the technology with the services that will be offered in the broadband network
of the future. The types of services available in ATM networks include:
1. Bandwidth on demand
2. Guaranteed service levels
3. Point-to-point and point-to-multipoint connections
4. Constant as well as variable bit rate services
5. Connection-oriented or connectionless application services
ATM is a cell-switched network. The user access devices, called the endpoints, are connected
through a user-to-network interface (UNI) to the switches inside the network. The switches are
connected through network-to-network interfaces (NNIs). Figure 4.1.5 shows an example of an ATM
network.
Figure 4.1.5 - ATM Network Architecture
SONET/SDH
The advances in optical transmission technology have occurred at a rapid rate, and the backbone
of telephone networks has become dominated by fibre optic digital transmission systems.
The deregulation of telecommunications in the United States led to a situation in which the longdistance carriers were expected to provide the interconnection between local telephone service
providers. To meet the urgent need for standards to interconnect optical transmission systems, the
Synchronous Optical Network (SONET) standard was developed in North America. The CCITT later
developed a corresponding set of standards called Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH).
SONET and SDH form the basis for current high- speed backbone networks.
The SONET standard uses a 51.85 Mbps signal as a building block to extend the digital
transmission hierarchy into the Multi-gigabit range. SONET incorporates extensive capabilities for
the operations, administration, and maintenance (OAM) functions that are required to operate
digital transmission facilities. It also introduces a synchronous format that greatly simplifies the
handling of the lower-level digital signals and that enables network topologies that are self-healing in
the presence of faults.
Figure 4.1.6 shows the SONET and SDH digital hierarchy. The synchronous transport signal level-1
(STS-1) is the basic building block of the SONET hierarchy. A higher-level signal in the hierarchy is
obtained through the interleaving of bytes from the lower-level component signals. Each STS-n
electrical signal has corresponding optical carrier level-n (OC-n) signal. The bit format of STS-n and
OC-n signals is the same except for the use of scrambling in the optical signal.3 The SDH standard
refers to synchronous transfer modules-n (STM-n) signals and begins at a bit rate of 155.52 Mbps.
The SDH STM-1 signal is equivalent to the SONET STS-3 signal. The STS-1 signal accommodates
the DS3 signal from the existing digital transmission hierarchy in North America. The STM-1 signal
accommodates the CEPT-4 signal in the CCITT digital hierarchy. The STS-48 signal is widely
deployed in the backbone of modern communication networks.
Figure 4.1.6 - Synchronous Digital Hierarchy
Use appropriate internet resources to investigate the pre-SONET/SDH switching and the current
deployment status of SDH technology.
Reading:
a)
Introduction to ATM - http://technet.microsoft.com/e n-us/library/cc976964.aspx
b)
Introduction to ATM Technology and its Applications http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/...
/abs_all.jsp%3Farnumber%3D5807 58
c)
An introduction to ATM Networks - http://freecomputerbooks.com/A n-Introduction-to-ATMNetworks .html
d)
Internetworking over ATM: An Introduction - http://www.redbooks.ibm.com/ab
stracts/sg244699.html
Video:
ATM: Asynchronous Transfer Mode - https://www.youtube.com/watch? v=IPuLZSOye4c
(SONET/SDH) James F Kurose, Keith W Ross, Computer Networking, A Top-Down Approach
Featuring the Internet, Third Edition, Addison Wesley
(SONET/SDH) Roger.L.Freeman(1999), Fundamentals of Telecommunications, Wiley Publication

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Module: Core Network and Internet Infrastructure

Unit: Packet Networking

2014 Resource Development International Ltd. All rights reserved.