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Sensor and Network Technology for Intelligent Transportation Systems

Girma S. Tewolde, Member, IEEE


Electrical and Computer Engineering Department
Kettering University
Flint, MI 48504

Abstract - The current state of the art advancements


in sensors, computation, and wireless communication
technologies has made possible a vast range of
emerging applications in large number of fields such as
in civil and military transportation systems, personal
communications, health care, industrial automation,
smart grids, smart homes, etc. Even though the
automobile does not seem to have changed much its
mechanical image since its first introduction, the
industry is currently adapting itself in response to the
information technology revolution. Thus, today it is not
uncommon to see GPS assisted navigation systems,
driver assist technology for parallel parking, adaptive
cruise control, and lane-departure warning. Technology
is also making way into the transportation
infrastructure such as in electronic toll collection,
traffic monitoring, accident alert systems, etc. This
paper reviews the current state of the technology
deployed to support intelligent transportation systems
and looks into the potential of wireless sensor network
technology with the aim to reduce cost and power
consumption, while at the same time enhancing
flexibility as well as efficiency of service.

I. INTRODUCTION
The innovations in the automobile industry over the last
hundred years have made our vehicles more powerful,
easier to drive and control, safer, more energy efficient,
and more environmentally friendly. Yet, when multiple
factors are taken into account personal vehicles are not
necessarily the most economical or efficient form of
transportation for personal urban transportation.
Considering the common use of vehicles for personal
urban mobility, todays cars lack flexibility in design,
they are not built to specification, have large footprint in
physical size and take up large real state in road and
parking space [1]. Future technological advancements
will be expected to address these challenges and build
vehicles with efficient electric drive systems, wireless
communication capability with other vehicles on the
road and the roadway infrastructure, and information
technology to provide improved navigation, fuel
efficiency, safety, and traffic management functions.
The national highway traffic safety administration
reported that in 2009 motor vehicle accidents in the
United States resulted in the death of over 33,000

people and the injury of an estimated 2.22 million


people [2]. To reduce accidents a number of research
and development initiatives supported by the
government and the private sector are working on ways
to integrate technology that could improve automotive
safety. Most accidents are reported to be caused due to
driver error. Thus, technology that can help automate
vehicle operation and take a person out of the control
loop is expected to tremendously help in improving
safety on the roadways.
With the aim of improving safety, fuel efficiency, and
optimal utilization of roads, vehicles are being equipped
with
intelligent
sensing,
computation
and
communication technologies. The long shot goal is to
build autonomous vehicles that can operate without
human supervision. The department of defense
especially has shown great interest in this regard with
the goal of minimizing human causalities by pulling
personnel out of dangerous military zones. Big prize
competitions sponsored by the Defense Advanced
Research Project Administration (DARPA) helped
accelerate technology development for autonomous
navigation in outdoor terrain and urban settings [3, 4].
As a result, the military has managed to deploy a fleet of
remotely operated semi-autonomous robotic ground,
aerial, and marine vehicles with demonstrated success.
In the civilian arena a number of research universities
and companies are also investing in technology for
deployment in autonomous vehicles. Google, with the
help of robotics researchers from Stanford and Carnegie
Mellon universities has managed to deploy vehicles
outfitted with sophisticated sensors and powerful
computing resources for autonomous navigation. The
sensor suite includes laser scanners, radar, video
camera, inertial navigation systems, wheel encoder, and
GPS. The artificial intelligence algorithms integrate the
raw data generated by all the sensors to create a 3D map
of the environment, including the surrounding vehicles
on the road, traffic signals, pedestrians trying to cross
streets, etc. The control software is responsible to make
real time decisions for a safe navigation of the vehicle
among the surrounding traffic. It knows the speed limit
on road ways, decides when it is safe to change lanes,
and follows a route given by the GPS navigation system
[5]. There are also a few other similar success stories of
projects such as the autonomous vehicle developed at
the University of Parma that drove from Italy to China

978-1-4673-0818-2/12/$31.00 2012 IEEE

[6], an autonomous vehicle navigating the streets of


Berlin [7], and the self driving car in China [8].

II. INTELLIGENT TRANSPORTATION


SYSTEM
Intelligent transportation system (ITS) refers to
integrated application of communication, control and
information
processing
technologies
to
the
transportation infrastructure and vehicles [9]. The
resulting benefits save lives, time, money, energy, and
the environment. ITS is based on the collection,
processing,
integration
and
dissemination
of
information, based on static and real-time data obtained
from sensors onboard vehicles, sensors on the
roadways, satellite data, digital maps, traffic
information, as well as weather conditions. Users of ITS
include motorists, commercial operators and public
transport customers, who rely on it to make informed
travel decisions based on such factors as traffic
conditions, road maintenance or construction work, and
weather conditions that could potentially impact travel
time and safety. Policy makers and road or highway
operators also utilize the information from ITS in the
management and future planning of the road networks.
The primary interest for ITS comes from problems
caused by traffic congestion, which has been increasing
worldwide as a result of population growth,
urbanization, increased motorization, and changes in
population density [10]. Congestion reduces efficiency
of transportation infrastructure and increases travel
time, fuel consumption and air pollution. A 2010 Urban
Mobility Report from a study conducted by the Texas
Transportation Institute at Texas A&M University
indicates that due to congestions Americans spend
additional 4.8 billion hours on the roadways. This
translates to an extra 1.9 billion gallons of fuel, making
the total cost of congestion due to wasted time and fuel
to about $115 billion. This is over and above the cost of
gas just to get around. The average wasted time due to
congestion per auto commuter in 2010 was about 34
hours per year, up from 14 hours in 1982 [11]. Thus,
policy makers, politicians, road and highway engineers,
town planners, and the general public have great stake
in reducing congestion and its associated economic and
environmental costs.
With the help of distributed sensing technology forming
the ITS infrastructure, information could be gathered
about the real-time conditions on roadways, such as
accidents, traffic backup, bad weather, road
construction, etc. and could be disseminated to alert
motorists via dynamic message signs, highway advisory
radio, in-vehicle navigation systems, or Smartphone

apps. Drivers weigh in the traffic information to make


informed decisions on whether to take a given route,
reschedule travel route and time, or change mode of
transportation. Commercial fleet operating companies
use information from ITS for fleet management, to
decide when and how to deploy their fleet. ITS also
provides information about the public transit system
such as bus and train schedules, trip planners, and fares.
ITS technology has also greatly improved highway toll
collection. Automatic toll collection systems make use
of transponders with RFID technology, license plate
recognition system, or barcode stickers, to identify
vehicles and collect toll fees without stopping or
slowing traffic. This helps eliminate or minimize chock
points along routes having toll booths. In cities that have
designated cordon zones with congestion pricing,
special fees are collected using the electronic toll
collection system when vehicles enter congested city
zones. Many high-traffic systems also provide high
occupancy vehicle (HOV) lanes. For law enforcement
purposes different in-vehicle and external automatic
vehicle occupancy counting systems are developed [15].
One of the major contributing factors to congestion and
pollution in city streets is caused by cars driving around
city blocks looking for parking spots. Managing realtime information about city parking spaces on public
streets and parking garages is an important component
of service expected from ITS. A network of distributed
electronic sensors could monitor the availability of
parking spaces and provide real-time information to
motorists looking for them. For example, the city of Los
Angeles recently deployed a pilot program known as
ExpressPark that combines demand based pricing
principles and technology to guide drivers to open
parking spaces and show current parking rates [16]. The
rates are determined in real-time based on the number of
available parking spaces, the time of day and drivers
length of stay. More advanced technology could even
provide mechanisms for reserving parking space ahead
of time before arrival, thus minimizing delays,
frustrations, expenses in gas, and car wear and tear
caused by time spent circling around city blocks in
search of parking space [12].
The ITS technology also plays critical role in the area of
accident prevention and quick emergency response. Invehicle safety technology already available today
include: collision avoidance systems, lane departure
warning systems, and drowsy driver warning systems
[13]. In incident and emergency response, ITS
technology helps identify and facilitate quick response
to automobile crashes or other disaster locations.
Automatic crash notification systems on-board vehicles
employ sensors to detect a crash and automatically

communicate the incident and vehicle location to


emergency call center. Emergency vehicle preemption
technology provides the right-of-way to emergency
vehicles at traffic lights to provide quick response to
accidents. Real-time data sharing between emergency
responders, police, and traffic managers allows
coordinated traffic management and emergency
operation. Standardization efforts are also underway to
support development of cooperative systems and ensure
interoperability of technologies [14].

III. ROADWAY ITS TECHNOLOGY


For effective realization of the ITS services, roadway
and in-vehicle infrastructure has to be deployed to
collect and communicate timely, accurate and reliable
information about traffic flow and road conditions. The
system includes sensor, communication and traffic
control technologies. Vehicle detection and surveillance
technologies form the basis of ITS for providing speed
monitoring, traffic counting, presence detection,
headway identification, vehicle classification and
weight-in motion data collection. In this section we
discuss the currently available roadway ITS
infrastructure technologies [17, 18].
a) In-roadway sensor technologies. An in-roadway
sensor is one that is either embedded in the pavement of
the roadway, or embedded in the subgrade of the
roadway, or taped/attached to the surface of the
roadway. Examples of in-roadway sensors are discussed
below:
i) Pneumatic road tube sensor sends a burst of air
pressure along a rubber tube when a vehicles tires
pass over the tube. The pressure pulses close
electrical switch, which is detected by a counter.
The road tube, installed perpendicular to traffic
flow direction, is commonly used for short term
traffic counting, traffic classification by axel count
and spacing, for the purpose of planning and
research studies. The data gathered could also be
used to calculate vehicle gaps, intersection stop
delay, stop sign delay, saturation flow rate, spot
speed as a function of vehicle class.
ii) Inductive loop detector (ILD) senses the
presence of a conductive metal object by inducing
currents in the object. The wire loop is excited with
electrical current whose frequencies range from
10KHz to 50KHz and above. The magnetic field in
the loop induces current in metallic objects passing
over the loop. The induced current in turn reduces
the loop inductance, which is sensed by the
attached electronics unit as a vehicle detection. The

data obtained from conventional ILD include


vehicle passage, presence, count and occupancy.
Although loops cannot measure speed, speed can be
determined using a two-loop speed trap. The ILD is
the most commonly used sensor in traffic
management applications.
iii) Magnetic sensors are passive devices that
indicate the presence of a metallic object by
detecting the perturbation created by the object in
the Earths magnetic field. Two types of magnetic
sensors are used for traffic flow management. The
first-type is two- and three-axis fluxgate
magnetometers, which detect changes in the
vertical and horizontal components of the Earths
magnetic field produced by a ferrous metal vehicle.
These sensors identify stopped and moving
vehicles. The second type of magnetic sensor is
called induction or search coil magnetometer. It
normally detects only moving vehicles (with speeds
more than approximately 5 mi/hr) by measuring the
change in the magnetic lines of flux caused by a
moving ferrous metal vehicle.
iv) Piezoelectric sensors employ piezoelectric
materials that generate a voltage when subjected to
mechanical impact or vibration. The measured
voltage is proportional to the force or weight of the
vehicle. These sensors are used to classify vehicles
by axel count and axel spacing and to measure
vehicle weight and speed (with the use of multiple
sensors).
b) Over-roadway sensor technologies. These sensors do
not require the installation directly onto, into, or below
the road surface. Over-roadway sensors are mounted
over the center of the roadway or to the side of the
roadway. Examples of over-roadway sensors are
discussed below:
i) Video image processor (VIP) typically consists of
one or more cameras, a microprocessor-based unit
for digitizing and processing the imagery, and
software for interpreting the images and converting
them into traffic flow data. A VIP can replace
several in-roadway inductive loops, provide
detection of vehicles across several lanes, and
perhaps lower maintenance costs. Further, some
VIP systems process data from more than one
camera to expand the coverage area. VIPs can
classify vehicles by their length and report vehicle
presence, flow rate, occupancy, and speed for each
class.
ii) Microwave radar. Radar (radio detection and
ranging) uses radio waves in the microwave

frequency spectrum (1 GHz to 30 GHz) for object


detection and measurements of distance and speed.
Roadside mounted microwave radar sensors
transmit radio waves toward an area of the roadway
from an overhead antenna. When a vehicle passes
through the antenna beam, a portion of the
transmitted energy is reflected back towards the
antenna. The detection system in the receiver can
then calculates the vehicle data such as volume,
speed, occupancy, length, etc. Two types of
microwave radar sensors are used in traffic
management applications, continuous wave (CW)
Doppler radar and frequency modulated continuous
wave (FMCW) radar. The CW Doppler radar can
be used to detect moving vehicles and to determine
their speed; but they are not capable of detecting
stationary objects. However, the FMCW radar is
able to detect motionless objects.
iii) Infrared sensors. Active and passive infrared
(IR) sensors are available for traffic monitoring
applications. Active infrared sensors illuminate
detection zones with low power infrared energy
supplied by laser diodes operating in near infrared
spectrum at 0.85 m. The energy reflected from
passing vehicles is focused by an optical system
onto an IR-sensitive receiver unit. By using two or
more beams, the laser radars can measure vehicle
speed by recording the times at which the vehicle
enters the detection area of each beam. Active
infrared sensors provide data on vehicle presence at
traffic signals, volume, speed, length, and queue
measurement. Passive infrared sensors detect the
energy emitted from vehicles, road surfaces, other
objects in the field of view, and from the
atmosphere, but without transmitting energy of
their own. Passive IR sensors can measure vehicle
counting, volume, lane occupancy detection, and
queue detection.
iv) Ultrasonic sensors transmit sound energy at
frequencies above the human audible range
between 25 KHz and 50 KHz. Most ultrasonic
sensors operate using pulse waveforms to measure
distance to the road surface and vehicles by
detecting the arrival time of reflected waves coming
towards the sensor from an area defined by the
transmitters beam width. The sensor provides
vehicle count, presence and occupancy information.
Vehicle speed can be measured using two sensors
separated by a known distance apart. Ultrasonic
sensors that measure speed using the Doppler
principle are also available, but they are more
expensive than the pulse models.

v) Passive acoustic array sensors operate by using


two dimensional array microphones for detecting
acoustic energy produced by vehicular traffic from
a variety of sources within each vehicle and from
the interaction of a vehicles tires with the road. An
increase in sound energy recognized as a vehicle
passes through the detection zone is processed by
the signal-processing algorithm to generate a
vehicle presence. To minimize interference sounds
from locations outside the detection zone are
attenuated. These sensors can measure vehicle
passage, presence, and speed.

IV. IN-VEHICLE ITS TECHNOLOGY


Besides the roadway sensor technology presented in the
previous section, for effective realization of state of the
art ITS services vehicles need to get smarter and
provide their own on-board sensing and communication
technology. This section presents currently available
technology for navigational aid, lane-departure warning,
driver drowsiness detection, blind-spot monitoring,
adaptive cruise control, traffic sign recognition,
collision avoidance, and automatic crash notification
systems.
a) Navigational aid is provided by a set of on-board
sensors including speed gauge, compass, indicators for
travel distance, time, location, remaining distance and
time to destination, turn-by-turn guidance for drivers, as
well as real-time traffic information. The global
positioning system (GPS) is becoming an essential
component of navigational aid. Its operation is based on
a constellation of satellites, providing position, speed,
and time information anywhere on earth, where there is
an unobstructed line of sight to four or more satellites.
The latest GPS navigational aids come with support for
map updates, real-time traffic information, incident
reports, updates on delay information, travel and arrival
time, and alternate route proposals.
b) Lane departure warning system is a driver assist
technology that is designed to alert a driver when the
vehicle begins to depart from its lane without the proper
use of a turn signal. There are two types of these
systems: i) systems which only warn the driver using
visual, audio or vibration feedback; and ii) systems
which warn the driver, and if no action is taken,
automatically take steps to ensure the vehicle keeps its
lane. Lane departure warning and lane keeping systems
could use a combination of sensors including video
sensors mounted behind the windshield, laser sensors
mounted on the vehicle front, and infrared sensors
mounted either behind the windshield or under the
vehicle. This is an important safety technology that is
becoming a standard feature in newer model vehicles; it

is helpful to alert drivers when they are drifting from


their lane due to distraction or drowsiness.
c) Drowsy driver warning system uses video technology
to monitor eye movements and detect when a driver is
showing signs of fatigue. The system then sends audio,
visual, or vibration alarm feedback to the driver to help
avoid dangerous driving situations. Drowsy driving
could also be detected from the drivers steering
behavior, speed, lateral and longitudinal acceleration.
Studies have shown that drowsy drivers tend to show
erratic steering, finding it difficult to keep a precise
course in their lane; they make minor steering errors
that are often corrected quickly and abruptly [19].
d) Blind spot monitor is a sensor with a warning system
on a vehicle that detects other vehicles entering in its
blind spot, on the sides and rear of the vehicle.
Warnings could be provided using visual and audible
signals. Cameras and side radar sensors could be
employed to monitor vehicles in the blind spot or
vehicles that are fast approaching to enter the blind spot.
In newer vehicle technologies, such as the Blind Spot
Intervention System in the Infinity M, the system is
capable of taking preventive action to avoid collision by
applying opposite side brakes to guide the vehicle stay
in the correct lane [20].
e) Adaptive cruise control (ACC) is similar to
conventional cruise control in that it maintains the
vehicles preset speed, however ACC can automatically
adjust speed in order to maintain a safe following
distance. The technology uses forward looking radar to
detect the distance and speed of the vehicle ahead. If the
lead vehicle slows down or if another object is detected
by the radar, the sensor sends a signal to the engine
control to decelerate the vehicle. Then when the road is
clear the ACC re-accelerates the vehicle back to the set
speed. New ACC systems are further being enhanced to
include collision warning capabilities that warn drivers
through visual and/or audio alarms when collision
seems imminent and immediate action is needed.
f) Traffic sign recognition is a technology of sensors
and computation that enable a vehicle to recognize
traffic signs put on roadways, such as speed limit, turn
ahead, or traffic signals. Typically, this technology is
based on visual sensors and real-time image processing
operations [21] for detection and recognition of the
traffic signs on a road. Such driver assist system aids the
driver in significantly improving driving safety as well
as for enabling autonomous operation of intelligent
robotic self driving vehicles.
g) Collision avoidance system (CAS) represents a
change of focus in the way car manufacturers look at

automotive safety. Traditionally the emphasis has been


on injury mitigation for those involved in a collision, for
example by providing stronger vehicle frames, seat
belts, and airbags. The focus has now shifted to
collision avoidance systems. CAS is based on a system
of sensors placed within a car to warn its driver and/or
take action when necessary to avoid imminent dangers
that may lie ahead on the road. It is an extension of the
other safety systems described above including lane
departure warning, blind spot monitor, and adaptive
cruise control. For example, the forward looking radar
used for ACC could sense if a vehicle is getting too
close to another vehicle in front and warn the driver or
apply braking to avoid crash. Besides the onboard
sensors and actuators, communication with other
vehicles in the surrounding area and the roadway
infrastructure as well as real-time traffic and weather
information is utilized to enhance safety and avoid
vehicle accidents.
h) Automatic crash notification system uses on-board
units, such as airbag deployment or other sensors, to
detect evidence of a collision. When the vehicles
sensors detect collision, the crash notification system
automatically communicates with a call center and
transmits information about the accident and the
vehicles location. The OnStar service [22] available on
GM vehicles, and recently made accessible to the
general public, is an example of such a service. Besides
crash notification, OnStar provides navigational-aid,
remote diagnostics, roadside assistance, hands-free
calling, in-vehicle security, and stolen vehicle tracking.
OnStar service relies on CDMA mobile voice and data
communication.

V. VEHICULAR COMMUNICATION
SYSTEMS
This is an emerging area where by vehicles and roadside
units communicate for efficient and cooperative
operation by forming a network of distributed nodes
passing information around using radio communication.
Such radio communication based systems can operate
beyond the line of sight constraints of radar and vision
solutions presented above; thus, vehicles and
infrastructure can cooperate to perceive potentially
dangerous situation in an extended space and time
horizon [22]. Connected vehicles can help create the
underlying infrastructure for intelligent transportation
system to provide various application services for
improving safety and comfort.
A common trend for adoption of vehicular
communication technology is the use of wireless LAN
adapted for mobile vehicular applications. The
upcoming IEEE 801.11p standard is an amendment to

the 802.11 standard to add wireless access in vehicular


environments for ITS support. The enhancements
include data exchange between moving vehicles and
between vehicles and roadside infrastructure in the
licensed ITS band of 5.9 GHz. One such particular
technology is vehicular ad-hoc networking (VANET)
where by moving cars, and potentially roadside units,
form nodes to create ad-hoc mobile network. VANET
enables multi hop wireless communication to support
vehicle-to-vehicle,
vehicle-to-infrastructure,
and
infrastructure-to-vehicle communication.

VI. WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORKS


Due to cost of deployment of roadside units to support
VANETs, low-cost complementary technologies are
being considered by various research groups. One such
complementary solution is based on wireless sensor
networks (WSNs) [23]. Nodes forming ad-hoc wireless
sensor networks are typically based on low-cost, lowpower, battery operated sensing, processing and
communication technology. These low-power nodes
can typically operate for years on a pair of AA battery,
thus reducing maintenance overhead. Due to their lowcost and low power requirements large numbers of
roadside WSNs could be deployed economically to
support the vehicular communication system.
Wiring makes up one of the major cost components of
installing the in-roadway and over-roadway traffic
monitoring infrastructure. With the use of wireless
networking solution, installation and maintenance cost
could be drastically reduced. Furthermore, the system
will have greater flexibility as it allows easy
replacement and upgrade of sensor nodes, and easy
reconfiguration of the network setup. Below are a few
examples of wireless nodes already available from
different vendors for various sensing and monitoring
applications in ITS:
a) Groundhog G-8 magnetometer and road-weather
sensor from Nu-Metrics [18]. Shown in Figure 1a, this
is a self-contained battery-powered, wireless sensor. It
is installed in-pavement but does not require the
installation of any external loops, or tubes, or power and
communication wires running to a base station. The
sensor transmits data wirelessly at 2.45 GHz spread
spectrum band to a base station up to 300 ft away. The
base station can be powered from batteries charged by
solar energy. The sensor provides data on vehicle count,
speed, length, lane occupancy, daily and annual average
daily traffic, environmental monitoring of road surfaces
temperature, road surface dry or wet condition, and
chemical index. Polling intervals range from 5 to 120
minutes. The G-8 operates from 4 lithium thionyl

chloride batteries for up to 5 years, depending on the


polling interval.
b) SensysTM Networks VDS240 wireless sensor [24],
shown in Figure 1b, is a three-axis magnetometer that
measures the x-, y-, and z- components of the Earths
magnetic field. It is used to detect vehicle presence and
movement. The sensor is installed flush-mount inpavement with no wires needed for power or
communication. It can communicate with an access
point device over a range of 75 to 150 ft. The
manufacturer claims that the sensor uses ultra-low
power communication protocol that allows it to have a
battery life of up to 10 years.
c) Dust Networks SmartMesh wireless mesh network
solution [25], shown in Figure 1c, enables reliable
gathering of real-time status (occupied, empty or
expired) of parking spots. Municipalities can use this
information to monitor parking spaces on city streets
and parking complexes, provide real time parking
information to drivers, minimize congestion due to
traffic caused by motorists searching for parking.
Streetline [26], a provider of smart parking solutions,
uses Dust Networks SmartMesh wireless sensor
network solution with ultra-low power IEEE 802.15.4
nodes that can run for years on two AA batteries. It
utilizes a time synchronized mesh protocol to deliver
networking resilience, reliability, and scalability.
Streetlines solution collects street-level data from the
SmartMesh network to deliver real time web based
parking management applications. These applications
guide motorists to available parking spots, text them
when their parking-meter is running out, and even direct
parking enforcement directly to occupied expired
meters.

VI. CONCLUSION
This paper presented a review of the technology
advancements that are leading the way in the realization
of intelligent transportation systems. ITS is shown to
offer great opportunities in maximizing utilization of
roadways, while minimizing fuel consumption,
congestions, and the environmental impact of vehicle
traffic. Traditional sensing systems for in-vehicle and
roadway infrastructure deployments, as well as the
wireless sensor networking technologies have been
explored. The WSN solution offers ultra-low power
sensing and communication technology, reduced
installation and maintenance cost, greater flexibility,
better adaptable and scalable mesh networking, and
years of operation on battery power. We anticipate
further improvements of the ITS technology and
vehicular communication systems, and expect adoptions
at greater scales in the coming years.

(a)

(c)

(b)

Fig 1: (a) Groundhog G-8 magnetometer and road-weather sensor, (b) SensysTM wireless sensor,
(c) Dust Networks SmartMesh

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