Professional Documents
Culture Documents
K. R. GOVINDAN
Kavoori Consultants
22, Janakiraman Street,
West Mambalam,
Chennai, 600 033.
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ATTITUDE
Half full or half empty?
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ENERGY MANAGEMENT
More precisely,
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ENERGY AUDIT
PRE REQUISITE FOR AN ENERGY MANAGEMENT
PROGRAMME
BY ITSELF DOES NOT SAVE ENERGY
HELPS MANAGEMENT IDENTIFY AREAS OF HIGHEST
SAVINGS POTENTIAL
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FUNCTIONS OF AUDIT
Assesses various forms of energy use
Compares with estimated minimum
Provides inputs for budgetary control
?
SET UP WHEN FUEL COST WAS VERY LOW
NO CONCERN FOR ENERGY EFFICIENCY
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SEEMS
63 MILLION YEARS AGO
ALL LIVING AND NON LIVING THINGS
SUDDENLY BURIED
THE CAUSE MAY BE A DELUGE OR
THE FALL OF AN ASTEROID
UNDER HIGH PRESSURE FOR LONG TIME
BECAME FOSSILS
THE ENERGY STORED
IN THEM IS THE FUEL WE ARE ENJOYING
NOW!
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Control of pollution
Energy conserved reduces fuel
consumption
Fossil fuels burnt generates green house
gasses
Also causes acid rain etc.
Some of the solar radiation is reflected
back by the earth and atmosphere and
they escape to the space.
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REMEMBER!
1.
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ENERGY CONSERVATION
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ENERGY CONSERVATION
OPPORTUNITIES IN
NO TWO IDENTICAL FACTORIES ARE
ALIKE
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CONCLUSION
Audit helps in identifying energy
conservation opportunities,
Not an one time function;
A continuous activity
Initial phase may provide plenty of
opportunities; but
May taper down as the activity continues.
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PARETTO ANALYSIS
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ENERGY CONSERVATION
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WHAT IS ELECTRICITY?
AMPERES?
VOLTS?
WATTS?
FLOW OF CURRENT
WITH POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
ACROSS A RESISTANCE
FLOW OF CURRENT GIVES POWER
POWER FLOWING FOR A PERIOD
AMPERES
VOLTS
OHMS
WATTS
ENERGY
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Simple circuit
4 AMPS
960W
240 V
60
(Heater)
4 AMPS
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POWER, ENERGY
Power rate of doing work
Energy quantity of work done
Electrical:
Kilo Watt, Kilo Watt Hour
Mechanical:
Horse power, foot pound force (ft lbf)
THERMAL:
British thermal units (BTU)
Joule
Calorie
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Energy equivalents:
1 kilowatt hour =
2.65 10^6
3412
(J)
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ENERGY FORMS
Coal
Oil
Gas
Electricity
Steam
Compressed air
Vacuum
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ENERGY FORMS
pressure, heat
potential,Velocity (k.e)
pressure
potential difference
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ENERGY FORMS
Identify source or carriers:
Sources:
Inherent energy expended by irreversible chemical
process - burning
Fuels
OIL
GAS
COAL
Gets consumed.
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REDUCE WHAT?
OUTPUT? USEFUL WORK DONE
HOW?
ENERGY INPUT = USEFUL WORK DONE + ENERGY
LOST IN CONVERSION / TRANSMISSION.
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OR
USEFUL WORK +
(LOSSES+WASTAGE+LOW EFFICIENCY)
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LOSSES
AVOIDABLE
WASTAGE
LOW EFFICIENCY
UN EVEN DEMAND
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Power factor
Components of Impedance
(I) Resistance + Reactance (Vectorial sum)
Reactance = Inductive reactance + Capacitive reactance
(Vectorial sum)
These two oppose each other I.e. 180 degrees apart
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Because
Load consists mainly of:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Induction motors
Static controls thyristors etc,
Power transformers and voltage regulators,
Welding machines,
Electric-arc and induction furnaces,
Choke coils and magnetic systems,
Neon signs and discharge lamps.
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Inductive loads
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kVA1
`
KVA2`
1
2
R KVA
Capacitive
reactance in
RKVA
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Selection of capacitors
POINTS TO BE CONSIDERED:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
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LOCATION OF CAPACITORS
Nearest to inductive load or switch board: Reduce current
and I2R loss
INDIVIDUAL CORRECTION
Better across motor terminals
Preferably 7.5 kW and above
Avoids providing separate control gears for capacitors
Improves starting condition voltage drop reduced at start
I.e. Drop across cables, transformers, buses
Reduces I2 or losses
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INDIVIDUAL CORRECTION
Caution
1. Protective equipment of feeders/ equipments
should be properly set
2. Capacitor size dependent on motor
magnetizing
current.
3. Motor overload trip setting:
OLTA = OLTA * P.F. without capacitors (With
capacitors) (Without capacitors) power factor with
capacitors
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Location A
Capacitor installed on incoming side of starter, on
line side of O/L relay
(a) Capacitor size dependent on motor
magnetizing current.
(b) Current to starter not reduced.
(c) Motor overload trip setting same as without the
capacitor.
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Location B
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Capacitance value
Correct size capacitor in kVAr not to exceed 85% of noload magnetizing kVA of machine.
If motor runs, even momentarily, with windings and
capacitor forming a closed circuit, and disconnected
from mains, over-excitation occur if capacitance too
large.
Happens when:
1. Switching off supply to motor.
2. Step changing a star/delta or auto-transformer
starter,
3. Breaker trips, or fuses blow on distribution system
such that: Motors with individual capacitors, or
Group of motors and line capacitor, form closed circuits.
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LOSSES IN A CAPACITOR
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LOSSES IN A CAPACITOR
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LOSSES IN A CAPACITOR
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CASE STUDIES
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Details
Mixed Dielectric
100% Polypropylene
Losses
0.5 W/ kVAr
Running
Costs
Higher
1/5th of MD
Life
10 to 15 years
Same
Temp Rise
More
Less
Reliability
More reliable
Size
Very large
Much smaller
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CASE STUDIES
In a plant in South Madras 100 kVAr capacitor in
circuit left Weekend with no load:
Meter reads 150 200 units per day
Misleading; Capacitors suspected defective; Replaced;
No improvement
Removed capacitors tested OK
Tariff meter should assure accuracy for leading power
factor
Unnecessarily consumer billed for energy not
consumed but shown as consumption by erratic
energy meter
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CASE STUDIES
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CASE STUDIES
DG set rating:
3 phase, 415 V, 50 Hz, 500 kVA; used for
6000 hours/ Year.
Average load 250 kW at 0.65 PF.
Full load copper loss of the alternator =
12 kW
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TO CONSERVE ENERGY:
1.
REDUCE LOSSES
2.
3.
4.
5.
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REDUCE LOSSES
A. Optimal selection of transformers
* At least loading should be between 40% to 60%
B. Selection of cable sizes
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REDUCE LOSSES
D. Optimal selection of equipments to work at max. Efficiency
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Step-Up Transformers
common and vital electrical tools used in
power transmission.
They are usually the first major
transformer in a transmission system and
are often used in various forms
throughout the system.
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Step-Up Transformers
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Step-up transformer
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Transformers
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Magnetic losses:
Eddy current losses in the magnetic core etc
Hysterises loss in the magnetic core etc
This raises the temperature of the transformer
and is dissipated by various cooling methods
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Hysterisis losses
when a magnetic field is applied all the
grains of the magnetic material will orient
in the direction of magnetizing force.
In next half cycle this grains will orient in
opposite direction in the direction of
magnetizing force.
The energy required to change the
orientation of the magnetic grains in the
direction of the magnetic field is lost in
the form of heat. This loss is called
hysterisis loss.
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Cold Rolled Grain Oriented (CRGO) silicon steels are used for
laminations of the Power Transformers magnetic core.
Properties:
Maximum magnetic induction to obtain high induction amplitude in
an alternating field
Core loss will be independent of the load
CRGO steel sheets core loss is low; result in reduction of the
constant losses.
Low apparent power input (Low hysterisis loss) results in low no
load current
High grade surface insulation
Good mechanical processing properties
Low magnetostriction: results in low noise level
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CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSFORMERS
According to cooling method and permissible
temperature rise.
OIL IMMERSED TRANSFORMERS.
Type Oil Circulation Cooling method
ONAN Natural
Air Natural
ONAF Thermal Air Blast
OB
ONWF Head Only
Water
OFAN Forced by
Air Natural
OFAF Pump
Air Blast
OFB
OFWF
Water
COMBINATION:
ON/OB
ON/OFN
Symbol
ON
OW
OFN
OFW
ON/OFB
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Transformers
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Magnetic losses:
Eddy current losses in the magnetic core etc
Hysterises loss in the magnetic core etc
This raises the temperature of the transformer
and is dissipated by various cooling methods
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Power
(kVA)
No-load loss(kW)
On-load loss(kW)
6300
9.3
45
8000
11.2
54
10000
13.2
63
12500
15.6
74
16000
18.8
90
20000
22.2
106
25000
26.2
126
31500
31.2
149
40000
37.3
179
50000
44.1
213
63000
52.5
255
75000
59.8
291
68.8
333
90000
60~150
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Dry Type
Transformer
Losses
KVA
Full Load
(W)
KVA
Full Load
(W)
500
4930
500
10000
750
7900
750
15000
1000
8720
1000
16400
1500
13880
1500
22500
2000
16310
2000
26400
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Cast:
Dry:
Load Losses
(kW)
16.38
21.00
18.52
No Load Losses
(kW)
2.66
7.00
7.55
Total Losses
(kW)
19.04
26.07
28.00
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Transformer Oil
Forms a very significant part of the
transformer insulation system:
Has the important functions of acting as
an electrical insulation as well as
A coolant to dissipate heat losses.
For small rating transformers heat
removed from the transformer by natural
thermal convection.
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Cooling
Winding
(Measured by Resistance)
OFW
Oil
All
(Measured by Thermometer)
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Symbol
O
L
B
W
A
S
N
F
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TRANSFORMER LOSSES
Constant loss or no load loss- does not depend
upon load condition : about 1kW per 500 kVA
Copper losses - proportional to load condition
During lean periods, one transformer can be cut
out of service - saves about 24 units per day i.e.
Rs. 48/- per day per 500 kVA capacity
Diagram - transformer losses
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TRANSFORMER LOSSES
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TRANSFORMER LOSSES
Constant loss or no load loss- does not depend
upon load condition : about 1kW per 500 kVA
Copper losses - proportional to load condition
During lean periods, one transformer can be cut
out of service - saves about 24 units per day i.e.
Rs. 48/- per day per 500 kVA capacity
Diagram - transformer losses
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TRANSFORMER LOSSES
Transformer Load Losses- Model calcuations.
KAVOORI CONSULTANTS, CHENNAI.
Energy audit
M/s. *************************** Ltd
Table No.
Transformer Load Losses, at the present loading condition:
Transformers with Off Load Tap Changer
Make
Bharat Bijlee
k.V.A.
H.V.
L.V.
Imp % ge Units
Rating
2000
11000
433
6.25
No load loss
3.3 kWs
Full lload loss at temperature, oC
75
19.8 kWs
Full lload loss at Operating temperature, oC
31.9
17.05
Full load current, L.T.
2669.9 Amps
Full load current, H.T.
175.16 Amps
Cost of electrical energy
5.95 Rs.
No of transformers in Parallel
2
Single transformer in service
Two transformers in service
Load
Losses, in kW
Losses, in kW
%ge Load No Load
Load
Total
No Load
Load
Total
At an operating temperatur of
31 oC
10.00%
3.3
0.17
3.47
6.6
0.04
6.64
20.00%
3.3
0.68
3.98
6.6
0.17
6.77
30.00%
3.3
1.53
4.83
6.6
0.38
6.98
40.00%
3.3
2.73
6.03
6.6
0.68
7.28
50.00%
3.3
4.26
7.56
6.6
1.07
7.67
60.00%
3.3
6.14
9.44
6.6
1.53
8.13
70.00%
3.3
8.35
11.65
6.6
2.09
8.69
80.00%
3.3
10.91
14.21
6.6
2.73
9.33
90.00%
3.3
13.81
17.11
6.6
3.45
10.05
100.00%
3.3
17.05
20.35
6.6
4.26
10.86
o
At an operating temperature of
10.00%
20.00%
30.00%
40.00%
50.00%
60.00%
70.00%
80.00%
90.00%
100.00%
3.3
3.3
3.3
3.3
3.3
3.3
3.3
3.3
3.3
3.3
0.19
0.77
1.72
3.07
4.79
6.90
9.39
12.26
15.52
19.16
3.49
4.07
5.02
6.37
8.09
10.20
12.69
15.56
18.82
22.46
65.00
19.16
6.6
6.6
6.6
6.6
6.6
6.6
6.6
6.6
6.6
6.6
0.05
0.19
0.43
0.77
1.20
1.72
2.35
3.07
3.88
4.79
Energy management
6.65
6.79
7.03
7.37
7.80
8.32
8.95
9.67
10.48
11.39
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TRANSFORMER LOSSES
2000 kVA, 6600 /433 Volts Transformer. Total Losses
Single, Two in parallel operation.
o
(Operating temperature
C)
55
35.00
30.00
Total losses in kW
(Load + No Load)
25.00
20.00
Single Transformer
15.00
10.00
5.00
0.00
1
10
11
12
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TRANSFORMER LOSSES
Constant loss or no load loss- does not depend
upon load condition : about 1kW per 500 kVA
Copper losses - proportional to load condition
During lean periods, one transformer can be cut
out of service - saves about 24 units per day i.e.
Rs. 48/- per day per 500 kVA capacity
Diagram - transformer losses
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99.50
Percentage efficiency
99.00
98.50
2000 kVA transformer
98.00
2500 kVA Transformer
97.50
97.00
96.50
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.1
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1 MVA TO 5 MVA
Greater than 5 MVA
1 to 5 %
9 to 15%
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POWER UTILIZATION
POWER UTILIZATION
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POWER DRAWN BY
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POWER UTILIZATION
INDUCTIVE LOAD
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POWER CONTROL
In the past, a resistance or an auto transformer
was employed to regulate power
It controls the peak value of the voltage applied
But still the voltage follows a sinusoidal waveform
but with lesser amplitude
Since power is a product of voltage and current,
the power follows sinusoidal waveform
With reduction in peak value the power drawn is
also reduced
But, involves wastage of power in the controlling
element
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149
150
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Frequency
Harmonic of 50 Hz
1.01
50
1.21
250
1.35
350
1.65
550
11
153
154
155
156
157
Case Study:
Test on a 15 kW motor at full out put
With 50 Hz fundamental sinusoidal voltage loss at
full load = 1303 Watts
With Quasi-square wave voltage 1600 Watts
Losses up by 23%
158
159
Harmonic analysis of peaked no load current wave of i0 = 100 sin + 31.5 sin
5+
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163
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166
167
168
169
BALANCED LOAD
Neutral Current
5A
5A
0A
5A
5A
5A
R
Y
B
170
5A
10A
15A
5A
5A
5A
R
Y
B
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Resistance
Current 2
Power
Loss
Energy
Loss
Heat
Time
Insulation
Failure
Temperature
ELECTRICAL FAILURE
Power loss is proportional to the square of
the current;
Immaterial, whether the current is in
phase with voltage or of fundamental
frequency
Harmonic currents are no exception to this;
They do not deliver power, but circulate in
the system, contributing to energy loss.
result: higher temperature
ELECTRICAL FAILURE
Resistance
Current 2
Power
Loss
Energy
Loss
Heat
Time
Insulation
Failure
Temperature
ELECTRICAL FAILURE
Power loss is proportional to the square of
the current;
Immaterial, whether the current is in
phase with voltage or of fundamental
frequency
Harmonic currents are no exception to this;
They do not deliver power, but circulate in
the system, contributing to energy loss.
result: higher temperature
ELECTRICAL FAILURE
Previous
coding
ILCOS coding
Lamp
efficacy
(lumens/
Watt)
Tungsten
filament
GLS
10 to 18
1000 to 2000
100
Tungsten
halogen
TH
HS
15 to 25
2000 to 4000
100
High pressure
mercury
MBF
QE
30 to 60
14000 to 25000
47
Low pressure
mercury
(fluorescent)
MCF
FD (tubular)
FS (compact)
65 to 95
65 to 95
6000 to 15000
8000 to 10 000
11
Metal halide
MBI
65 to 85
6000 to 13000
Low pressure
sodium
SOX
LS
70 to 150
11000 to 22000
High pressure
sodium
SON
55 to 120
12000 to 26000
XF
70 to 80
60000
Induction
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CONCLUSION
Harmonics are created in a power system by the
consumer and also by the supplier
But major portion by consumer
Harmonics creates lot of problems, destroys
equipments
All energy efficient equipments essentially creates
harmonics;
These result in added energy losses
Hence harmonics are to be limited
While selecting energy efficient equipments these
points are to be given greater attention
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