DATA AND MEASUREMENT OF ELEMENTS OF CLIMATE

1) Measurement of Temperature
Many surface air temperature records extend back to the middle part of the last century. The
measurement of the surface air temperature is essentially the same now as it was then, using a mercuryin-glass thermometer, which can be calibrated accurately and used down to -39C, the freezing point of
mercury. For lower temperatures, mercury is usually substituted by alcohol. Maximum and minimum
temperatures measured during specified time periods, usually 24 hours, provide useful information for
the construction and analysis of temperature time series. Analysis involves the calculation of averages
and variances of the data and the identification, using various statistical techniques, of periodic
variations, persistence and trends in the time series.
Temperature is a valuable climate element in climate observation because it directly provides a measure
of the energy of the system under inspection. For example, a global average temperature reveals
information about the energy content of the Earth-atmosphere system. A higher temperature would
indicate a larger energy content. Variations in temperature are also subject to less variability than other
elements such as rainfall and wind. Perhaps most importantly of all, our own perception of the state of
the climate are intimately linked to temperature.

2) Measurement of Rainfall
Rainfall is measured most simply by noting periodically how much has been collected in an exposed
vessel since the time of the last observation. Care must be taken to avoid underestimating rainfall due to
evaporation of the collected water and the effects of wind (Folland, 1988; Mueller & Kidder, 1972).
Time series can be constructed and analysis performed in a similar manner to those of temperature.
The measurement of global rainfall offers an indirect or qualitative assessment of the energy of the
Earth-atmosphere system. Increased heat storage will increase the rate of evaporation from the oceans
(due to higher surface temperatures). In turn, the enhanced levels of water vapour in the atmosphere will
intensify global precipitation. Rainfall is, however, subject to significant temporal and spatial variability,
and the occurrence of extremes, and consequently, analysis of time series is more complex

3) Measurement of Humidity
The amount of water vapour in the air can be described in at least 5 ways, in terms of:
1) the water-vapour pressure;
2) the relative humidity;
3) the absolute humidity
4) the mixing ratio
5) the dewpoint.

A full account of these definitions may be found in Linacre (1992). The standard instrument for
measuring humidity is a psychrometer. This is a pair of identical vertical thermometers, one of which
has the bulb kept wet by means of a muslin moistened by a wick dipped in water. Evaporation from the
wetted bulb lowers its temperature below the air temperature (measured by the dry bulb thermometer).
The difference between the two measured values is used to calculate the air's water-vapour pressure,
from which the other indices of humidity can be determined.

4) Measurement of Wind
Wind is usually measured by a cup anemometer which rotates about a vertical axis perpendicular to the
direction of the wind. The exposure of wind instruments is important (Johnson & Linacre, 1978); any
obstruction close by will affect measurements. Wind direction is also measured by means of a vane,
accurately balanced about a truly vertical axis, so that it does not settle in any particular direction during
calm conditions.