1

Dr. B. Munwar Basha

05 Feb 2015

Indian Institute of Technology Hyderabad (IITH)

Why do we learn about In situ Stresses ?

In a given volume of soil, the solid
particles are distributed randomly
with void spaces between.
The void spaces are continuous and
are occupied by water and/or air.
To analyze problems (such as
compressibility of soils,
bearing capacity of foundations,
stability of embankments, and
lateral pressure on earth-retaining
structures
we need to know the nature of the
distribution of stress along a given
cross section of the soil profile.

Stresses in Saturated Soil without Seepage

3

Figure shows a column of

saturated soil mass with no
seepage of water in any
direction.
The total stress at the elevation
of point A can be obtained
from the saturated unit weight
of the soil and the unit weight
of water above it. Thus,
H w ( H A H ) sat
HA = distance between point A and the water
table, H =height of water table from the top of
the soil column, at =saturated unit weight of
the soil, w =unit weight of water

Stresses in Saturated Soil without Seepage

4

The total stress, , given by above equation can be divided

into two parts:
1. A portion is carried by water in the continuous void
spaces. This portion acts with equal intensity in all
directions.
2. The rest of the total stress is carried by the soil solids at
their points of contact. The sum of the vertical components
of the forces developed at the points of contact of the solid
particles per unit cross-sectional area of the soil mass is
called the effective stress.

Stresses in Saturated Soil without Seepage

5

Drawing a wavy line, aa, through point A that passes only

through the points of contact of the solid particles.
Let P1, P2, P3, . . ., Pn be the forces that act at the points of
contact of the soil particles .
P1( v ) P2( v ) P3( v ) ... Pn ( v )
'
A

Stresses in Saturated Soil without Seepage

6

The sum of the vertical components of all such forces over

the unit cross-sectional area is equal to the effective stress ,
P1(v), P2(v),, Pn(v) are the vertical components P1, P2, P3, . . .,
Pn , respectively, and is the cross-sectional area of the soil
mass under consideration.

'

P1( v ) P2( v ) P3( v ) ... Pn ( v )

A

Stresses in Saturated Soil without Seepage

7

If as is the cross-sectional area occupied by solid-to-solid

contacts (that is, as = a1+a2 +a3 ++an), then the space
occupied by water equals (-as ).
So we can write
u ( A as )
'
' u (1 a ' s )
A
where u = HA w = pore water pressure (i.e., the hydrostatic
pressure at A)
a's =as /A = fraction of unit cross-sectional area of the soil mass
occupied by solid-to-solid contacts

Stresses in Saturated Soil without Seepage

8

The value of a's is extremely small and can be neglected for

pressure ranges generally encountered in practical problems.
Thus the above equation can be approximated as ' u
where u is also referred to as neutral stress.
From previous equations, we get,
[ H w ( H A H ) sat ] H A w
( H A H )( sat w )
(Height of the soil column) '

where = sat - w equals the submerged unit weight of soil.

We can see that the effective stress at any point A is
independent of the depth of water, H, above the submerged
soil.

Stresses in Saturated Soil without Seepage

9

Figure 1a shows a layer of

submerged soil in a tank
where there is no seepage.
Figures b through d show
plots of the variations of the
total stress, pore water
pressure, and effective stress,
respectively, with depth for a
submerged layer of soil
placed in a tank with no
seepage.

Stresses in Saturated Soil without Seepage

10

Figures b through d show plots of the variations of the total stress, pore water
pressure, and effective stress, respectively, with depth for a submerged layer of soil
placed in a tank with no seepage.

Stresses in Saturated Soil without Seepage

11

In summary, effective stress is

approximately the force per unit area
carried by the soil skeleton.
The effective stress in a soil mass
controls its volume change and
strength.
Increasing the effective stress
induces soil to move into a denser
state of packing.
The effective stress principle is
probably the most important concept
in geotechnical engineering.
The compressibility and shearing
resistance of a soil depend to a great
extent on the effective stress.

Stresses in Saturated Soil with Upward Seepage

12

If water is seeping, the effective

stress at any point in a soil mass will
differ from that in the static case.
It will increase or decrease,
depending on the direction of
seepage.

Stresses in Saturated Soil with Upward Seepage

13

Figure shows a layer of granular soil

in a tank where upward seepage is
caused by adding water through the
valve at the bottom of the tank.
The rate of water supply is kept
constant.
The loss of head caused by upward
seepage between the levels of A and
B is h.

Stresses in Saturated Soil with Upward Seepage

14

The loss of head caused by upward seepage

between the levels of A and B is h.

At point A : z = 0, Seepage head = 0

At point C : z = 0, Seepage head = ?

At point B : z = H2, Seepage head = h

Seepage Force
Pressure at A is w h1
and at B is w h2

Standpipes

h1 h2
i

hydraulic gradient =

P1
h1

h2

Water In

Seepage pressure

P2
Water
Out
B

A
Soil
Sample

Fig. 2.1 Flow of water in a simple channel section

zi w

Stresses in Saturated Soil with Upward Seepage

16

The loss of head caused by upward seepage

between the levels of A and B is h.
Hydraulic Gradient, i = h / H2
At point A : z = 0, Seepage head = 0
At point C : z = z, Seepage head = z i
At point B : z = H2, Seepage head = h

Seepage pressure = ziw

Stresses in Saturated Soil with Upward Seepage

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Stresses in Saturated Soil with Upward Seepage

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Stresses in Saturated Soil with Upward Seepage

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Stresses in Saturated Soil with Upward Seepage

20

Stresses in Saturated Soil with Seepage

Stresses in Saturated Soil with Upward

Seepage

A comparison of Figures d of both cases shows that the effective stress at a

point located at a depth z measured from the surface of a soil layer is
reduced by an amount because of upward seepage of water.

c' z ' icr z w 0

Stresses in Saturated Soil with Upward Seepage

21

If the rate of seepage is increased and

thereby the hydraulic gradient gradually is
increased, a limiting condition will be
reached, at which point

c' z ' icr z w 0

where icr = critical hydraulic gradient (for

zero effective stress).
Under such a situation, soil stability is lost.
This situation generally is referred to as boiling, or
a quick condition. From above equation
For most soils, the value of icr varies from 0.9 to
1.1, with an average of 1.

'
icr
w

Quick Condition in Granular Soils

During upward flow, at X:
22

' = ' z - wiz

'
wz i
w

flow

hL
hw

Critical hydraulic gradient (ic)

L
If i > ic, the effective stresses is negative.

i.e., no inter-granular contact & thus failure.

- Quick condition

z
X
soil

Quick Sand Condition

23

Quick sand is not a type of sand but it is a flow condition

occurring within a cohesionless soil when its effective stress
is reduced to zero due to upward flow of water.
The effective stress in the soil is the difference between
the total stress and the pore pressure inside the soil mass.
The higher the effective stress, the more tightly the soil
grains are held together, generally resulting in higher
strength.

Quick Sand Condition

24

A soil is said to be in a quick condition when the effective

stress drops to zero.
Quick sand occurs in nature when water is being forced
upward under pressurized conditions.
Quicksand is found where water and sand mix every day.
A good place to find quick sand is in hilly country with
abundant caves and underground springs.

Quick Sand Condition

25

In this case, the pressure of the escaping water exceeds

the weight of the soil and the sand grains are forced
apart.
The result is that the soil has no capability to support a
load.

Quick Sand Condition

26

In this case, the

pressure of the
escaping
water
exceeds the weight
of the soil and the
sand grains are
forced apart.
The result is that
the soil has no
capability
to
support a load.

Quick Sand Condition

27

Shear Strength of
the sand is zero
during
this
condition.

Stresses in Saturated Soil with Downward Seepage

28

The water level in the soil tank is

held constant by adjusting the
supply from the top and the
outflow at the bottom.

Stresses in Saturated Soil with Downward Seepage

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The hydraulic gradient caused by

the downward seepage equals i =
h/H2.

Stresses in Saturated Soil with Downward Seepage

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The loss of head caused by upward seepage

between the levels of A and B is h.

At point A : z = 0, Seepage head = 0

At point C : z = 0, Seepage head = ?

At point B : z = H2, Seepage head = h

Stresses in Saturated Soil with Downward Seepage

31

The loss of head caused by downward

seepage between the levels of A and B is h.
Hydraulic Gradient, i = h / H2
At point A : z = 0, Seepage head = 0
At point C : z = z, Seepage head = z i
At point B : z = H2, Seepage head = h

Seepage pressure = ziw

Stresses in Saturated Soil with Downward Seepage

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Stresses in Saturated Soil with Downward Seepage

33

Stresses in Saturated Soil with Seepage

Stresses in Saturated Soil with Downward

Seepage

z ' iz w
'
c

Seepage Force
34

The preceding section showed that the effect of seepage

is to increase or decrease the effective stress at a point
in a layer of soil. Often, expressing the seepage force
per unit volume of soil is convenient.
In Figure(1), it was shown that, with no seepage, the
effective stress at a depth z measured from the surface
of the soil layer in the tank is equal to z. Thus, the
effective force on an area A is P1' z ' A

Seepage Force
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If there is an upward seepage of water in the vertical

direction through the same soil layer (Figure 2), the
effective force on an area A at a depth z can be given
by P2' ( z ' iz w ) A

Hence, the decrease in the total force because of

seepage is P1' P2' iz w A
The volume of the soil contributing to the effective force
equals zA, so the seepage force per unit volume of soil is
iz w A
P1' P2'

i w
(Volume of soil)

zA

Seepage Force
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Seepage Force
37

Capillarity

Capillary rise in soils

39

Because water is attracted to

soil particles and because
water can develop surface
tension, suction develops inside
the pore fluid when a saturated
soil mass begins to dry.
This suction acts like a vacuum
and will directly contribute to
the effective stress or skeletal
forces.
The negative pore pressure is
usually considered responsible
for apparent and temporary
cohesion in soils, whereas the
other attractive forces produce
true cohesion.

Capillary rise in soils

40

Trees 'drink' from capillary

water.
Their instrument to drink from
the capillary water is the
primary root.
In this photo you can see the
primary
roots
going
downwards to the dark soil.
This soil is dark because of the
water content in the capillary
channels.

Capillary rise in soils

41

In soil, there are millions of

vertical channels - these are
called "capillary tubes."
Whenever there is a downpour,
excess water runs underground
through these capillary tubes.
When it is dry, these same
tubes transport water to the
surface.

Capillary rise in soils

42

Trees have their roots in these

capillary tubes - which also
contain threads of fungi which
are hygroscopic (attracting
water); and with their lateral
roots, they soak up capillary
water when it is hot and dry.
This is how a tree survives heat
and drought.
Even in rocks, invisible fissures
function as capillary tubes.

Capillary rise in soils

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The continuous void

spaces in soil can
behave as bundles
of capillary tubes of
variable
cross
section.
Because of surface
tension force, water
may rise above the
phreatic surface.
Figure below shows
the
fundamental
concept
of
the
height of rise in a
capillary tube.

Capillary rise in soils

44

The height of rise of water in the capillary

tube can be given by summing the forces in
the vertical direction, or

2
d hc w dT cos
4
where T = surface tension (force/length)
d = diameter of capillary tube
= angle of contact
w = unit weight of water

Capillary rise in soils

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For pure water and clean glass, = 0.

Thus, above equation becomes

4T
hc
d w
For water, T = 72 mN/m.
From above equation, we see that the
height of capillary rise

1
hc
d

Effective Stress in the Zone of Capillary Rise

46

Although the concept of capillary

rise as demonstrated for an ideal
capillary tube can be applied to
soils, one must realize that the
capillary tubes formed in soils
because of the continuity of voids
have variable cross sections.
The results of the nonuniformity on
capillary rise can be seen when a
dry column of sandy soil is placed
in contact with water (Figure
9.16).

Effective Stress in the Zone of Capillary Rise

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After the lapse of a given amount of

time, the variation of the degree of
saturation with the height of the soil
column caused by capillary rise is
approximately as shown in Figure
9.16b.
The degree of saturation is about
100% up to a height of h2, and this
corresponds to the largest voids.
Beyond the height h2, water can
occupy only the smaller voids; hence,
the degree of saturation
is less than 100%. The maximum
height of capillary rise corresponds
to the smallest voids.
Hazen (1930) gave a formula for
the approximation of the height of
capillary rise in the form

Effective Stress in the Zone of Capillary Rise

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Beyond the height h2, water

can occupy only the smaller
voids; hence, the degree of
saturation is less than
100%.
The maximum height of
capillary rise corresponds
to the smallest voids.

Effective Stress in the Zone of Capillary Rise

49

Hazen (1930) gave a

formula
for
the
approximation
of
the
height of capillary rise in
the form

Effective Stress in the Zone of Capillary Rise

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The general relationship among total stress, effective stress, and pore
water pressure was given as

' u

The pore water pressure u at a point in a layer of soil fully saturated

by capillary rise is equal to w h (h height of the point under
consideration measured from the groundwater table) with the
atmospheric pressure taken as datum.
If partial saturation is caused by capillary action, it can be
approximated as
S
u wh
100
where S = degree of saturation, in percent.

Effective Stress in the Zone of Capillary Rise

51

Partially saturated soils

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In the case of partially saturated soils part of the void space is occupied
by water and part by air.
The pore water pressure (uw) must always be less than the pore air
pressure (ua) due to surface tension.
Unless the degree of saturation is close to unity the pore air will form
continuous channels through the soil and the pore water will be
concentrated in the regions around the inter-particle contacts.
The boundaries between pore water and pore air will be in the form of
menisci whose radii will depend on the size of the pore spaces within the
soil.
Part of any wavy plane through the soil will therefore pass through water
and part through air.

Partially saturated soils

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In 1955 Bishop proposed the following effective stress equation for

partially saturated soils:

Where is a parameter, to be determined experimentally, related

primarily to the
degree of saturation of the soil. The term (ua uw) is a measure of the
suction in the
soil. For a fully saturated soil (Sr 1), 1; and for a completely dry
soil
(Sr 0), 0. Equation 3.5 thus degenerates to Equation 3.1 when Sr
1. The value
of is also influenced, to a lesser extent, by the soil structure and the way
the
particular degree of saturation was brought about. Equation 3.5 is not
convenient

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