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Membranous labyrinth:
Note : The oval window and round window open into the vestibule, at the base of the cochlea
Cochlea
The Modiolus:
1. cochlear nerve
2. Spiral ganglia: comprised of bipolar neurones that:
a) peripherally innervate the hair cells
b) centrally form the cochlear nerve
3. Blood vessels
Note:
o The perilymph of The scala vestibuli and scala tympani are continuous with
one another at the tip of the cochlea (helicotrema)
o
o
o
The bony wall of the cochlea has 2 defects, each covered by a thin membrane
PA( Round & oval window)
Scala vestibule is connected to the oval window
Scala tympani connected to the round window
c) Stria Vascularis :
It extends from the attachment of Reissner's membrane to the spiral prominence.
it is an unusual epithelium in that it lacks a basement membrane.
It is a stratified epithelium containing primarily three cell types:
1. Marginal
2. Intermediate
3. basal cells
intraepithelial capillaries
1. marginal cells:
the primary functional units of the stria vascularis
produce the positive DC endocochlear potential
They are the only cells of the stria vascularis that directly face the endolymph
This basement membrane may be formed by the fusion of epithelial and endothelial basement
membranes during development.
The capillaries are also surrounded by pericyte cells.
Specialized epithelium (sensory receptor for sound) Located within the inner part of the basilar
membrane
1. Hair cells:
Receptor cells ( the ones that transduce sound)
It possesses stereocilia.
Name of pillar cells
Inner hair cells
Site
Number of rows
Modiolar side
1 row
Total number
3.000
12.000
Bulbous(flask)
Columnar (cylineric)
Shape of cilia
Number of cilia
Few
Many
Attachment of cilia to
tectorial membrane
Function
Non attached
Relation to the
support cells
Afferent innervations
Afferent innervations
%
Efferent source
90%
10%
The tips of the stereocilli are mechanically linked by tip filaments, which are directly connected
to mechanically gated cation channels in the plasma membrane covering the stereocilia.
When the bundle of stereocilia is deflected in the direction towards the longer
stereocilia, the tension on the tip filaments is increased and the mechanically gated
ions channels are opened, allowing potassium and calcium to enter the cell, which
becomes depolarized.
When the bundle of stereocilia is deflected in the direction towards the shorter stereocilia,
tension is reduced on the tip filaments (also referred to as gating springs) and the ion channels
close and the cell becomes hyperpolarized.
The state of polarization of the hair cell controls the release of neurotransmitter at the cell's basal
end, where the cell synapses with a nerve ending.
The tops of the hair cells form the reticular lamina, which isolates the hair cells stereocilia from
Their cell bodies
The probable site of noise induced hearing loss is stereociliary rootlets of the hair cells.
Tectorial membrane (non-cellular/extracellular matrix membrane) is in intimate contact with the
stereocilia on the apical surface of the outer hair cells.
2. Support cells:
Support hair cells
Such as the Deiter,Claudius and Hensen.
Notice that :
o The Deiters cells support the Outer hair cells at their base so the outer hair cell walls
are surrounded by fluid.
o The inner hair cell is compleately surrounded by support cells
ACOUSTIC NERVE
1. Afferent fibers
Carries information:
from the hair cells in the inner ear to the Ipsilateral cochlear nucleus in the brainstem
Bipolar neurons
Their cell body reside in the spiral ganglion in the
modioludus
Type II neurons
Innervate
% of afferent
90%
10%
Mylinated
unmylinated
Radial fibers
Note:
The peripheral process of type 1 neurons becomes unmyelinated in the osseus spiral lamina just
before it enters the organ of Corti through a hole (the foramen nervosum) in the upper border of
the spiral lamina, the habenula perforata, to approach the inner hair cell
Most, if not all, recordings from auditory nerve fibers are from the larger type I fibers in
contact with inner hair cells.
low frequency fibers occupy the centre of the auditory nerve while the high frequency
occupy the peripheral part
the 1st synapse is at dorsal & ventral cochlear nuclei (so the
1st obligatory relay center for CN VIII afferent fibers is the
cochlear nucleus)
monopolar
Origin
lateral
Crossed vs uncrossed
Do not cross
Mylination
Mylinated
unmylinated
Function
Note that efferent fibers terminate in the basal turn of the cochlea
Related to otoacoustic emission & tinnitus
so the process is dependent on prestin changing its configuration voltage generated by intracellular
electrolyte movement
Location
Source
Electrolyte
component
PH
Perilymph
Endolymph
corticolymph
Sacal media
Corti organ
Cochlea:
marginal cells of the
stria vascularis
Vestibular system
except saccule:
Dark cells
Rich in K (similar to
intracellular)
1-Rich in Na
2-Low in amino acids &
glycerin in comparasion to
blood & high in comparasion
to the CSF
3-Does not contain CL
7.2
Rich in Na
Rich in chlorid
7.5
Note:
Perilymph:
The site of perilymph production is still controversial.
It is unclear whether perilymph is derived as an ultrafiltrate of blood, from cerebrospinal
fluid (CSF) or from both.
CSF can reach the vestibule by means of:
1. vestibular aqueduct
2. perivascular channels
3. perineural channels.
There is more convincing evidence in favor of perilymph originating as an ultrafiltrate from blood.
1.
In terms of chemical composition, the amino acid content of perilymph, particularly glycine
and alanine, is low compared with blood but much higher than CSF.
2.
changes in blood composition are reflected much more rapidly in perilymph than in CSF.
Kellerhals has proposed a dual origin of perilymph. He found that the majority was derived from
blood and the remainder from CSF
Endolymph:
dark cells (of the cristae and maculae) & marginal cells of the stria vascularis have:
1. Ultrastructural morphologic properties of secretory cells:
deeply invaginated nuclei (indicating a cell actively engaged in production and
secretion);
many microvilli on their apical surface
large number of free ribosomes and many vesicles (again indicating active production
and packaging of secretory products);
deep infoldings on their basal surface containing many mitochondria(Presumably, the
mitochondria provide the fuel for the energy-consuming process that pumps the
endolymph out of the cell)
long, thin cytoplasmic extensions.
2. biochemical properties of secretory cells,they have a high concentration of enzymes associated
with active ion pumps and fluid transport:
Na+=K+=ATPase
adenylate cyclase
carbonic anhydrase
the "dark cells" of the cristae and maculae,which are separated from the neuroepithelium by a
transitional zone
absorption of endolymph :
site: endolymphatic sac
Morphologically:
the columnar cells located here are specialized for absorption. Like intestinal cells, they
have long microvilli on the luminal surface and contain many pinocytotic vesicles and
vacuoles
Energy transduction:
Transform the mechanical energy (sound wave pressure) into electrochemical Energy ( nerve
impulses)
The process of transduction occurs in the structures within scala media, sitting on the basilar
membrane (organ of Corti).
I.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
H.
I.
J.
Vibration of the tympanic membrane is transmitted through the chain of three (3) ossicles
(which amplify the sound 20 X) to the oval window.
Vibration of the oval window induces pressure waves in the perilymph of the scala
vestibuli.
Vibration of the vestibular (Reissner's) membrane transfers
pressure waves from perilymph to the endolymph of the scala
media (cochlear duct).
Pressure waves of the endolymph induce the basilar membrane
to vibrate.
Vibration of the basilar membrane (which is the critical step in
the transduction process) induces a shearing of the apical ends
of the hair cells against the tectorial membrane.
This will bends the bundle of stereocilia on each hair cell
resulting in the bending of the bundle of stereocilia and the
opening of mechanically gated ion channels in the membrane of the stereocilia
Influx of K+ ions, and depolarization of the hair cell depolarizing the hair cell, which
releases neurotransmitters.
This results in an action potential being propagated along nerve fibers of sensory
neurons in the spiral ganglion.
Vibration in the perilymph are transmitted to the base of the cochlea where it
displace the round window
INTENSITY RESOLUTION
Low Intensity sounds
When the organ of Corti moves in response to sounds of low intensity the cilia of the inner hair
cells do not contact the tectorial membrane.
The brain receives impulses from the afferent fibres of the outer hair cells
therefore, the brain will be aware that there is a sound but without perception of sound as
there are no impulses from the inner hair cells.
Signals are sent along the efferent nerve fibres to the outer hair cells, causing them to shorten
in length.
This pulls the tectorial membrane closer to the basilar membrane, allowing the cilia of the inner
hair cells to impact the tectorial membrane.
Deflection of the cilia leads to depolarisation and action potentials from the inner hair cells and
perception of sound.
High-intensity sounds
Reflexes used to Counter head motion with to maitain stable vision & posture are:
a) vestibulo-occular reflex: stabilize gaze despite head movement
b) vestibulocollic reflex: sabilize head despite body movement
c) vestibulo-spinal reflex: stabilize posture and fascilate gait
Basic elements needed for conversion of acceleration into useful signals for the nervous system are:
1. inertial mass
2. one or more sensory hair cells
3. the nerve fibers connected to the hair cells through synaptic junctions
Inertial mass:
For saccule + utricle: otolith
For semicircular canals: endolymph cupula
Caloric tests:
Test the function of the lateral SCC
Fitzgerald-Hallpike test: the pt lies supine with head tilted 30 forward so the
lateral SSC assumes a vertical position ( the most sensitive to a thermal gradient)
Kobrak test: the pt sits with head tilted backward 60 degree
The anterior and posterior semicircular canals and the saccule are arranged vertically in the head,
orthogonal to the horizontal semicircular canal and utricle
Vertical/Superior canals:
When looking down at the top of the head, the anterior canal is oriented at approximately 45
degrees off midsagittal and 45 degrees anterior to the intraaural line.
Located at right angles to:
a) the horizontal canals
b) to each other.
Posterior canal:
aligned roughly 45 degrees behind the intraaural line
The two vertical canals in each ear are positioned orthogonal to each
other
whereas the plane of the anterior canal on one side of the head is
coplanar with the plane of the contralateral posterior canal
This orthogonal pattern creates functional pairs in that increased output from one canal results in
decreased output from its paired canal thus creating a push-pull mechanism that enhances the
sensitivity of the system
Each end of the canals opens into the utricle but there are only 5 openings as the anterior and
posterior canals unite Posteriorly.
Ampulla: pear-shaped expansion of the membranous labyrinth located at one end of each SSC
near the vestibular opening (where the semicircular canal meets the utricle
Within each ampulla there is the sensory organ : the crista ampullaris.
Kinocilium : A true (but non-motile) cilium, taller and larger in X-S than the stereocilia, having an
array of 9 + 2 microtubules in its core
Stereocilia are arranged by height relative to kinocilium in a step-like manner (Tallest clostest,
shortest farthest, from kinocilium)
there are both afferent and efferent nerve fibres to each hair cell.
the hair cells and their sup porting cells lie embedded in a saddle-shaped neuroepithelial ridge, the
crista, which extends across the base of the ampulla
Type I hair cells are concentrated in central regions of the crista, Type II hair cells are concentrated
in peripheral areas.
Arising from the crista and completely enveloping the stereocilia of the hair cells is a gelatinous
structure, the cupula.
The cupula attaches to the roof and walls of the ampulla, forming a fluid-tight partition that has the
same specific density as that of endolymph.
Shape
Flask shape
slender
Afferent
Efferent
There is postganglionic sympathetic efferent innervations of the vestibular end organ of unknown
function (originates from the superior cervical ganglion)
Physiology:
Any change in rotation speed of the head results in motion in the endolymph.
This causes the cupola to move and brings about a shearing movement of the cilia.
Direction of bending of the stereocilia, relative to kinocilium, is significant:
bending away from kinocilia hyperpolarization of receptor cell (inhibition)
bending toward kinocilia depolarization of receptor cell & thus generation of an
action potential (impulse) in the vestibular branch.
Because of the orientation of the semicircular canals rotation will produce an increase in firing
rate in the vestibular nerve on one side of the head and a reduction on the other side.
When the head is stationary (no angular acceleration), the endolymph and the cupula remain still,
and the afferents from the two horizontal semicircular canals fire at the same (resting) rate 90.
When the head turns to the right or left, the horizontal semicircular ducts turn with it, but the
endolymph lags owing to inertial forces and the viscous drag between the fluid and the duct wall.
The lagging endolymph deflects the cupula, which in turn deflects the stereocilia of the hair cells.
leftward turn of the head causes the stereocilia in the left horizontal canal ampulla to be deflected
toward their kinocilia, resulting in an increase in the discharge rate of the eighth nerve afferents on
the left side.
Simultaneously, the hair cells in the right horizontal canal ampulla are hyperpolarized, so their
afferents show a decreased rate of firing.
Scarpas Ganglion: bipolar vestibular nerve cell bodies located in internal acoustic meatus
Clinical application:
each canal has a resting basal discharge rate,and by modulating the nonezero baseline firing of
vestibular afferent fibers,the semicircular canal encode rotation of the head so a lesion of the
eighth nerve, such as that produced by a glomus tumor or acoustic neuroma may reduce the
frequency of impulses in the ipsilateral afferent fibers or block their impulse transmission entirely.
The comparator units of the vestibular nuclei will then consistently receive a higher impulse
frequency from the intact side, which will be interpreted as a head turn away from the side of the
lesion
The semicircular ducts are particularly concerned with reflex control of visual movements through
the vestibulo-ocular reflex at the brainstem level to allow the individual to maintain optic fixation
in the presence of movement(the head moves in one direction the eyes are moved in the opposite
direction so they can remain focused on the same point)
The jerky eye movements caused by rotation of the head (rotatory nystagmus) are dependent on
the defections of the cupulae. The slow component of the nystagmus is always in the direction of
the cupula deflection
Nystagmus:
The nystagmus is named after the fast component of the nystagmus
Nystagmus components:
1. Slow component: vestibular in origin toward the defective lesion
2. Fast component: neural in origin
In caloric test:
COWS:
1. Cold: toward the opposite ear
2. warm: toward the same ear, it causes ampullopetal/uriticopetal flow
cold water makes the labyrinthine hypoactive=labrynthiectomy
vestibular neuritis has the same effect of warm water on labyrinthin
Otolith organs alone are unable to distinguish linear acceleration from vertical acceleration
Vestibular nuclui
whose firing behavior is related to eye movements.[60][68][69] Little is known about the functions of the
MVc, although many of the cells in this region appear to project to the cerebellum. [24] The medial
vestibular nucleus also gives rise to the medial vestibulospinal tract, which descends in the medial
longitudinal fasciculus to terminate on interneurons in the cervical spinal cord and ascends to terminate
in the eye motor nuclei. This tract is particularly important for cervicovestibuloocular reflexes.
The inferior (or descending) vestibular nucleus
one of the primary recipients of vestibular afferents that innervate the otolithic organs.
major projections from this area are to the cerebellum and reticular formation.
Efferent fibers from the vestibular nucleus
Reflexes are:
1. vestibulo-occular reflex:
Rotates the eye in the same speed but in the opposite direction of the head rotation so
2. vestibulo-spinal reflex:
stabilize posture and fascilate gait
Head position
control
Semicircular canals
Body position
control
Otolith organs
Vestibular
nuculeus
Medial
Dorso-Lateral
Tract
Medial longtidunal
fascicular tract
Medial
vestibulospinal tract
Medial part of the
ventral horn
Lateral
vestibulospinal tract
Ipsilateral proximal
limb muscles
Stimulation
Horn
Muscles
Ant horn
The aim of eye movement is to bring the image into the fovea:
If the head is steady & object steady:
visual fixation :
stationary object
vergene angle:
nearer stationary object
If the head is steady & the object is moving
smooth pursuit:
saccule