Content:

Page 2 6

Lesson 1: Gas

Page 7 8

Lesson 1: Exercise

Page 9 13

Lesson 2: Liquids and solids

Page 14 15

Lesson 2: Exercise

Page 16 20

Lesson 3: Phase diagram

Page 21 22

Lesson 3: Exercise

Page 23 32

Lesson 4: Solution and colligative properties

Page 33 34

Lesson 4: Exercise

Page 35

Periodic Table

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Page 1

Lesson 1: Gas
1.1 Pressure

Gas is a _______ fluid. It exerts _____ on a certain ____ .

Pressure is measured with _______ which contains a mercury column. The

unit _____ and _____ are used interchangeably.

For atmospheric pressure, ___ atm = ___ mmHg = ___ torr = ___ Pa

Example 1 Calculation

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Page 2

Example 2 Calculation of the unit of pressure

1.2 Gas Laws

There are three laws governing the behavior of gases, namely ______,
_____, _____.

The law saying that the pressure exerted by a gas is inversely

proportional to the volume the gas occupies is _____.

The law saying that at constant pressure, the volume of a gas is directly
proportional to the temperature (temperature unit in _____ ) of the gas is
_____.

The law saying that for a gas at constant temperature and pressure the
volume is directly proportional to the number of moles of gas is ______.

Example 1. Boyles Law

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Page 3

Example 2. Boyles Law

Example 3. Charless Law

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Page 4

Example 4. Avogadros Law

1.3 Ideal Gas Law

The ideal gas law is a combination of the three laws. It relates to _____,
_____, _____ and the ________ of a gas.

The formula of the ideal gas law is _____________.

This relationship assumes that the gas behaves ______.

Standard temperature and pressure means ______ and ____

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Page 5

Example 1. Apply the ideal gas law

Example 2. Practice of ideal gas law

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Page 6

Example 3. Practice of ideal gas law

Example 4 Practice of ideal gas law

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Example 5 Practice of ideal gas law

1.4 Daltons Law of partial pressure

Daltons Law of partial pressure states that for a mixture of gases in a

container, the total pressure is the _____ of pressures that each gas would
exert if it were alone.

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Page 8

Example 1.

1.5 Kinetic molecular theory of gas

For the KMT,

Volume of gas molecules can be assumed to be ______.

Gas molecules move in random motion with _____ collisions.

Gas molecule do not exert _________ ____ on each other.

Two gases at the same temperature have the same ______ energy.

The temperature is a measure of the _______ kinetic energy of a gas, with

the formula,

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Page 9

The expression dealing with the

______ ______ of gas particles

is root

mean square velocity,

Example 1. Root mean velocity

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Page 10

1.6 Grahams Law of Effusion

______ relates to the mixing of gases.

______ relates to the passage of a gas through an orifice into an

evacuated chamber.

The relative rates of effusion of two gases are ________ proportional to the
square roots of the masses of the gas particles.

The higher the molar mass, the slower the rate of effusion.

Example 1.

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Page 11

1.7 Real gases

Real gases do not behave ideally at ____ pressure and ____ temperature.

Ideal gases are the particles having no volume. But in real life, they do.
Therefore, the volume available for gas to move around in a container
should be (V-nb).

Ideal gases are the particles having no interaction with each other. But in
real life, they have weak intermolecular forces and thus, P observed = P
a(n/v)2.

By combing the two considerations, we have Van der Waals Equation for
real gases

Example 1.

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Page 12

Lesson 1: Exercise
1.

2.

3.

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Page 13

4.

5.

6.

7.

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Page 14

8.

Lesson 2:
2.1 Intermolecular force

___________ force mean forces within a molecule.

___________ force mean forces between molecules.

_____ molecules are locked in place; a crystalline solid has highly

ordered structure

_____ molecules move past one another, have a definite volume, and
can assume the shapes of their containers

_____ molecules are in constant random motion, and are compressible

or expandable to fill a container.

The types of intermolecular forces determine the characteristics of the

states of the substances: e.g. Melting point, boiling point, vapor pressure.
e.g. The greater the intermolecular force, the ______ the melting and
boiling points.
The greater the intermolecular force, the ______ the vapor pressure.
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Page 15

Breaking the covalent bonds vs simply overcoming intermolecular forces.

(a) Subliming iodine crystal
(b)Dissolving HCL gas in water to make hydrochloric acid.
(c) Changing ozone, O3, to O2 gas
(d)Decomposing hydrogen peroxide, H2O2, to water and O2

Three types of forces,

(i) Dipole dipole forces: formed by the attraction between partially
positive and negative charges of neighboring polar covalent
molecules. (e.g. HCl.)
(ii) Hydrogen Bonding: A special kind of dipole dipole formed by the
hydrogen atom in a polar bond and an unshared electron pair on a
nearby small electronegative atom such as N, O or F.
(iii) London Dispersion Forces (LDF): a weak force formed by
instantaneous dipoles created in a molecule caused by oscillating
electrons. LDF increases as the size of the atom or the molecular
weight increase. (e.g. Cl2)

Example 1

Example 2

Example 3
Which of the following molecules can form hydrogen bonds with other
molecules of the same kind? CH3F, CH3NH2, CH3OH, CH3Br.

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Example 4
Explain why HOCH2CH2OH has stronger attractive forces between its molecules
than
does CH3CH2OH
Example 5 Propane (C3H8) is a gas at room temperature, hexane (C 6H14), a
liquid while candle wax (C25H52) is a solid. Explain why.

2.2 Bonding in solid

2.2.1 Molecular solid consists of atoms or molecules held together by
intermolecular forces. They are soft with relatively low melting points. E.g. Ar,
H2O, CO2

Structural units are ___________

The forces holding units together are __________, ____________, __________

They usually get __________ melting points and boiling points, soft and
____ electric conductivity in solid and liquid form.

They are soluble in water if ______ ; soluble in hexane if _________.

Example 1
Explain why benzene boils at 80oC, toluene boils at 111oC while phenol
boils at 182oC.

Example 2

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Page 17

2.2.2 Networkcovalent solids consist of atoms held together in large

networks by covalent bonds. E.g. diamond, graphite, quartz

Atoms are held in an infinite ____________ network.

The force holding the atoms is the covalent bonds and they are ________
electron-pair bonds.

They are hard, ____________ in solvent, _____ melting point / boiling point
and no electric conductivity.

Consider the table below,

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Page 18

Diamond

Graphite

Description

Each carbon atom is

bonded __________ to four
other carbon atoms with
sp3 hybrid orbitals.

The carbon atoms are

arranged in layers of
interconnected hexagonal
rings, each one bonded to
three others (with sp2
hybrid orbitals) in the layer.
The layers are held together
by the weak bonds

Special
features

Unusual hardness and very

_____ melting point.

Slippery and ____________

Molecular
structure

Example 1
Given that Network covalent solids (like diamond) are usually much
harder and have higher melting points than molecular solids. Discuss
why.

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Example 2
Most Network covalent solids are hard in nature and do not conduct
electricity. But why Graphite is soft and conducts electricity?

2.2.3 Ionic solids consists of ions held together by

ionic bonds. The strength of an ionic bond depends
greatly on the charges of the ions.

The Structural units are orderly array (_______) of

______ and ________ negative ions.

No discrete molecules in ionic solids.

The forces holding units together are the

electrostatic attraction among charges on ______ and _______ ions.

The ionic solids are hard, brittle, _____ melting point and they conduct
electricity in liquid form, aqueous form solution.

They are usually soluble in _____ solvent.

Example 1
Explain why MgO has a higher melting point than NaCl.
Example 2
Discuss whether ionic solid can conduct electricity in solid form.

2.2.4 Metallic solids consist entirely of metal atoms.

The model visualizes the metal as an array of

positive ions immersed in a sea of __________
valence electrons.

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Page 20

The strength of the bonding increase as the number of electrons

available for bonding increases.
(i.e Na Mg Al in melting point)

The mobile electrons explain why metals are ________ conductors of heat
and electricity and why metals are __________ and _________.

They have a ____ range of hardness and melting points.

Lesson 2: Exercise
1.

2.

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Page 21

3.

4.

5.

6.

Classify each substance as to the type of solid it forms and the type of
intermolecular force it has:
Fe

C2H6

CaCl2

sand

CH3COOH

HI(g)

graphite

F2

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Page 22

7. Classify each of the following solids as metallic, network covalent, ionic, or

molecular.
(i)

It is soluble in water, does not conduct electricity, and has a melting

point (about 200oC)

(ii)

It is insoluble in water and conducts electricity when melted

(iii)

It is insoluble in water and conducts electricity.

(iv) It dissolves in water, conducts electricity when present in aqueous

solution, and melts above 100oC.
(v)
8.

It is malleable and conducts electricity.

Give the formula of a solid containing oxygen that is:
(i)

Ionic

(ii)

Polar molecular

(iii)

Network covalent

(iv)

Nonpolar molecular

9. For each of the following pairs, choose the member with the lower boiling
point.
Explain your reason in each case:
(i)

NO2 or SO2 (ii) NaCl or HCl (iii) NH3 or AsH3 (iv) I2 or NaI (v)
HCOOH or C6H5COOH

Lesson 3: Vapour pressure and phase diagram

3.1 Change of state

The temperature of a substance _______ when heat is input while a

substance is in one phrase.

The temperature of a substance _______ during a phrase change.

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Page 23

Heat
(enthalpy)
fusion the enthalpy change associated with _______ a solid.

Heat (enthalpy) of vaporization the enthalpy change associated with

vaporization of a liquid.

Remind that the formula, E = ______ , is used to calculate the energy

change when there is a temperature change.

Example 1
Enthalpy of fusion is always smaller than the enthalpy of vaporization. Why?
(For example, Enthalpy of fusion is 6.01 kJ/mol for ice and enthalpy of
vaporization is 40.67 kJ/mol for water.)

Example 2

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Page 24

of

Calculate the enthalpy change upon converting 10.0g of ice at -25 oC to water
vapor at 125 oC at constant pressure of 1 atm. The specific heats of ice, water,
and steam are 2.09 J/goC, 4.18 J/goC and 1.84 J/goC.

3.2 Vapor Pressure

Vapor pressure of a liquid is the pressure exerted by its vapor when the
liquid and vapor states are in dynamic equilibrium.

Two opposing processes, _________ and __________ are occurring

simultaneously at the same rate.

There is no observable change, but a great deal is happening on the

molecular level.

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Page 25

Vapor pressure increase with ___________ temperature.

Normal boiling point the temperature at which the vapor pressure of a

liquid is ____ kPa.

Clausius Clapeyron Equation:

ln(P1 / P2 ) = (vap/R )(1/T2 1/T1), where R = 8.314 J/K mol

Example 1
Why vapor pressures increase with increasing temperature?

Example 2
Why does it take longer to cook food at
higher elevations than at sea level?
How does a pressure cooker allow the
food to cook more rapidly?

Example 3
(a) For Clausius Clapeyron Equation, Acetone boils at 56.5OC at 1.0 atm.
The enthalpy of vaporization of acetone is 32.0 kJ/mol. What temperature
will the acetone boil at 0.750 atom?
(b)What temperature will water boil on top of Mount Everest where
atmospheric pressure is 0.475 atm?

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3.3 Phase diagram

A graphical way to summarize the conditions under which equilibria exist

between the different states of matter.

The diagram allows to predict the phase of a substance that is stable at

any given temperature and pressure.

Triple point point representing the temperature and pressure at which

__ phases coexist.

Critical temperature above which the vapor cannot be _______no matter

what pressure is applied.

Critical pressure required to produce ___________ at the critical

temperature

Critical point
________________ .

the

point

defined

by

the

________________

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Page 27

and

Example 1
Referring to the Phase Diagram of CO2,
(a) What happen if the pressure increases
from 1 atm to 60 atm at constant
temperature of -60oC
(b)What happen if the temperature
increases from -60oC to -20oC at
constant 60 atm pressure.

Example 2
Referring to the Phase Diagram of H2O,
(a) Describe what will happen if the
water is kept at 1 atm while the
temperature is increasing from -10
o
C to 400 oC
(b)Describe what will happen if the
water is kept at 0oC while the
pressure is increasing from 0 atm to
300 atm.
(c) What are point A, B, C, D represent?
(d)The slope of AB is negative. What is the significance of negative sloping?

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Page 28

Lesson 3: Exercise
1.

2.

3.

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Page 29

4.

5.

6.

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Page 30

Lesson 4: Solution and colligative properties

4.1 Solution composition

Solvent _________ medium

Solute substance to be _________

Solution homogeneous mixture

Formula related to solution concentration

(i)

Mass percent =

(ii)

Mole fraction =

(iii)

Molarity (mol dm-3) =

(iv)

Molality ( mol kg -1) =

Example 1
What is the mole fraction of CH3OH and H2O in a solution prepared by
dissolving 1.20g of alcohol in 16.8g of water?
Example 2
A 1.13M KOH solution has a density of 1.05 g/mL. Calculate its mass
precent and molality.
Example 3

Example 4

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4.2 Energies of solution formation

A major factor determining whether a solution forms is the relative

strengths of ________________ between and among the ___________ and
_________ particles.

Like dissolves in Like polar substance (e.g. NaCl) dissolve in polar

solvents (H2O)
non-polar substance (e.g. C6H14) dissolve in non-polar
solvents (CCl4)

Explain why NaCl dissolves in H2O.

When ionic crystals NaCl are added to water, the ________ end of the
water dipole is oriented toward the ________ ions, and the _________ end of
the water dipole is oriented toward the _______ ions.

Interactions between solute and solvent molecules are known as ________.

When solvent is water, the interactions are referred to as _________.

For enthalpy change in forming a solution, Hsoln

-

Hsoln = H1 + H2 + H3

H1 = input of energy to overcome attractive forces between solute

molecules,
Energy is absorbed by the molecules to do so, so it should be
__________

H2 = input of energy to overcome attractive forces between solvent

molecules,
Energy is absorbed by the molecules to do so, so it should be
__________

H3 = attractive interactions between solute and solvent,

Energy is released by the molecules to do so, so it should be
__________

Note that H3 must be comparable in magnitude to H1H2 for a

solution to form.

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Page 33

The formation of a solution can either be exothermic or endothermic.

To calculate enthalpy change of solution,
KF(S) K+ (aq) + F (aq)
1) When 1 mole ionic solid is broken down to gaseous ions
KF(S) K+ (g) + F (g)
Negative lattice energy = - (-821kJ)
2) When 1 mole of aqueous ions is formed from gaseous ions
K+ (g) + F (g) K+ (aq) + F (aq)
Enthalpy change of hydration = -819 kJ
3) When 1 mole of solute is dissolved in sufficient solvent
KF(S) K+ (aq) + F (aq)
Enthalpy change of hydration = +2 kJ

The enthalpy of hydration depends on:

1) Distance between the ion and the dipole the closer the distance, the
stronger the attraction
2) Charge on the ion the higher the charge, the stronger the attraction
3) Polarity of the solvating molecule the greater the magnitude of the
dipole, the stronger the attraction

Example 1
What solvent would you choose, water of hexane C6H14 to dissolve NaCl, HF,
octane and (NH4)2SO4.
Example 2
The lattice energy of CaI2 is -2059kJ/mol. The enthalpy of hydration is
-2163kJ/mol. What is the enthalpy of solution? Write equation to show the
dissolution of CaI2 in water.
Example 3

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Page 34

Explain why the enthalpy of hydration of Na+ (-405 kJ/mol) is somewhat more
negative than that of Cs+ (-263 kJ/mol), whereas that of Mg2+ is much more
negative (-1922 kJ/mol) than that of either Na+ or Cs+.

4.3 Factors affecting solubility

A solution that is in equilibrium with undissolved solute is ________

If more solute can still be added, the solution is _________

A solution that contains a greater amount of solute than that of a

saturated solution is ______________

The amount of solute needed to form a saturated solution in a given

quantity of solvent (100g of H2O) at a given temperature is ________

(1)

Solute solvent interactions

Non-polar hydrophobic; polar hydrophilic

Pairs of liquid (such as acetone and water) that mix in all

proportions are ________, whereas those that do not dissolve in one
another are _________.

(2)

Pressure

by Henrys law : C=kP, solubility of a gas in a solvent is _______ as

the pressure over the solvent increases.
(C = solubility of the gas in the solution phase)
(K = Henrys Law constant)
(P = partial pressure of the gaseous solute above the solution)

(3)

Temperature

The solubility of most solid solutes in water ________ as the

temperature of the solution increases.

The solubility of gases in water _________ with increasing the

temperature.

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Page 35

Example 1
Determine whether or not each of the following compounds is likely to be water
soluble:
CH3CH(OH)NH2

CH3(CH3)4CH2NH2

C4H9CH=CH2

NH2CH2COOH

Example 2

Example 3
The solubility of CO2 at 25OC and 1 atm is 0.034M
a) what is Henrys Law Constant
b) What would the solubility of CO2 in water be at 0.038 atm and 25OC.
Example 4

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Page 36

4.4 Colligative properties

Colligative Properties physical properties of solutions that depend on
the __________ but not on the nature of solute particles.

Vapor Pressure Lowering a nonvolatile solute _______ the vapor pressure

of its solution because they reduce the tendency of solvent molecules to
escape.

Raoults Law the partial pressure exerted by a solvent vapor above a

solution, PA, equals the product of the mole fraction of the solvent in the
solution, XA, times the vapor pressure of the pure solvent, PA0
PA = XA PA0

Example 1

Example 2

(Hint: One mole of the strong electrolyte, CuCl2, will dissolve to give 3 moles of
ions)
Example 3

Example 4

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Page 37

(* Hint: It involves volatile solutes Use Ptotal = PA + PB = XA PA0 + XB PB0 )

4.5 Boiling point elevation and freezing point depression

When there is an addition of nonvolatile solute, the vapor pressure of the

solution lowers.
The vapor pressure curve of the solution is shifting downward result in
the following phase diagram,

Boiling point elevation Tb = Kb m, where Tb is the boiling point

elevation
Kb is molal boiling point elevation
constant
m is molality of the solution

Freezing point depression Tf = Kf m, where Tf is the freezing point

elevation
Kf is molal freezing point elevation
constant
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Page 38

m is molality of the solution

Vant Hoff factor the ratio of experimental value to

calculated value:

The Vant Hoff factor is always found to be smaller value. (i.e. the
measured value / observed vale is smaller than the calculated value /
expected vale). It is found that Vant Hoff factor approaches whole
number only in ___________ solution. In more concentrated solutions,
some of the positive and negative ions are paired, decreasing the total
molality of particles. This is called _______________.

Example 1
Automotive antifreeze consists of ethylene glycol (C2H6O2), a nonvolatile
nonelectrolyte. Calculate the boiling point and freezing point of a 25.0 mass %
solution of ethylene glycol in water.
Example 2
List the following aqueous solutions in order of their expected freezing point:
0.050m CaCl2, 0.15m NaCl, 0.10m HCl, 0.050m HC2H3O2, 0.10m C12H22O11.
Example 3
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Page 39

When 2.50g of cortisone acetate is dissolved in 50.00g of camphor, C10H16O,

(Kf = 40.0oC/m), the freezing point of the mixture is determined to be
173.44oC. That of pure camphor is 178.4OC. What is the molar mass of
cortisone acetate?
Example 4
A compound contains 42.9%, 2.4%H, 16.6%N and 38.1%O. the addition of
3.16g of this compound to 75.0mL of cyclohexane (density = 0.779g/mL) gives
a solution with a freezing point at 0.0OC. Find its molecular formula. (Kf =
20.2OC/m)
Example 5
A 0.00200m aqueous solution of an ionic compound Co(NH3)5(NO2)Cl freezes at
0.00732oC. How many moles of ions does 1 mole of the salt produce or being
dissolved in water?

4.6 Osmotic Pressure

Osmosis stops when the column of

Net movement of
a solution on the left becomes
solvent from the
high enough to exert sufficient
pure solvent or a
pressure at the membrane to
solution with _____
For internal use counter
only. No the
distribution
is allowed
net movement
of awithout
solute concentration
Page
40the solution
solvent. At this
point
to a solution with
on the ____ has become more
______ solute
dilute, but there still exists a
concentration.
difference in concentration

Applied pressure on the

____
arm
of
the
apparatus stops net
movement of solvent
permission.
from the _____ side of
the
semipermeable
membrane.
This
applied pressure is the
osmotic pressure of the

The pressure required to prevent osmosis by pure solvent is the _____________,

, of the solution
(n/V)RT = MRT
osmotic pressure of the solution
n = number of moles of solute in volume V in liters
M = molarity of solution
R = ideal gas constant
T = Temperature in Kelvin
Example 1
What osmotic pressure would a sucrose solution (C12H22O11) made of 5.00g of
sucrose in 117.0 g of water exhibit at 25oC?
Example 2
Osmotic pressure is useful in determining the molecular weights. What
substances are usually measured by this method?
I) Very expensive substances
II) Substances that can be prepared only in very small amounts
III) Substances of very high molecular weight that are not very soluble
A) I & II
B) I & III
C) II&III
D) I & II & III
Example 3
Pepsin is an enzyme present in the human digestive tract. A solution of 0.500g
sample of purified pepsin in 30.0 mL of aqueous solution exhibits an osmotic
pressure of 8.92 torr, at 27.0oC. Estimate the molecular weight of pepsin.

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For internal use only. No distribution is allowed without permission.

Page 42

Exercise
1.

2.

3.

5.

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For internal use only. No distribution is allowed without permission.

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