Domestic Hot Water System - Design Procedure

A domestic hot water system design procedure

The design of a hot water system may follow the procedure below:
1. Determine the demand of hot water - quantity and temperature
2. Selecting the type, capacity and heating surface of the calorifier - or heat exchanger
3. Selecting the boiler
4. Design pipe scheme and size pipes

1. The Demand of Hot Water - quantity and temperature

Hot water is normally supplied to the fittings and consumers at 50 - 60 oC. For canteens and
professional kitchen a temperature of 65 oC are required to satisfy most hygienic standards. Hot water
should not be stored at temperatures below 60 oC (140 oF) to avoid the risk of legionella.
Where a lower temperatures are necessary for safety reasons - as in kindergartens, centers for
disabled etc. - the hot water temperature should not exceed 40 - 50 oC.
Note! The hot water can be stored at higher temperatures and reduced to supply temperature by
mixing with cold water in blender valves. Storing hot water at a higher temperature increases the
systems overall capacity and reduces the need of storage volume.
The quantity of hot water is determined by number of occupants and their consumption habits.
(a) Consumption of hot water per person or occupant
The table below can be used as an indication of hot water consumption per occupant or person in
common types of buildings:

Type of building

Consumption per Peak demand per

occupant
occupant
liter/day gal/day

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Storage per
occupant

liter/hr

gal/hr

liter

gal

Factories (no
process)

22 - 45

5 - 10

Hospitals, general

160

35

30

27

Hospitals, mental

110

25

22

27

Type of building

Consumption per Peak demand per

occupant
occupant
liter/day gal/day

Hostels

90

Storage per
occupant

liter/hr

gal/hr

liter

gal

45

10

30

20

Hotels

90 - 160 20 - 35

45

10

30

Houses and flats

90 - 160 20 - 35

45

10

30

Offices

22

Schools, boarding

115

25

20

25

Schools, day

15

(b) Content of hot water in some common used fixtures - basins, sinks and baths
The table below can be used as an indication of normal hot water content in fixtures:
Contents
Fixtures

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liter

gal

Basin, normal

Basin, full

Sink, normal

22

Sink, full

45

10

Bath

135 - 180

30 - 40

(c) Design hot water consumption of fixtures - basins, showers, sinks and baths
The table below can be used as guidance to maximum hot water consumption:
Consumption
Type of Fixture
liter/h

gal/h

Basin (private)

14

Basin (public)

45

10

Shower

180

40

Sink

45-90

10-20

Bath

90-180

20-40

(d) Hot water consumption of some common equipment as basins, sinks, baths and
showers
The table below can be used to indicate maximum hot water flow rates to fixtures:
Flow rate
Fixture
liter/s

gal/min

Basin

0.08

Sink

0.15

Bath

0.15

Shower

0.5 - 0.6

7-8

2. The type, capacity and heating surface of calorifier - or heat exchanger

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A hot water accumulator will reduce the required maximum heat supply. The heat supply capacity to a
system with an accumulator can be calculated as:
H = 4.19 V (q2 - q1) / t

(1)

where
H = heat supply capacity (kW)
V = accumulator volume stored (liter)
q1 = temperature of the cold feed water (oC)
q2 = temperature of the hot water (oC)
t = available time for the accumulated volume to be heated (sec)
(1) can be modified to express heated accumulated volume if heat supply capacity and available time
for heating is known:
V = Ha ta / 4.19 (q2 - q1)

(1b)

where
Ha = heat supply available (kW)
ta = heating time available (sec)
With an instantaneous heater with no accumulating calorifier the heat supply can be calculated as:
H = 4.19 v (q2 - q1)

(2)

where
v = required volume flow (liter/s)
The heating surface of a heat exchanger can be calculated as:
A = 1000 H / k qm (3)
where
A = heating surface (m2)
H = rate heating (kW)
k = overall heat transmission coefficient (W/m2K)
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qm = logarithmic mean temperature difference (K)

(a) Overall Heat Transmission Coefficient (k)
The overall heat transfer coefficient can be used to calculate the total heat transfer through a wall or
heat exchanger construction. The overall heat transfer coefficient depends on the fluids and their
properties on both sides of the wall, and the properties of the wall and the transmission surface.
For practically still fluids - average values for the overall heat transmission coefficient through different
combinations of fluids on both sides of the wall and type of wall - can be found in the table below:

Fluid

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Transmission
Surface

Fluid

Overall Heat Transmission

Coefficient
(Btu/ft2 hr oF)

(W/m2 K)

Water

Cast Iron

Air or Gas

1.4

7.9

Water

Mild Steel

Air or Gas

2.0

11.3

Water

Copper

Air or Gas

2.3

13.1

Water

Cast Iron

Water

40 - 50

230 - 280

Water

Mild Steel

Water

60 - 70

340 - 400

Water

Copper

Water

60 - 80

340 - 455

Air

Cast Iron

Air

1.0

5.7

Air

Mild Steel

Air

1.4

7.9

Steam

Cast Iron

Air

2.0

11.3

Steam

Mild Steel

Air

2.5

14.2

Steam

Copper

Air

3.0

17

Steam

Cast Iron

Water

160

910

Steam

Mild Steel

Water

185

1050

Fluid

Transmission
Surface

Fluid

Overall Heat Transmission

Coefficient
(Btu/ft2 hr oF)

(W/m2 K)

Steam

Copper

Water

205

1160

Steam

Stainless Steel

Water

120

680

1 Btu/ft2 hr oF = 5.678 W/m2 K = 4.882 kcal/h m2 oC - Unit Converter

Note that these coefficients are very rough. They depends on the fluid velocities, their viscosity, the
condition of the heating surfaces, the size of the temperature differences and so on. For exact
calculations - always check manufacturing data.
Heat transmission coefficient depends material and construction of the calorifier.
(b) Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference (qm )
The mean temperature difference in a heat transfer process depends on the direction of fluid flows
involved in the process. The primary and secondary fluid in an heat exchanger process may

flow in the same direction - parallel flow or cocurrent flow

in the opposite direction - countercurrent flow

or perpendicular to each other - cross flow

With saturation steam as the primary fluid the primary temperature can be taken as a constant since
the heat is transferred as a result of a change of phase only. The temperature profile in the primary
fluid is not dependent on the direction of flow.

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LMTD
The rise in secondary temperature is non-linear and can best be represented by a logarithmic
calculation. A logarithmic mean temperature difference is termed

Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference or LMTD or DTLM

LMTD can be expressed as

LMTD = (dto - dti) / ln(dto / dti)

(1)

where
LMTD = Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference (oF, oC)
For parallel flow:
dti = tpi - tsi = inlet primary and secondary fluid temperature difference (oF, oC)
dto = tpo - tso = outlet primary and secondary fluid temperature difference (oF, oC)
For counter flow:
dti = tpi - tso = inlet primary and outlet secondary fluid temperature difference (oF, oC)
dto = tpo - tsi = outlet primary and inlet secondary fluid temperature difference (oF, oC)
The Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference is always less than the Arithmetic Mean Temperature
Difference.
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3. The boiler
Boiler with the correct rating must be selected from manufacturer catalogues where
Boiler rating = Heating capacity of calorifier + safety margin (normally 10 - 20%)

4. Design pipe scheme and size pipes

The maximum volume flow through connection pipes to fittings and other equipment is determined
by the maximum demand of each consumer or fitting.
The maximum volume flow through main pipes is determined by the maximum demand of the fittings
and statistic demand based on the number and types of fittings and equipment supplied.
(a). Recommended dimensions of hot and cold water pipes
The table below can be used to determine the maximum numbers of draw offs served by a pipe:
Maximum number of draw offs
served
Nominal bore of pipe
Flow pipes

in

Steel pipe
(mm)

Copper
pipe
(mm)

Head up to
20 m
(70 ft)

Head over
20 m
(70 ft)

1/2

15

15

1-2

1-8

3/4

20

22

2-4

3-9

9 - 29

25

28

5-8

10 - 19

30 - 66

1 1/4

32

35

9 - 24

20 - 49

67 - 169

1 1/2

40

42

25 - 49

50 - 79

170 - 350

50

54

50 - 99

80 - 153

2 1/2

65

67

100 - 200

154 - 300

Basins, Sinks, showers and similar are regarded as 1 draw off

Baths and similar are regarded as 2 draw offs

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Return
pipes

(b). Recommended Water velocities in pipes and tubes

The fluid flow velocities in water systems should not exceed certain limits to avoid noise and damaging
wear and tear of pipes and fittings. The table below can be used as guidance to maximum velocities:
Maximum Velocity
Application
(m/s)

(ft/s)

Tap water (low noise)

0.5 - 0.7

1.6 - 2.3

Tap water

1.0 - 2.5

3.3 - 8.2

Cooling water

1.5 - 2.5

4.9 - 8.2

Suction boiler feed water

0.5 - 1.0

1.6 - 3.3

Discharge boiler feed water

1.5 - 2.5

4.9 - 8.2

Condensate

1.0 - 2.0

3.3 - 6.5

Heating circulation

1.0 - 3.0

3.3 - 9.8

(c). Dimensions and capacities of hot-water storage tanks

Hot-water storage tank dimensions and capacities:
Hot-Water Storage Capacity (Gallons)
Tank
Diamete
r
(inches)

10

20

16

32

48

66

82

98

114

131

147

163

22

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

200

24

24

48

72

96

120

144

168

192

216

240

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Tank Length (ft)

30

37

74

110

147

184

220

257

294

330

367

36

53

106

159

212

265

317

370

423

476

529

42

72

144

216

288

360

432

504

576

648

720

1 ft (foot) = 0.3048 m

1 in (inch) = 25.4 mm = 2.54 cm = 0.0254 m

1 Gallon (U.S.) = 3.785x10-3 m3 = 3.785 dm3 (liter)

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