CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND STUDY

The researchers believe that deeper insight will be achieved by mentioning the
literatures which help in making this research. The literatures gave the researcher a wider
background in conducting this study and at the same time providing basis or guide
analysis of the concept.

Related Literature
An attitude is generally defined as a way a person responds to his or her
environment, either positively or negatively.

An employee's attitude can effect those around him or her.

Work environment can affect a person's attitude.

While management needs to create a positive work environment, employees also

have a responsibility regarding their attitude.
Defining Attitude
An attitude is generally defined as a way a person responds to his or her
environment, either positively or negatively. This attitude can have a conscious and
subconscious aspect.

Attitudes in the Workplace

Everyone has an attitude, which is not necessarily a bad thing. One aspect of a
person's attitude is the impact it can have on the people around them. A person who has a
positive attitude can lift the spirits of his/her co-workers, while a person with a negative
attitude can lower their spirits. The positive or negative attitude of employees affects their
work performance and the performance of the people they work with.
(https://www.boundless.com/management/organizational-behavior/drivers-ofbehavior/defining-attitude/)
Women hold jobs that are, on average, inferior in many respects to those held by
men (Berch 1982; Featherman and Hauser 1976: Kreps 1971); Women have been
found on average, to have icss autonomy, closer supervision, and more limited
promotional opportunities than men (Wolf and Fligstein 1979). Yet women's attitudes
toward their jobs are often more favorable than men's (Glenn, Taylor, and Weaver
1977; Penley and Hawkins 1980; Quinn, Smes. and McCullough 1973). Three
possible explanations for this disparity are tested in this article.
First, men and women may have different evaluations of jobs because they value
different characteristics of work (Kanter 1977). Second, women may be more satisfied
because they focus on their roles as homemakers, rather than on their roles as workers,
and derive additional satisfactions from this sphere (Veroff, Douvan, and Kulka 1981).
Third, men and women may have different personal expectations and use different
comparison groups in arriving at evaluations of their jobs. For instance, women may
compare themselves to other working women rather than to men and, thus, may not feel

relatively deprived. Or, they may compare themselves to women engaged solely in
homemaking and feel relatively satisfied with their employment situation regardless of its
specific characteristics (Glenn, Taylor, and Weaver 1977).
Job Characteristics
There has been a great deal of debate about the extent to which men and women
give different weight to different aspects of work (Agassi 1982). Lacy, Bokemeier and
Shepard (1983) find no differences in the consequences of gender-specific childhood
socialization for job satisfaction nor do they find that a wide range of job characteristic
differentially affect the work attitudes of men and women. Where gender differences in
work attitudes have been found (as in the analysis of Murray and Atlunson 1981, who
find that women weight relations with coworkers more heavily and that men weight
advancement more heavily), these differences have been relatively small.
A variety of job characteristics are evaluated in this article to see to what extent
men and women differently value various aspects of their jobs. These characteristics
include occupational prestige, earnings, education, job complexity, level of authority
exercised, how closely the worker is supervised, job pressure, being held responsible for
things outside one's control, how frequently one has to get dirty on the job, being
underemployed, workplace size, and level of optimism about one's future at the current
job. These and related measures of job and organizational characteristics have a long
history of use in the literature on job satisfaction and have been consistently identified as
major determinants of job satisfaction (Parries. Shea, Spitz, and Zeller 1970: Quinn,
Staines, and McCullough 1974). For instance, plant size has important influences on a
variety of working conditions, from the prevalence of bureaucracy, to a heightened
division of labor, to job satisfaction. Those working in large plants have been found

consistently to have less favorable attitudes toward their work (Ingham 1967; Kimberly
1976).
Todays young adults are different. Many claim to want challenging and
rewarding careers, yet they do not take necessary actions to plan and prepare for these
careers. Compared to older generations, they are more likely to move from job to job,
looking for the right job, much as these young people would surf on the Internet, moving
from site to site, looking for the right information. Jeff Arnett (2004) revealed in his
study of young adults from 18 to 28 that they become deeply self absorbed during this
period as they search for their personal identity. They become involved in an array of
experiences, jumping from job to job or experience to experience. Parents provide
support by allowing them to come home to recharge and financing their activities. The
young adults proceed with optimism believing that they will have a job when they end
the journey.
Work centrality is lower in current young adults than in the previous generation.
Young women are slightly lower in their ratings of work centrality than young men.
Young adults who rated work as a high life interest were compared with young adults
whose work centrality was medium or below average. From these comparisons, young
adults with high work centrality: were less likely to job surf and more likely to have a
career/life vision: were more likely to postpone marriage: were more likely to rate
themselves as being superior to others: were more trusting in business, government, and
religious leaders: were less interested in a job that emphasized low stress and more
interested in a job that emphasized success factors such as a high income, a prestigious
company, and promotion opportunities. Young adults who rated work as relatively low to

their central life interests were more likely to be interested in jobs that were not stressful.
In rating the importance of different job characteristics to a job search, these young adults
rated low stress factors (ex. working regular hours) about equally important with job
success factors (ex. high income).(Arnett, 2004; Grossman, 2005; Howe and Strauss,
1991, 2000).
For decades, research has shown that negative attitudes and stereotypes about old
people in general (McTavish, 1971; Polizzi & Millikin, 2002) and older employees in
particular (Bird & Fisher, 1986; Lyon & Pollard, 1997; Rosen & Jerdee, 1976) exist in
the West. Moreover, studies demonstrated that the discrimination against older employees
was reflected in common HR practices, with respect to selection, promotion,
compensation, and training (Kluge & Krings, 2008; McVittie, McKinlay, &
Widdicombe, 2003; Perry, Kulik, & Bourhis, 1996). Although there is some evidence
that attitudes toward older employees may be becoming more positive (Hassell &
Perrewe, 1995; Kluge & Krings, 2008), nonetheless, older employees often still feel
discriminated against because of their age (Duncan, 2003; McVittie et al., 2003), and
they were somehow treated differently from their younger counterparts in HR practices
(Kluge & Krings, 2008).
This suggests that changes in attitudes do not necessarily go hand-in-hand with
organizational practices at work. Furthermore, the so-called new ageism is taking more
covert, ambiguous, and fluid forms (Duncan, 2003), and the promotion of the principle
of equal opportunity in employment has not improved prospects for older workers in
developed economies (McVittie et al., 2003).

Attitudes are evaluative statements or judgments concerning objects, people, or

events. There are three components of an attitude: Affective The emotional or feeling
segment of an attitude, Cognitive The opinion or belief segment of an attitude and
Behavioral An intention to behave in a certain way toward someone or something. The
most powerful moderators of the attitude-behavior relationship are the importance of the
attitude, correspondence to behavior, accessibility, existence of social pressures and
personal and direct experience of the attitude. Attitudes predict behavior, as influenced by
these moderating variables.
Predicting Behavior from Attitudes
Important attitudes have a strong relationship to behavior. The closer the match
between attitude and behavior, the stronger the relationship: Specific attitudes predict
specific behavior and general attitudes predict general behavior
The more frequently expressed an attitude, the better predictor it is. High social
pressures reduce the relationship and may cause dissonance. Attitudes based on personal
experience are stronger predictors.
What Are the Major Job Attitudes?
First is the job satisfaction it is a positive feeling about the job resulting from an
evaluation of its characteristics. Job Involvement it is a degree of psychological
identification with the job where perceived performance is important to self-worth.
Psychological Empowerment it is a belief in the degree of influence over the job,
competence, job meaningfulness, and autonomy. Organizational Commitment it is
identifying with a particular organization and its goals, while wishing to maintain
membership in the organization. There a three dimensions: Affective emotional

attachment to organization, continuance Commitment economic value of staying,

normative moral or ethical obligations. Perceived Organizational Support (POS) is a
degree to which employees believe the organization values their contribution and cares
about their well-being. Higher when rewards are fair, employees are involved in decisionmaking, and supervisors are seen as supportive. High POS is related to higher OCBs and
performance. The degree of involvement, satisfaction with, and enthusiasm for the job.
Engaged employees are passionate about their work and company.(Robbins & Judge
Organizational Behavior 13th Edition)
How we behave at work often depends on how we feel about being there.
Therefore, making sense of how people behave depends on understanding their work
attitudes. An attitude refers to our opinions, beliefs, and feelings about aspects of our
environment. We have attitudes toward the food we eat, people we meet, courses we take,
and things we do. At work, two job attitudes have the greatest potential to influence how
we behave. These are job satisfaction and organizational commitment.
Job satisfaction refers to the feelings people have toward their job. If the number
of studies conducted on job satisfaction is an indicator, job satisfaction is probably the
most important job attitude. Institutions such as Gallup or the Society for Human
Resource Management (SHRM) periodically conduct studies of job satisfaction to track
how satisfied employees are at work. According to a recent Gallup survey, 90% of the
employees surveyed said that they were at least somewhat satisfied with their jobs. A
recent SHRM study revealed 40% who were very satisfied.

Organizational commitment is the emotional attachment people have toward the

company they work for. A highly committed employee is one who accepts and believes in
the companys values, is willing to put out effort to meet the companys goals, and has a
strong desire to remain with the company. People who are committed to their company
often refer to their company as we as opposed to they as in in this company, we
have great benefits. The way we refer to the company indicates the type of attachment
and identification we have with the company.
There is a high degree of overlap between job satisfaction and organizational
commitment because things that make us happy with our job often make us more
committed to the company as well. Companies believe that these attitudes are worth
tracking because they often are associated with outcomes that are important to the
Controlling role, such as performance, helping others, absenteeism, and turnover.
(http://www.csus.edu/indiv/s/sablynskic/Chapter3.html)
What Causes Positive Work Attitudes?

What makes you satisfied with your job and develop commitment to your
company? Research shows that people pay attention to several factors of their work
environment, including characteristics of the job (a function of Organizing activities),
how they are treated (related to Leadership actions), the relationships they form with
colleagues and managers (also Leadership related), and the level of stress the job entails.

Job Characteristics
Employees tend to be more satisfied and committed in jobs that involve certain
characteristics. The ability to use a variety of skills, having autonomy at work, receiving
feedback on the job, and performing a significant task are some job characteristics that
are related to satisfaction and commitment. However, the presence of these factors is not
important for everyone. Some people have a high need for growth. These employees tend
to be more satisfied when their jobs help them build new skills and improve.
Organizational Justice and the Psychological Contract
A strong influence over our satisfaction level is how fairly we are treated. People
pay attention to the fairness of company policies and procedures, fair and kind treatment
from supervisors, and fairness of their pay and other rewards they receive from the
company. Organizational justice can be classified into three categories: (1) procedural
(fairness in the way policies and processes are carried out), (2) distributive (the allocation
of resources or compensation and benefits), and (3) interactional (the degree to which
people is treated with dignity and respect). At the root of organizational justice is trust,
something that is easier to break than to repair if broken.
The psychological contract is the unspoken, informal understanding that an
employee will contribute certain things to the organization (e.g., work ability and a
willing attitude) and will receive certain things in return (e.g., reasonable pay and
benefits). Under the psychological contract, an employee may believe that if he or she
works hard and receives favourable performance evaluations, he or she will receive an

annual bonus, periodic raises and promotions, and will not be laid off. Since the
downsizing trend of the past 20 years, many commentators have declared that the
psychological contract is violated more often than not.
Relationships at Work
Two strong predictors of our happiness at work and commitment to the company
are our relationships with co-workers and managers. The people we interact with, how
friendly they are, whether we are socially accepted in our work group, whether we are
treated with respect by them are important to our happiness at work. Research also shows
that our relationship with our manager, how considerate the manager is, and whether we
build a trust-based relationship with our manager are critically important to our job
satisfaction and organizational commitment. When our manager and overall management
listen to us, care about us, and value our opinions, we tend to feel good at work. When
establishing effective relations with employees, little signals that you care about your
employees go a long way. For example, in 2004 San Franciscos Hotel Carlton was taken
over and renovated by a new management group, Joie de Vivre Hospitality. One of the
small things the new management did that created dramatic results was that, in response
to an employee attitude survey, they replaced the old vacuum cleaners housekeepers were
using and started replacing them every year. It did not cost the company much to replace
old machinery, but this simple act of listening to employee problems and taking action
went a long way to make employees feel better.

Stress
Not surprisingly, the amount of stress present in a job is related to employee
satisfaction and commitment. Stressors range from environmental ones (noise, heat,
inadequate ventilation) to interpersonal ones (organizational politics, conflicts with coworkers) to organizational ones (pressure to avoid making mistakes, worrying about the
security of the job). Some jobs, such as intensive care unit nurse and military fighter
pilot, are inherently very stressful.
Another source of stress has to do with the roles people are expected to fulfil on
and off the job. Role ambiguity is uncertainty about what our responsibilities are in the
job. Role conflict involves contradictory demands at work; it can also involve conflict
between fulfilling ones role as an employee and other roles in life, such as the role of
parent, friend, or community volunteer.
Generally speaking, the higher the stress level, the lower job satisfaction tends to
be. But not all stress is bad, and some stressors actually make us happier! For example,
working under time pressure and having a high degree of responsibility are stressful, but
they are also perceived as challenges and tend to be related to high levels of satisfaction.
(http://www.web-books.com/eLibrary/ON/B0/B58/012MB58.html)
Positive Job Attitude
"A positive attitude held by the employee towards the organization and its values.
An engaged employee is aware of the business context, and works with colleagues to
improve performance within the job for the benefit of the organisation. The organization

must work to develop and nurture engagement, which requires a two-way relationship
between employee and employer." (Robinson, 2004)
"A set of positive attitudes and behaviours enabling high job performance of a
kind which are in tune with the organization's mission." (Storey, 2008)
Engaged employees also have a stronger sense of personal well-being and feel
more involved, committed and productive at work.
Be friendly, courteous and respectful to everyone. Be willing to go the extra mile.
This creates goodwill with employers, co-workers and customers. Remember, as you
climb the career ladder, you may meet the same people on your way up.
(http://jobs.utah.gov/jobseeker/smartstart/successfulemployee.pdf)
Positive thinking is a mental and emotional attitude that focuses on the bright side
of life and expects positive results. A positive person anticipates happiness, health and
success, and believes he or she can overcome any obstacle and difficulty. Positive
thinking is not accepted by everyone. Some, consider it as nonsense, and scoff at people
who follow it, but there is a growing number of people, who accept positive thinking as a
fact, and believe in its effectiveness.
We affect, and are affected by the people we meet, in one way or another. This
happens instinctively and on a subconscious level, through words, thoughts and feelings,
and through body language.
Is it any wonder that we want to be around positive people, and prefer to avoid
negative ones?

People are more disposed to help us, if we are positive, and they dislike and avoid
anyone broadcasting negativity.
Negative thoughts, words and attitude, create negative and unhappy feelings,
moods and behavior. When the mind is negative, poisons are released into the blood,
which cause more unhappiness and negativity. This is the way to failure, frustration and
disappointment.
(http://www.successconsciousness.com/index_000009.html)
Too many times we take criticism as a personal attack, as an insult to who we are.
But its not. Well, perhaps sometimes it is, but we dont have to take it that way. Take it as
a criticism of your actions, not your person. If you do that, you can detach yourself from
the criticism emotionally and see what should be done. But the way that many of us
handle the criticisms that we see as personal attacks is by attacking back. Im not going
to let someone talk to me that way. Especially if this criticism is made in public, such as
in the comments of a blog or on a forum. You have to defend yourself, and attack the
attacker right? Wrong. By attacking the attacker, you are stooping to his level. Even if
the person was mean or rude, you dont have to be the same way. You dont have to
commit the same sins. Be the better person.
(http://www.wikihow.com/Accept-Criticism-With-Grace-and-Appreciation)
There is a difference between criticism and constructive feedback. Always use the
method where you begin by complimenting the individual on something theyve done
well, and follow it up with a suggestion on how to improve their performance. Also,
ensure to have this conversation in private. The individual will respect your feedback, and
also respect the fact that you brought awareness to the situation in a professional manner.

(http://www.markentpersonnel.com/2014/05/06/positive-attitude-work-can-keysuccess/)
How do you start being good at your job? For one thing, it is time to stop
creating excuses for your mediocrity and start creating reasons to excel. Being good at
your job takes commitment and it takes hard work. Not lip service that most mediocre
employees dwell in.
If you are not very good at your job, do you find yourself making these excuses?

Perhaps if you dwell in these or any of these, it is time to stop. Otherwise, you will never
be good at your job.
I am overworked. I dont have enough time. My work-life balance sucks. I need
some rest. I hate my job. I am not doing what I love. I dont know what I want. I hope my
boss understands me. I wish I have more money to pursue my dreams. This is not easy.
You dont lead my life. My situation is different. There are too many demands on my life.
I am stretched beyond my limits. I wish I can quit now but I need the job. I am just
buying time. If only I went to a better school. If only I went to school. If only I was born
in a better family. Instead, do the exact opposite. Start writing a list on how you can do
better.
(http://www.career-success-for-newbies.com/being-good-at-your-job.html)

Some people are more inclined than others to take a hands-on approach when it
comes to their life or work. What are the common features of self-starters and how can
we learn to better embrace the do-it-yourself spirit?
In a perfect world, wed all wake up early, go on a run, eat a healthy breakfast,
and then head into work to tackle our next big project. As self-starters, wed be brimming
with energy and enthusiasm and wouldnt even consider procrastinating before a
deadline, professional development siteExcelle explains. In the real world, however,
we dont always live up to our highest ambitions. But just because we dont always do
something, doesnt mean we cant ever do it.
There are a number of qualities that distinguish self-starters from others. The first
is being active in seizing opportunities, such as the desire to start a business, invent a new
product or improve an existing process. In other words, self-starters like to stay busy and
are always on the lookout for new projects to tackle.
Another important characteristic is commitment to work. Self-starters immerse
themselves in new endeavours and remain passionate about pursuing their vocation and
honing their skills. Their dedication can even lead to taking a busmans holiday.
For those who dont know the expression, a busmans holiday refers to leisure time
spent doing pretty much what one does at work, Forbes.com explains. Taking busmans
holidays doesnt have to mean youre a workaholic it could mean you are passionate
about your vocation and love honing your craft.

Finally, resilience in the face of challenging circumstances is a crucial element in

being a self-starter. Persevering through disappointments, failures and unfavorable odds
is necessary if you hope to accomplish your goals, because self-starters often face an
uphill road.
Any good manager knows that teamwork, good working relationships, a positive
approach to colleagues and the job itself are all vital factors in achieving productivity and
a happy working environment. If any one of these is missing or damaged, everybody
suffers. Given that most working people spend at least eight hours a day trying to do a
good job, then it is necessary to ensure that the time there is pleasant, peaceful and
provides job satisfaction. If negative attitudes and gossip pertain, then the whole
applecart is in real danger of being overturned. In those circumstances, managers would
be justified in firing employees for gossip and negative attitudes.
Looking more closely at the topic of gossip; how does a bit of chatter about other
workmates warrant being fired by the manager? Gossip is often malicious and generally
based on lies, or at least rumor or half-truths. It is hurtful and difficult to confront
sometimes, as a few words here and there, usually negative or derogatory, soon spread
like wildfire. The victim often suffers in silence, and often finds relationships with
colleagues undermined for no obvious reason. This state of affairs destroys teamwork,
interpersonal relationships, good atmosphere and, ultimately, productivity.
Spreading gossip is just not acceptable in any circumstances, and the work
environment is one such area of concern.
This in turn infects others who begin to feel resentful at having to cover for, or do
more than somebody who refuses to pull their weight. Again, working relationships are

adversely affected and productivity is going to reduce. A manager who is properly

managing employees is bound to take action to get rid of the source of the problem.
Of course, employment legislation demands that those who gossip and cause trouble and
those whose negative attitude is detrimental to the operation, are given fair warning,
along with a chance to improve. If that improvement does not happen, then the only
alternative is to let the person go. Such action can only benefit everyone and everything
else in the workplace, which is why managers fire employees for gossip and negative
attitudes. Going to work is necessary for most people in order to make a living. It should
be as pleasant and stress-free as possible and a good manager will do everything to
ensure this happens.
(http://www.insidebusiness360.com/index.php/your-negative-attitude-could-get-youfired-2676/)
Nothing eats away at a teamwork environment worse than gossip does. Whether
team members are gossiping about colleagues or their personal problems, avoid the
situation altogether. If you are caught in the conversation, act as a listener who does not
provide any input. Maintaining a positive attitude at work means that you are a team
player who provides all team members with respect. By refraining from joining a gossip
circle, you can ensure that you maintain that level of respect.
(http://www.markentpersonnel.com/2014/05/06/positive-attitude-work-can-keysuccess/)
Team player is too vague a term to use in job descriptions. Mainly because it
results in this pointless conversation: Are you a team player? Why, yes. I am.

Specific is always better than vague. Next time youre writing a job description,
define what specific qualities youre looking for, what kind of team you have, and what
its goals are. If youre a job candidate it would behoove you to spend some time thinking
about what team player means to you, so when you inevitably get asked about it, you can
distinguish yourself with an articulate, considered answer.
Heres my answer. A team player is someone who:

Insists on knowing what were trying to achieve and keeps asking until she gets a
satisfactory answer

Is willing to kill her darlings if it doesnt help the project

Understands that this is a complex, group effort that can only succeed if everyone
takes responsibility for their chunk

Provides other team members with the information and resources they need to get
their jobs done

Is able to change course when the situation changes

Understands that everyone on the team is fallible and that when mistakes happen
well work together to fix it

Finds ways to prioritize the work so that even if we cant accomplish everything
we set out to do, we still have a viable, successful outcome

Maintains a positive, constructive attitude; if things are going poorly, helps

identify whats going wrong and propose solutions

In short, a team player is someone who provides great user experience to her colleagues.
(http://www.kimbieler.com/2012/06/23/what-does-it-mean-to-be-a-team-player/)

Assessment: Private and Public Hospital

A. Positive Attitudes
a. Private Hospital
b. Public Hospital
B. Comparison of the researchers between the observed job
attitudes of private and public hospital
C. Difference between the private and public hospital
regarding their job attitudes

Research Paradigm
INPUT

A. Concepts about Job Attitudes

B. Distribution of Questionnaires
C. Implementation and Analysis of the Job
Attitudes of Hospital Staff: Basis for
Enhancement Training Program

PROCESS

Enhancement
Training
Program
Output

Figure 1.
This paradigm shows the summary of the study, how it will be done and what is the
possible outcome of the study.