CONTENTS

Deformation and secondary

faulting associated with
basement-involved compressional
and extensional structures

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AUTHORS
James F. Miller  School of Geology and
Geophysics, University of Oklahoma, Norman,
Oklahoma; james.f.miller@conocophillips.com
James F. Miller received his B.S. degree in geology from Pennsylvania State University and his
M.S. degree from the University of Oklahoma.
He is currently a geoscientist at Conoco Phillips.

James F. Miller and Shankar Mitra

Shankar Mitra  School of Geology and

Geophysics, University of Oklahoma, Norman,
Oklahoma; smitra@ou.edu

ABSTRACT

Shankar Mitra holds the Monnett Chair and

Professorship in Energy Resources at the
University of Oklahoma. He received his Ph.D.
from Johns Hopkins University in 1977.

Experimental clay modeling is used to study the geometry and

evolution of deformation zones formed above basement faults.
The nature of deformation is compared for reverse faults dipping 30, 45, and 60, vertical faults, and normal faults dipping
60 and 75. Basement faulting results in the formation of a
sheared triangular deformation zone that widens upward in the
cover units. Most of the deformation is focused within a central
zone of secondary faults, which propagate upward and eventually break through the entire section. Basal units exhibit steeper
dips and higher fault densities, whereas stratigraphically higher
units exhibit gentler dips and lower fault densities. The width
of the deformation zone is generally greater for reverse faults
with low dips. The anticlinal axial surface typically dips in the
same direction as the synclinal axial surface for low- to moderateangle reverse faults; however, the axial surfaces dip in opposite
directions for vertical faults and normal faults. Particle paths
suggest a convex upward rotation within the deformation zone,
suggesting transfer of material across the extension of the master
fault. Reverse faults are associated with secondary faults with
reverse and thrust separations. Vertical faults are associated with
mostly vertical and reverse secondary faults, whereas normal
faults are generally associated with normal separation of most
secondary faults. Therefore, the nature of secondary faults varies
with structural position, possibly within the same layer. These
results provide some key insights that are useful in the interpretation of macroscopic surface and subsurface basement
involved structures.

Copyright 2011. The American Association of Petroleum Geologists. All rights reserved.
Manuscript received January 20, 2010; provisional acceptance April 6, 2010; revised manuscript received
April 22, 2010; final acceptance September 13, 2010.
DOI:10.1306/09131010007

AAPG Bulletin, v. 95, no. 4 (April 2011), pp. 675689

675

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We thank David Stearns for providing part of
the apparatus for the vertical uplift experiments.
We also acknowledge the comments and suggestions of Rick Groshong, Julia Gale, an anonymous reviewer, and editor Gretchen Gillis,
which improved the manuscript.
The AAPG Editor thanks the following reviewers
for their work on this paper: Julia F. Gale,
Richard H. Groshong, and an anonymous
reviewer.

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INTRODUCTION
Basement-involved structures form chains of uplifts in the frontal zones of many fold and thrust
belts (Rodgers, 1987). A number of structural models (Figure 1) have been proposed for the geometry
and evolution of these structures, including models associated with reverse or thrust faults (Berg,
1962; Spang et al., 1985; Blackstone, 1993; Brown,
1993; Stone, 1993; Narr and Suppe, 1994), normal
faults and associated drape folds (Stearns, 1978),
and vertical faults that decrease in dip within the
sedimentary cover (Prucha et al., 1965).
A general model that appears to explain the
geometry of the structures involves the dissipation
of fault slip within a triangular deformation zone,
also referred to as a trishear zone (Erslev, 1991; Erslev
and Rodgers, 1993), in the cover units. The detailed
kinematics of deformation within the trishear zone
has also been modeled (Hardy and Ford, 1997;
Allmendinger, 1998; Zehnder and Allmendinger,
2000; Jin and Groshong, 2006). A number of variations of this basic model have been developed and
demonstrated to apply to both surface and subsurface structures (Schmidt et al., 1993; Mitra and
Mount, 1998; Johnson and Johnson, 2001). The
basic model applies to fault-propagation folds formed
in both extension and compression.
However, the kinematic models do not address
the details of the nature of deformation and the
geometry of secondary faults within the triangular
zone. This information is important in interpreting
surface or subsurface structures with limited data.
In addition to kinematic models, scaled experimental models provide useful information on the
evolution of these structures. A number of experiments have been conducted in the past to study
different types of basement-involved structures.
Clay and sand models have been used extensively to
study basement structures associated with normal
faults (Sanford, 1959; Horsfield, 1977; Withjack
et al., 1990; Withjack and Callaway, 2000; Jin and
Groshong, 2006). Rock models deformed under
relatively high confining pressures (Logan et al.,
1978; Stearns, 1978; Friedman et al., 1980) have
been used to study the formation of folds related to
reverse and normal faults. Although these studies
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Figure 1. Structural models of basement-involved structures.

(A) Reverse fault model. (B) Normal fault model. (C) Upthrust
model associated with vertical to very steeply dipping reverse
faults.

have provided insights for the development of

structures, they have used different materials and
setups for the normal- and reverse-fault experiments.
In this article, we develop experimental models to study the evolution of deformation zones for
basement faults with reverse, normal, and vertical
displacements. To build on previous experimental
studies, we have conducted our experiments for
structures involving reverse and normal faults with
various dips and vertical faults using similar materials and at the same scale. Because similar materials
and experimental approaches are used to study the

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Apical angle = 58 (medium)

Apical angle = 34 (narrow)

Apical angle = 42 (narrow)

Apical angle = 66 (medium)

Apical angle = 72 (wide)

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90

75

60

Normal

Normal

60
Reverse

Vertical

45
Reverse

Anticlinal = 66; synclinal = 80. Anticlinal axis dips in same

direction as major fault; synclinal axis dips in opposite
direction.
Anticlinal = 55; synclinal = 67. Anticlinal axis dips in same
direction as major fault; synclinal axis dips in opposite direction.

Reverse faults with decreasing dip near the top

of the clay.
Reverse faults with decreasing dip near the top
of the clay.
Reverse faults with decreasing dip near the top
of the clay.
Vertical to reverse faults near anticlinal axis;
reverse faults near synclinal axis. Faults decrease
in dip near the top of the clay.
Normal faults near anticlinal axis; vertical faults near
synclinal axis. Normal faults increase in dip near
the top of the clay.
Normal faults near anticlinal and synclinal axes.
Faults increase in dip near the top of the clay.
Anticlinal = 76; synclinal = 34. Both dip in same direction as
major fault. Synclinal axis is curved.
Anticlinal = 78; synclinal = 30. Both dip in same direction as
major fault.
Anticlinal = 71; synclinal = 43. Both dip in same direction as
major fault.
Anticlinal = 67; synclinal = 71. Anticlinal and Synclinal axes
dip in opposite directions.
30

Trishear Axial Surface Dips ()

Fault Dip
()
Fault
Type

Scaled experimental models (Hubbert, 1937) have

been widely used to document and understand the
evolution of structures and related faults. Wet clay
has been documented to be an appropriate modeling material because the fractures and faults formed
in clay as a response to applied stress are similar to
that in natural rocks (Oertel, 1965; Reches, 1988),
because the strain fields associated with faulting in
clay are similar to those predicted by dislocation
calculations (Hilderbrand-Mittelfeldt, 1979), and
because the faults are developed as discrete surfaces
whose geometry and evolution can be easily studied (Cloos, 1968).
The experiments were conducted using a 5-cm
(1.9-in.) layer of wet clay to represent the sedimentary units and aluminum blocks to represent the
basement. The clay had an average density of 1.40 g/
cc and a shear strength value of 0.011 kg/cm2, as
measured using a Torvane CL-600A meter distributed by Soiltest. The clay did not contain additional
layering, and therefore, all deformational observations relate to that of a homogeneous medium.
Rigid basement blocks separated by faults with dips
of 30, 45, and 60 were used for the compressional
structures, and dips of 60 and 75 were used for

Table 1. Summary of Results of Experimental Models

EXPERIMENTAL SETUP

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Secondary Faults

Trishear Geometry

different basement structures, the similarities and

differences between the structures formed in compressional, extensional, and vertical uplift settings
can be easily analyzed (Table 1).
This article provides detailed information on
the orientations, densities, and evolution of secondary faults within the trishear zone. Some general conclusions about the similarities and differences among the different end-member scenarios
are discussed. In addition, the evolution of the trishear zones, including their expansion with progressive deformation, and the concentration of deformation in the central parts of these zones are
studied. Finally, the models are compared with
some natural structures to show how the characteristic features summarized from the models can be
used to interpret surface and subsurface basementinvolved structures.

Apical angle = 70 (wide)

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Figure 2. (A) Experimental setup for structures involving reverse and normal faults. q is the fault dip and ranges between 30 and 75.
The clay cake, which is 5 cm (1.9 in.) thick, is deformed above sliding rigid aluminum blocks driven by a motor. (B) Experimental setup
for vertical fault experiments. The clay cake is deformed above rigid aluminum blocks bounded by vertical faults. Vertical motion is
simulated using a hydraulic piston located below the central block.

extensional structures. Vertical uplift was studied

using blocks separated by 90 planes.
The structures with basement fault dips from
30 to 75 were modeled using a combination of
three aluminum blocks, two of which acted as
footwall ramps and the third as the rising or subsiding
hanging-wall fault block, depending on whether
compressional or extensional structures were being
modeled (Figure 2A). To create displacements, the
three blocks were placed between an immobile wall
and a mobile wall driven by threaded rods at a constant velocity of approximately 3.5 * 103 cm/s.
Vertical fault motion was modeled by placing a
hydraulic piston under the mobile block that was
raised or lowered at a constant velocity (Figure 2B).
The velocity was kept at a constant, 2.0 * 103 cm/s,
with the aid of an electric motor connected to a
mechanical speed control. Clay models conducted
at this scale and velocity satisfy the conditions for
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Deformation and Secondary Faulting

approximate scaling of large-scale natural structures

(Withjack and Schlische, 2006).
Boundary conditions for the compressional experiments involved a regional stress system (s), in
which 1 is horizontal and s3 is vertical, where s1
> s2 > s3. For the extensional and vertical uplift
experiments, the s1 and s3 stress components were
reversed. The top surface and the two sides of the
clay cake were free surfaces and therefore had no
shearing stress occurring on them.
The Bighorn Basin and other foreland basement
compressional structures typically formed in sedimentary packages of approximately 3000 to 4000 m
(984313,123 ft) in thickness overlying crystalline
basement. Similarly, extensional basement rifts such
as in the North Sea and Gulf of Suez involved packages of approximately 2000 to 4000 m (6562
13,123 ft) above the basement. Based on studies of
scale models by Hubbert (1937) and subsequent

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Figure 3. Progressive evolution of basement-involved compressive structure above a 45 basement fault. Dashed lines for each panel
show the locations of the anticlinal (A) and synclinal (S) axial surfaces in the final deformed stage.

experimental studies involving clay, this set of conditions corresponds to an appropriate downward
scaling of the dimensions of the structure and rheology, and upward scaling of the strain rate for the
structures to correctly model the structures in question. Because rigid blocks are used to model basement, the structures produced most closely resemble
natural structures involving a strong competency
contrast between the crystalline basement and the
sedimentary cover.

REVERSE BASEMENT FAULTS

Reverse fault experiments with faults dipping 30,
45, and 60 were conducted. The structural evolution is well represented by the 45 experiments
(Figure 3). Differences resulting from a change in
fault dip are described for the 30 and 60 models
(Figure 4).
Initial deformation results in the formation of a
monoclinal structure terminating at the tip of the
basement fault (Figure 3A). A significant amount
of deformation occurs by the formation of a few
secondary reverse faults within the lowest units.

With progressive shortening, these faults increase

in length and are rotated downward within the
deformation zone and are replaced by new faults
formed directly above the tip of the basement block
in the hanging wall (Figure 3B, C).
The entire deformation occurs within an initially upward widening triangular deformation zone
bounded by two axial surfaces: an anticlinal axial
surface (A) tied to the tip of the basement hanging
wall and a synclinal axial surface (S), which terminates at the tip of the basement footwall. The
axial surfaces separate the unfolded units from the
folded units in the monoclinal structures. This deformation zone widens with progressive deformation, thereby incorporating more material, which
migrates through the anticlinal and synclinal axial
surfaces. The positions of the anticlinal and synclinal surfaces shown at each stage are those in the
final stage of deformation. Most of the faults are
located within the central part of the deformation
zone. In the late stages of deformation, as the throw
on the upthrown block approaches or exceeds
about half the thickness of the overlying sediments,
one or more of the faults break through to the surface (Figure 3D).
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Figure 4. Variation in deformation zone geometry for

compressive structures for (A)
30, (C) 45, and (E) 60 basement faults. Note the greater
width of the deformation zone
for lower basement fault dips.
The synclinal axial surface is
curved in the case of panel A.
Panels B, D, and F show rose
diagrams of the relative frequency of secondary fault
lengths of different orientations
normalized against the total
lengths of all faults. A = anticlinal axial surface; S = synclinal axial surface.

The overall pattern of deformation is similar

for the 30 and 60 dipping faults (Figure 4). The
primary differences are the dips of the secondary
faults and width of the deformation zone as measured by the apical angle between the anticlinal and
synclinal axial surfaces. The apical angle is higher
for the 30 and 45 models than for the 60 model.
Regardless of the dip of the main basement fault, a
fairly large distribution of dips of the secondary
faults always exists.
Particle paths traced with respect to a fixed
footwall were determined for all experiments. The
centers of circles inscribed within the clay were
traced on photographs taken during regularly spaced
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Deformation and Secondary Faulting

increments of deformation. The particle paths were

then determined in Arc GIS by connecting these
points with reference to fixed points in the footwall.
The particle paths show a similar pattern for all
of the models (Figure 5). The particle paths are approximately parallel to the fault and have the same
length as the fault slip in the hanging wall away from
the fault. Within and in the vicinity of the trishear
deformation zone, the particle paths tend to be
generally convex upward, suggesting a transfer of
material from the anticlinal to the synclinal area.
The particle paths are progressively shorter toward
the synclinal axial surface within the deformation
zone.

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Figure 5. Particle paths traced

with respect to a fixed footwall
for compressive structures with
basement fault dips of (A) 30,
(B) 45, and (C) 60. Gray zones
in this and other particle path
figures represent the final trishear
zone. Large circles show the
final position of each particle.

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VERTICAL BASEMENT FAULTS

Vertical uplift on basement faults results in a monoclinal structure with a broad anticlinal arch and a
narrower synclinal arch (Figure 6). The zone of deformation is bounded by a steeply dipping synclinal
axial surface tied to the top of the basement in the
stationary block, and an anticlinal axial surface that
dips in the opposite direction, and is tied to the top
of the basement in the upthrown block. Most of
the deformation is localized along a central zone of
faults, which originates at the tip of the basement
master fault. These faults are initially close to vertical, but as they propagate upward, they develop
a convex upward reverse geometry, and rotate
toward the downthrown block. A few of the faults
break through the cover sediments, when the throw
on the basement fault exceeds a third of the throw
on the basement fault. The final geometry of the
deformation zone and the secondary faults approximates the geometry depicted in the upthrust
model of Prucha et al. (1965).

NORMAL BASEMENT FAULTS

Normal fault experiments with faults dipping 60
and 75 were conducted. The structural evolution
is shown for the 60 experiment (Figure 7). Initial
normal separation on the master basement fault
results in the formation of secondary normal faults
immediately above the master fault, which propagate upward, and are progressively rotated to
steeper dips and translated down the master fault,
being replaced by new faults forming immediately
above the master fault. Some of the earlier formed
normal faults are rotated sufficiently to exhibit reverse separation in their final position. After the
fault throw approaches one-third of the thickness
of the cover units, one or more of the faults immediately above the master fault breaks through the
entire sedimentary section. Most of the secondary
faults dip between 70 in the direction of the master
fault and vertical dips, although a few faults with
dips opposite to the master fault and apparent reverse separations are also found. A set of antithetic
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faults dipping at a relatively low angle in an opposite direction to the master fault are formed in the
central part of the cover units.
The distribution of secondary fault orientations for a vertical fault shows that most of the
faults show vertical or steep dips (7090) toward
the upthrown block (Figure 8A). For a master normal fault dipping 75 (Figure 8B), both the deformation zone and the central zone of faulting are
narrower than in the case of the 60 master fault
(Figure 8C).
The particle paths for a vertical fault traced with
respect to a fixed footwall are approximately parallel
to the fault in the hanging wall outside the deformation zone (Figure 9A). Within the deformation
zone, particles between the anticlinal axial surface
and the extension of the fault into the cover units
show a slightly convex upward pattern sloping toward the downthrown block. Progressively less
movement occurs close to the synclinal axial surface.
Particle paths for normal faults show small
amounts of movement along a convex upward rotational path (Figure 9B, C). In the vicinity of the
synclinal axial surface, the particle paths show significant movement at angles slightly higher than
the main fault.

IMPLICATIONS FOR INTERPRETATION

Many surface and subsurface examples of foreland
basementinvolved structures are characterized by
poor data, and details of the secondary faults and
the geometry of the main basement fault are commonly a matter of controversy. Although some early
models used normal fault geometries to explain
foreland basement structures, these structures are
now believed to be mostly related to thrust or highangle reverse faults; however, it is still necessary to
determine the dips of the underlying master faults.
Because the experiments of normal, reverse, and
vertical faulting were all conducted using similar
materials, they enable a comparison of the nature
of deformation in these different tectonic settings.
Comparison of the characteristic features observed
in the experiments and the natural structures can

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Figure 6. Progressive evolution

of a basement involved structure because of uplift on a vertical basement fault. The bounding axial surfaces (A and S)
dip in opposite directions.

be used to constrain the details of the geometry in

subsurface interpretation.
The experimental results also provide some
important insights regarding deformation within
the forelimb deformation zones. These observations can be used to supplement data in surface or
subsurface interpretations of these structures.

Regardless of whether the faults are normal,

reverse, or vertical, deformation of the sedimentary cover occurs within a triangular zone. Units
closer to the rigid basement undergo deformation
over a narrower zone than the units higher up.
This is reflected in generally steeper bed dips in the
basal units and lower dips in the upper units. In

Figure 7. Progressive evolution

of an extensional basement
structure above a normal fault
dipping 60. The anticlinal and
synclinal axial surfaces dip in
opposite directions.

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Figure 8. Variation in deformation zone geometry for

vertical faults (A) and normal
faults with dips of (C) 75 and (E)
60. Note that in all cases, the
anticlinal axial surface dips in an
opposite direction to the synclinal axial surface. Panels B, D,
and F show rose diagrams of the
normalized fault lengths for different orientations of secondary
faults. A = anticlinal axial surface;
S = synclinal axial surface.

addition, the density of secondary faults (the number of faults per unit length measured normal to
the average fault dip) is higher in the basal units.
Although deformation at any stage occurs over a
fairly wide zone, most of the deformation is localized within a central fault zone.
Geometrically, this configuration is similar to
the heterogeneous trishear model of Erslev (1991).
Zehnder and Allmendinger (2000) proposed a
shape factor s to define the pattern of deformation
in the trishear zone, with s =1, representing homogeneous shear, and s > 1, representing heterogeneous shear with the concentration of deforma684

Deformation and Secondary Faulting

tion in the center of the trishear zone. According

to this definition, the configuration resembles a
case where s > 1. However, both of these models
suggest heterogeneous deformation within a constant area trishear zone, whereas the experiments
suggest that at least part of this geometry is related
to an expanding zone of trishear deformation
(Mitra and Mount, 1998).
In all cases, one or more of the secondary faults
only break through the entire sedimentary cover
when the structural relief of the basement is between
one-third and one-half the thickness of the sedimentary package above it, provided the competency

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Figure 9. Particle paths traced

with respect to a fixed footwall
for (A) vertical uplift (90 fault)
and extensional structures related to fault dips of (B) 75 and
(C) 60.

contrast between the basement and the sedimentary cover is high and similar to that in the experimental setup.

The width of the deformation zone as measured by the apical angle between the axial surfaces
and the shapes of the axial surfaces is dependent on
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the dip of the fault. Reverse or thrust faults with

gentler dips generally result in a wider deformation zone (high apical angles) and more curvilinear
bounding axial surfaces. The apical angles decrease
with increasing dip of the master fault. The anticlinal axial surface usually dips in the same direction
as the synclinal axial surface for low and moderate
dipping reverse faults. The anticlinal axial surface
commonly dips in a direction opposite to the synclinal axial surface for very high angle reverse faults,
vertical faults, and normal faults.
The separation associated with secondary faults
also varies with structural position and the master
fault dip. Low-angle reverse faults show reverse
or thrust separation on secondary faults. Vertical
faults exhibit secondary reverse faults or vertical
faults that curve to reverse geometries close to the
surface. Normal faults exhibit secondary faults with
normal separation except those that are rotated to
orientations so that they show apparent reverse
separations. Therefore, the nature of secondary
faults varies with structural position, possibly within
the same layer, and the orientations of individual
secondary faults cannot always be used to infer
whether the underlying faults will be normal, vertical, or reverse faults. However, the overall distribution of secondary faults and the dips of the
bounding axial surfaces provide an indication of the
dip of the underlying faults.

COMPARISON WITH NATURAL STRUCTURES

This section describes four natural examples of
basement-involved structures with different interpreted dips of the basement faults (Figure 10). Although there are differences between the natural
examples and the experimental models, a number
of the characteristic features in the models are replicated in these examples, whereas others can be
predicted using the models.
The Spring Creek anticline in the Bighorn Basin
(Peterson, 1983) is an example of a basementinvolved structure related to a moderately dipping
basement thrust fault. The cross section shown in
Figure 10A is modified from Peterson (1983) and
based on surface data, and data from five projected
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wells, one of which drills through the entire deformation zone. The main thrust fault makes an
angle of 50 with the footwall and 40 with the
hanging wall, for an average basement fault angle
of 45 (compare with Figure 4C). The forelimb
deformation zone is made up of a series of three
minor thrust faults with progressively decreasing
dips from the anticlinal to the synclinal axial surface. Two out-of-syncline faults propagate from the
synclinal hinge toward the structure to accommodate the layer-parallel shortening that occurs in the
vicinity of the synclinal hinge. The bounding anticlinal and synclinal axial surfaces dip in the same
direction as the main fault, and the angle between
the two surfaces is approximately 35. Because the
structural relief of the basement is less than onefourth of the thickness of the sedimentary cover,
all of the secondary thrust faults die out within the
Cretaceous sequence and do not propagate to the
surface.
The Grass Creek structure (Figure 10B) in the
Bighorn Basin (Mitra and Mount, 1998) is associated with a reverse fault, making an angle of 69
with basement in the footwall, and 55 with the
hanging wall for an average angle of 62 (compare
with Figure 4E). The shallow dip of the hangingwall block may be related to a change in the dip of
the master fault at depth or the regional dip in this
area related to a larger first-order structure. Surface
dips and the interpreted subsurface geometry suggest a progressive decrease in dip from the fault
zone to the surface within a triangular deformation
zone. No data are available to document the number of secondary faults in the deformation zones;
however, based on the experimental models, it can
be postulated that a number of these faults are
probably present. The angle between the bounding anticlinal and synclinal axial planes is approximately 30 and similar to what might be predicted
from the experimental model (Figure 4E). Because
the basement throw is approximately or less than
one-half the thickness of the sedimentary cover
above it, no major faults crop out at the surface
within the deformation zone.
The Owl Creek structure in central Wyoming
shows considerable variation in geometry along
trend, and a number of models have been proposed

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Figure 10. Examples of basement involved structures related to different master fault geometries. (A) Spring Creek anticline from the
Bighorn Basin related to a moderately dipping reverse fault (modified from Peterson, 1983). (B) Grass Creek structure from the Bighorn
Basin related to a steep reverse fault (modified from Mitra and Mount, 1998). (C) Owl Creek uplift from the Boysen Dam area related to a
very steep master fault with an upthrust geometry (modified from Wise, 1963). (D) Extensional fault-propagation fold from the Gulf of
Suez exposed at the surface (modified from Withjack et al., 1990). Parts of the structure have been interpreted by Jin and Groshong
(2006). Axial surfaces are interpreted in this study. PC = Precambrian; PKn = Nubian; Kum = Upper Cretaceous limestone and shale;
Kuc = Upper Cretaceous and Paleocene limestone and shale; Te = Eocene limestone.

for this structure. In the Boysen Dam section in the

Wind River Canyon (Wise, 1963), the structure
most closely approaches an upthrust structure
(Prucha et al., 1965), related to a steeply dipping
master fault, with dips exceeding 70 (Figure 10C).
The interpretation by Wise (1963) suggests that the
main fault branches into a number of shallowingupward secondary reverse faults. However, close
to the anticlinal axial surface, a number of normal
faults are also present, most of which dip toward
the deformation zone. The most important of these
is the Boysen fault, which also marks the approximate location of the anticlinal axial surface (compare with Figure 8A). The anticlinal and synclinal
axial surfaces dip in opposite directions, and the

angle between them is approximately 80. Because

the structural relief is very high compared with the
thickness of the sedimentary basin, the deformation zone extends into the basement, and both the
major and a large number of the secondary faults
are exposed at the surface. The Golden fault in the
Soda Lake area of the Colorado frontal zone, documented by Berg (1962), shows a very similar geometry and characteristic features.
A surface structure from the Gulf of Suez
(Figure 10D, modified from Withjack et al., 1990;
Jin and Groshong, 2006) provides a good example
of an extensional fault-propagation fold developed
above a normal fault. The fault dips at approximately
63 and has cut through the already developing fold,
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resulting in dipping panels adjacent to the fault in

both the hanging wall and footwall. The structure is
bounded by anticlinal and synclinal axial surfaces
that separate it from the regionally dipping strata.
The structure is reconstructed on the basis of sparse
surface data. The experimental models (Figure 8C)
suggest that a number of secondary normal faults
are likely to be present in both the hanging wall
and footwall within the trishear deformation zone.

CONCLUSIONS
Deformation of a weak sedimentary cover above a
faulted rigid unit results in the formation of triangular deformation zones. Within the deformation
zone, units closer to the rigid basement undergo
deformation over a narrower zone than the units
higher up. This is reflected in generally steeper bed
dips and higher fault densities in the basal units,
and lower bed dips and lower fault densities in the
upper units. The deformation zone in all cases
widens with time instead of being confined between
fixed and locked hinges, so that new material is
incorporated into the deformation zone with ongoing deformation. Although deformation at any
stage occurs over a fairly wide zone, most of the
deformation is localized within a central zone of
upward propagating faults. The width of the deformation zone and the shapes of the axial surfaces
are dependent on the dip of the fault. Faults with
gentler dips generally result in wider deformation
zones and more curvilinear bounding axial surfaces.
The anticlinal axial surface dips in an opposite direction to the synclinal axial surface for vertical
faults and normal faults.
Particle paths show a convex upward path,
suggesting movement across the projection of the
fault from the anticlinal to the synclinal area. The
paths indicate larger movements close to the anticlinal axial surfaces for reverse faults and closer to
the synclinal axial surface for normal faults.
The separation associated with the secondary
faults also varies with structural position and the
master fault dip. Low-angle reverse faults show reverse or thrust separation on secondary faults near
the synclinal axial surface. Vertical faults exhibit
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vertical or reverse faults, whereas normal faults

exhibit normal separation of all faults, except those
that are rotated to orientations so that they show
apparent reverse separations. Therefore, the nature
of secondary faults varies with structural position,
possibly within the same layer, and the orientations
of individual secondary faults cannot always be used
to infer whether the underlying faults will be normal, vertical, or reverse faults. However, the distribution of secondary faults, the orientations of the
axial surfaces and the angle between them, and the
width of the deformation provide an indication of
the dip of the overall structural geometry and the
dip of the underlying major faults.

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