Temperature Measurement & control

Introduction:

The purpose of this project is to measure the temperature, display it on

LCD & also control the temperature through on or off any 220V device
like AC or heater.
This project is divided into two sections (a) Hardware and (b) Software.
In hardware section I have made a microcontroller kit, which is interfaced
with Analog to Digital converter (ADC), LCD, three switches keypad and
relay through isolator circuit. In software section I have made a program
code for measuring Temperature and displaying it on LCD and then
comparing it with the preset value. The program code is written in high
level language “embedded c” with the help of Keil compiler.
Block Diagram of the Project:
Various modules of the project are shown in the block diagram given
below:

LCD
TEMPERATURE POWER
SENSOR SUPPLY1

ADC MICROCONTROLLER
UNIT SWITCH PANEL

SOCKET
ISOLATOR

POWER
RELAY AMPLIFIER SUPPLY2
Interfacing with switches (keypad):
Interfacing with keypad makes instrument menu driven user friendly.
This will help to the user to select the preset temperature and also to
move to the measurement stage.
Interfacing with LCD
LCD makes this instrument user friendly by displaying everything on the
display. It is an intelligent LCD module, as it has inbuilt controller which
convert the alphabet and digit into its ASCII code and then display it by
its own i.e. we do not required to specify which LCD combination must
glow for a particular alphabet or digit.
Interfacing with Analog to Digital Converter
The analog to digital converter takes the input from the sensor which is in
analog form. It takes 0V for 0 digital level and take 5V for 1 digital level.
555 Timer is used to provide clock to ADC.
Temperature Sensor:
For continuous temperature monitoring applications, time response is less
concern, sensors that remain in place for long periods can achieve a
relatively steady state because actual temperature changes slowly.
The sensor type most commonly used for medical applications is the
thermistor. A thermistor is a thermally sensitive resistor, whose resistance
alters markedly with changes of its ambient temperature. Thermistors are
composites of selected metal oxides characterized by large negative
temperature-coefficients and high sensitivity i.e. resistance decreases with
increasing temperature. In practice, a thermistor designed for use in a
body temperature probe might consist of a small bead of semiconductor
material sealed into the tip of a thin glass envelope for protection.
Platinum leads are fused into the bead and led out of the envelope. The
bead material could consist of a mixture of nickel, cobalt and manganese
oxides fused together in a furnace. A typical bead resistance might be
2000 ohms at 20 degrees Celsius which would fall to 1400 ohms at 40
degree Celsius, the variation of the thermistor resistance with temperature
is inherently non linear. Thermistor sensors now in use clinically are
typically specified as accurate to within 0.2oC to 37oC.
Thermistors are non-linear. In addition, the outputs of these sensors are
not linearly proportional to any temperature scale. Early monolithic
sensor such as LM 3911, LM134 and LM135 over come these difficulties
but their outputs are related to Kelvin temperature scale.
In this circuit LM35 precision centigrade temperature has been used as
temperature sensor.
Switching of 220V device:
ON/OFF switching of a 220V device is controlled by the Microcontroller.
Device is isolated from Microcontroller by optocoupler and is connected
through Relay. Switching of mains is done, by using relays. Temperature
is compared with the preset desired value. If temperature is greater than
the required value then the relay corresponding to the ‘AC’ is made ON
by the MCU and the relay corresponding to the ‘HEATER’ is made OFF
by the MCU. If the temperature is less than the desired temperature then
reverse is done by the MCU.

Features of the Project:

• Powered by +5 volt, 12volt supply

• Current consumption 0.45mA for Microcontroller circuit, 0.75mA for
switching circuit, 200mA for amplification circuit
• User interface using LCD and switches
• Maintenance of the temperature at the desired value through on/off an
AC or Heater
Various Components used in various Modules of the Project along
with specifications and quantity:
Power Supply Unit1 (+5V):

S. No. Component Specification Qty.

1. PCB Designed 1
2. Transformer 9-0-9, 500mA 1
3. Diode 1N4007 4
4. Cap. 1000 µF 1
5. Regulator 7805 1

Power Supply Unit2 (+12V):

S. No. Component Specification Qty.

1. PCB Designed 1
2. Transformer 9-0-9, 500mA 1
3. Diode 1N4007 4
4. Cap. 1000 µF 1
5. Regulator 7812 1

Microcontroller Unit:

S. No. Component Specification Qty.

1. PCB Designed 1
2. Base 40 Pin 1
3. Crystal 11.0592MHZ 1
4. Cap. 33 PF 2
10µF 1
5. MCU AT89s52 1
6. Micro switch 1
7. Resistance 10K Ω 1

LCD Module:

S. No. Component Specification Qty.

1. LCD Connector 16 Pin 1
2. LCD 16 x 2 1

Switching Circuit:
S. No. Component Specification Qty.
1. PCB Designed 1
2. Base 6 Pin 2
3. Optocoupler 817 2
4. Resistance 470Ω 2
5. Transistor 369 2
6. Relay 12V 2
7. Extension 2 pin 1

Keypad Module:

S. No. Component Specification Qty.

1. PCB G.P.PCB 1
2. Micro Switches 2 Pin 3
ADC Module:

S. No. Component Specification Qty.

1. PCB Designed (FT4) 1
2. Base 28 Pin 1
8 Pin 1
3. IC ADC 0808 1
4. IC Timer 555 1
5. Temp. Sensor LM35 1
6. Resistance 1K Ω 2
7. Capacitor 103 (0.01 µF) 2

Detailed Hardware Description:

Sensor for temperature measurement (LM35):

General Description
The LM35 series are precision integrated-circuit temperature sensors,
whose output voltage is linearly proportional to the Celsius (Centigrade)
temperature. The LM35 thus has an advantage over linear temperature
sensors calibrated in ° Kelvin, as the user is not required to subtract a
large constant voltage from its output to obtain convenient Centigrade
scaling. The LM35 does not require any external calibration or trimming
to provide typical accuracies of ±1⁄4°C at room temperature and ±3⁄4°C
over a full −55 to +150°C temperature range. Low cost is assured by
trimming and calibration at the wafer level. The LM35’s low output
impedance, linear output, and precise inherent calibration make
interfacing to readout or control circuitry especially easy. It can be used
with single power supplies, or with plus and minus supplies. As it draws
only 60 μA from its supply, it has very low self-heating, less than 0.1°C
in still air. The LM35 is rated to operate over a −55° to +150°C
temperature range, while the LM35C is rated for a −40° to +110°C range
(−10° with improved accuracy). The LM35 series is available packaged
in hermetic TO-46 transistor packages, while the LM35C, LM35CA, and
LM35D are also available in the plastic TO-92 transistor package. The
LM35D is also available in an 8-lead surface mount small outline
package and a plastic TO-220 package.

Features:
• Calibrated directly in ° Celsius (Centigrade)
• Linear + 10.0 mV/°C scale factor
• 0.5°C accuracy guarantee able (at +25°C)
• Rated for full −55° to +150°C range
• Suitable for remote applications
• Low cost due to wafer-level trimming
• Operates from 4 to 30 volts
• Less than 60 μA current drain
• Low self-heating, 0.08°C in still air
• Nonlinearity only ±1⁄4°C typical
• Low impedance output, 0.1 W for 1 mA load

Typical Applications:
 Basic Centigrade temperature sensor
(+2°C to +150°C)

Full-Range Centigrade Temperature Sensor

A/D converter
As the output signal from the transducer LM35 is in analog form and the
data can be fed to the controller in digital form only so an analog to
digital converter is to be used. The A/D conversion is a quantizing
process where by an analog signal is represented by equivalent binary
states. A/D converter can be classified into two groups based on
conversion technique.
One technique involves comparing a given analog signal with the
internally generated equivalent signal. This group includes Successive
approximation Register, counter and Flash type converters.
The second technique involves changing an analog signal into time or
frequency and comparing these parameters to known values. This group
includes Integrator and Voltage to Frequency Converters.
First type is used for data loggers and instrumentation, while the second
type is used in digital meters, panel meters and monitoring system.
Successive Approximation A/D converter (ADC0808)
This is the most popular method of analog to digital conversion. It has an
excellent compromise between accuracy and speed. An unknown voltage
Vin is compared with a fraction of reference voltage, Vr For n-bit digital
output , comparison is made in times with different fractions of Vr and the
value of a particular bit is set to 1, if Vin is greater than the set fraction of
Vr. It includes three major elements

 The D/A converter.

 The successive Approximation Register.
 The comparator.

The ADC0808 data acquisition component is a monolithic CMOS device

with an 8 bit analog-to-digital converter, 8-channel multiplexer and
microprocessor compatible control logic. The 8-bit A/D converter uses
successive approximation as the conversion technique. The converter
features a high impedance chopper stabilized comparator, a voltage
divider with analog switch tree and a successive approximation register.
The 8–channel multiplexer can directly access any of 8-single-ended
analog signals. The device eliminates the need for external zero and full –
scale adjustments. Easy interfacing to microprocessors is provided by the
latched and decoded multiplexer address inputs and latched TTL TRI-
STATE outputs.

The design of the ADC0808 has been optimized by incorporating the

most desirable aspects of several A/D conversion Techniques. The
ADC0808, ADC0809 offers high speed. High accuracy, minimal
temperature dependence, excellent long-term accuracy and repeatability,
and consumes minimal power. These features make this device ideally
suited to applications from process and machine control to consumer and
automotive applications.
Key specifications

 Easy interface to all microprocessors.

 Operates with 5 V DC.
 Adjusted voltage reference.
 No zero or full scale adjust required.
 8-channel multiplexer with address logic.
 0V to 5V input range with single 4V power supply.
 Outputs meet TTL voltage level specifications.
 Resolution 8 Bits.
 Total Unadjusted Error = ½ LSB.
 Single supply 5 V DC.
 Low Power 15m W, conversion time 100µ s.

Architecture of ADC0808
Clock input
The clock input to the ADC is provided by using a 555 TIMER. The
LM555 is a highly stable device for generating accurate time delays or
oscillation. Additional terminals are provided for triggering or resetting if
desired. For astable operation as an oscillator, the free running frequency
and duty cycle are accurately controlled with two external resistors and
one capacitor. The circuit may be triggered and reset on falling
waveforms, and the output circuit can source or ink up to 200mA or drive
TTL circuits.

Astable Operation

If the circuit is connected as shown in Figure (pins 2 and 6 connected) it

will trigger itself and free run as a multivibrator. The external capacitor
charges through RA+ RB and discharges through RB. Thus the duty cycle
may be precisely set by the ratio of these two resistors. In this mode of
operation, the capacitor charges and discharges between 1/3 VCC and 2/3
VCC. The time during which the capacitor charges from 1/3 Vcc to 2/3
Vcc is equal to the time the output is high and is given by:

tc= 0.69 (RA+RB)C ………1

Where RA and RB are in ohms and C is in farads. Similarly, the time

during which the capacitor discharges from 2/3 Vcc to 1/3 Vcc is equal to
the time the output is low is given by:

td= 0.69 (RB)C ………2

As in the triggered mode, the charge and discharge times, and therefore
the frequency are independent of the supply voltage.
Thus the total period is

T=tc+td= 0.69 (RA+2RB) C ………3

The frequency of oscillation:

1 1.44
f = = ………4
T ( RA + 2 RB ) C

The duty cycle is the ratio of the time during which the output is high to
the total time period T.

Diagram of 555 timer in astable mode

555Timer:
The 8-pin 555 timer must be one of the most useful ICs ever made and it
is used in many projects. With just a few external components it can be
used to build many circuits, not all of them involve timing!

A popular version is the NE555 and this is suitable in most cases where a
'555 timer' is specified. The 556 is a dual version of the 555 housed in a
14-pin package, the two timers (A and B) share the same power supply
pins. The circuit diagrams on this page show a 555, but they could all be
adapted to use one half of a 556.

Low power versions of the 555 are made, such as the ICM7555, but these
should only be used when specified (to increase battery life) because their
maximum output current of about 20mA (with a 9V supply) is too low for
many standard 555 circuits. The ICM7555 has the same pin arrangement
as a standard 555.

The circuit symbol for a 555 (and 556) is a box with the pins arranged to
suit the circuit diagram: for example 555 pin 8 at the top for the +Vs
supply, 555 pin 3 output on the right. Usually just the pin numbers are
used and they are not labeled with their function.

The 555 and 556 can be used with a supply voltage (Vs) in the range 4.5
to 15V (18V absolute maximum).
Standard 555 and 556 ICs create a significant 'glitch' on the supply when
their output changes state. This is rarely a problem in simple circuits with
no other ICs, but in more complex circuits a smoothing capacitor (eg
100µF) should be connected across the +Vs and 0V supply near the 555
or 556.

The input and output pin functions are described briefly below and there
are fuller explanations covering the various circuits:

• Astable - producing a square wave

• Monostable - producing a single pulse when triggered
• Bistable - a simple memory which can be set and reset
• Buffer - an inverting buffer (Schmitt trigger)

Inputs of 555/556

Trigger input: when < 1/3 Vs ('active low') this makes the output high
(+Vs). It monitors the discharging of the timing capacitor in an astable
circuit. It has a high input impedance > 2M .

Threshold input: when > 2/3 Vs ('active high') this makes the output low
(0V)*. It monitors the charging of the timing capacitor in astable and
monostable circuits. It has a high input impedance > 10M .
* providing the trigger input is > 1/3 Vs, otherwise the trigger input will
override the threshold input and hold the output high (+Vs).
 Reset input: when less than about 0.7V ('active low') this makes the
output low (0V), overriding other inputs. When not required it should be
connected to +Vs. It has an input impedance of about 10k .

Control input: this can be used to adjust the threshold voltage which is
set internally to be 2/3 Vs. Usually this function is not required and the
control input is connected to 0V with a 0.01µF capacitor to eliminate
electrical noise. It can be left unconnected if noise is not a problem.

The discharge pin is not an input, but it is listed here for convenience. It
is connected to 0V when the timer output is low and is used to discharge
the timing capacitor in astable and monostable circuits.

Output of 555/556
The output of a standard 555 or 556 can sink and source up to 200mA.
This is more than most ICs and it is sufficient to supply many output
transducers directly, including LEDs (with a resistor in series), low
current lamps, piezo transducers, loudspeakers (with a capacitor in
series), relay coils (with diode protection) and some motors (with diode
protection). The output voltage does not quite reach 0V and +Vs,
especially if a large current is flowing.

To switch larger currents you can connect a transistor.

The ability to both sink and source current means that two devices can be
connected to the output so that one is on when the output is low and the
other is on when the output is high. The diagram shows two LEDs
connected in this way. This arrangement is used in the Disco Lights
project to make the LEDs flash alternately.
 555 astable output, a square wave
(Tm and Ts may be different)
555/556 Astable
An astable circuit produces a
'square wave', this is a digital
waveform with sharp transitions
between low (0V) and high (+Vs).
Note that the durations of the low
and high states may be different.
The circuit is called an astable
because it is not stable in any 555 astable circuit

state: the output is continually

changing between 'low' and 'high'.

The time period (T) of the square wave is the time for one complete
cycle, but it is usually better to consider frequency (f) which is the
number of cycles per second.

1.4
T = 0.7 × (R1 + 2R2) × C1 and f =
(R1 + 2R2) × C1

T = time period in seconds (s)

f = frequency in hertz (Hz)
R1 = resistance in ohms ( )
R2 = resistance in ohms ( )
C1 = capacitance in farads (F)
The time period can be split into two parts: T = Tm + Ts
Mark time (output high): Tm = 0.7 × (R1 + R2) × C1
Space time (output low): Ts = 0.7 × R2 × C1

Many circuits require Tm and Ts to be almost equal; this is achieved if

R2 is much larger than R1.

For a standard astable circuit Tm cannot be less than Ts, but this is not
too restricting because the output can both sink and source current. For
example an LED can be made to flash briefly with long gaps by
connecting it (with its resistor) between +Vs and the output. This way the
LED is on during Ts, so brief flashes are achieved with R1 larger than
R2, making Ts short and Tm long. If Tm must be less than Ts a diode can
be added to the circuit as explained under duty cycle below.
555 astable frequencies
R2 = 10k R2 = 100k R2 = 1M
C1
Choosing R1, R2 and R1 = 1k R1 = 10k R1 = 100k
C1 0.001µF 68kHz 6.8kHz 680Hz
R1 and R2 should be in the 0.01µF 6.8kHz 680Hz 68Hz
0.1µF 680Hz 68Hz 6.8Hz
range 1k to 1M . It is
1µF 68Hz 6.8Hz 0.68Hz
best to choose C1 first 0.68Hz 0.068Hz
10µF 6.8Hz
(41 per min.) (4 per min.)
because capacitors are
available in just a few values.

• Choose C1 to suit the frequency range you require (use the table as
a guide).
• Choose R2 to give the frequency (f) you require. Assume that R1
is much smaller than R2 (so that Tm and Ts are almost equal), then
you can use:
0.7
R2 =
f × C1
• Choose R1 to be about a tenth of R2 (1k min.) unless you want
the mark time Tm to be significantly longer than the space time Ts.
• If you wish to use a variable resistor it is best to make it R2.
 • If R1 is variable it must have a fixed resistor of at least 1k in
series
(this is not required for R2 if it is variable).

Astable operation
With the output high (+Vs) the capacitor C1 is charged by current
flowing through R1 and R2. The threshold and trigger inputs monitor the
capacitor voltage and when it reaches 2/3Vs (threshold voltage) the output
becomes low and the discharge pin is connected to 0V.

The capacitor now discharges with current flowing through R2 into the
discharge pin. When the voltage falls to 1/3Vs (trigger voltage) the output
becomes high again and the discharge pin is disconnected, allowing the
capacitor to start charging again.

This cycle repeats continuously unless the reset input is connected to 0V

which forces the output low while reset is 0V.

An astable can be used to provide the clock signal for circuits such as
counters.
A low frequency astable (< 10Hz) can be used to flash an LED on and
off, higher frequency flashes are too fast to be seen clearly. Driving a
loudspeaker or piezo transducer with a low frequency of less than 20Hz
will produce a series of 'clicks' (one for each low/high transition) and this
can be used to make a simple metronome.

An audio frequency astable (20Hz to 20kHz) can be used to produce a

sound from a loudspeaker or piezo transducer. The sound is suitable for
buzzes and beeps. The natural (resonant) frequency of most piezo
transducers is about 3kHz and this will make them produce a particularly
loud sound.

Duty cycle

The duty cycle of an astable circuit is the proportion of the complete

cycle for which the output is high (the mark time). It is usually given as a
percentage.

For a standard 555/556 astable circuit the mark time (Tm) must be greater
than the space time (Ts), so the duty cycle must be at least 50%:

Tm R1 + R2
Duty cycle = =
Tm + Ts R1 + 2R2
555/556 Monostable
A monostable circuit produces a single output pulse when triggered. It is
called a monostable because it is stable in just one state: 'output low'. The
'output high' state is temporary.

555 monostable out, a single pulse

555 monostable circuit with manual trigger

The duration of the pulse is called the time period (T) and this is
determined by resistor R1 and capacitor C1:

time period, T = 1.1 × R1 × C1

T = time period in seconds (s)

R1 = resistance in ohms ( )
C1 = capacitance in farads (F)
The maximum reliable time period is about 10 minutes.

Why 1.1? The capacitor charges to 2/3 = 67% so it is a bit longer than the
time constant (R1 × C1) which is the time taken to charge to 63%.
 • Choose C1 first (there are relatively few values available).
• Choose R1 to give the time period you need. R1 should be in the
range 1k to 1M , so use a fixed resistor of at least 1k in series if
R1 is variable.
• Beware that electrolytic capacitor values are not accurate, errors of
at least 20% are common.
• Beware that electrolytic capacitors leak charge which substantially
increases the time period if you are using a high value resistor - use
the formula as only a very rough guide!

Monostable operation

The timing period is triggered (started) when the trigger input (555 pin 2)
is less than 1/3 Vs, this makes the output high (+Vs) and the capacitor C1
starts to charge through resistor R1. Once the time period has started
further trigger pulses are ignored.

The threshold input (555 pin 6) monitors the voltage across C1 and when
this reaches 2/3 Vs the time period is over and the output becomes low. At
the same time discharge (555 pin 7) is connected to 0V, discharging the
capacitor ready for the next trigger.
The reset input (555 pin 4) overrides all other inputs and the timing may
be cancelled at any time by connecting reset to 0V, this instantly makes
the output low and discharges the capacitor. If the reset function is not
required the reset pin should be connected to +Vs.

SWITCHING CIRCUIT FOR MAINS

OPTOISOLATOR
IC (MCT- 2E)

POWER AMPLIFIER
USING BC369
TRANSISTOR

ELECTROMAGNETIC
RELAY

SOCKET

The switching circuit is comprises of an optocoupler which will isolate

the controller from the outer spikes or fluctuations or from the external
hardware and at the same time it drives a power transistor i.e. make it on
when a signal from the controller pin is applied to it. Optocoupler
actually comprises of a diode and a phototransistor. It comes in a DIP IC
package. Thus signal from the MCU is given to the LED part or the
driving part. When LED begins to glow then the phototransistor acts as
on switch or short circuit. This output is given to power transistor, which
will amplify the current of the signal and then use it to drive a relay. Now
from the mains one wire is directly connected to the room normally this is
the neutral wire and the other wire i.e. is the phase wire is given to the
relay and then from the relay given to the socket. Thus before the
switchboard of a room the phase has to pass through a relay.

If MCU wants to switch ON the device, then microcontroller sends a low

signal to the optocoupler then the relay will get on and ultimately the
switch panel is provided with phase voltage. Reverse is the case when
MCU does not send any signal and thus, not any phase will be available
at the switchboard.

Optocoupler:

It has one IR LED and a photo- transistor. One pin of the LED is connected to the
MCU to get a signal (0 or 1) and the pin is given ground. When the signal from the
MCU is 0, then LED emits light. This light will turn on the NPN transistor. Emitter of
the transistor is grounded. Collector is connected to the PNP transistor whose emitter
is connected to Vcc and collector to the relay.
The purpose of using the optocouplers is to pass the supply from the
PC/MCU to the appliances & is for isolation of the port of the PC/MCU
from an external hardware. The voltage signal from the PC/MCU is being
converted into light by the LED and then further converted into voltage
by the phototransistor. This ensures that there is no physical connection
between the PC and the appliances. The signal from the PC/MCU is
coupled only through light so that if in any case the external hardware (
in this case :appliances) produces an error voltage it will not be passed
over to the port of the PC/MCU and will not damage the internal
circuitry of the PC/MCU.

MCT-2E Pin Diagram

Pin no. Function

1 Anode
2 Cathode
3 NC
4 Emitter
5 Collector
6 Base

The MCT2XXX series optoisolators consist of a gallium arsenide

infrared emitting diode driving a silicon phototransistor in a 6-pin dual in-
line package. There is no electrical connection between the two, just a
beam of light. The light emitter is nearly always an LED. The light
sensitive device may be a photodiode, phototransistor, or more esoteric
devices such as thyristors, triacs etc. To carry a signal across the isolation
barrier, optocouplers are operated in linear mode.

Pin Description of MCT2E

The IC package may also be called an IC or a chip. It is important to note

that each type of optocoupler may use different pin assignments. For
carrying a linear signal across isolation barrier there are two types of
optocouplers. Both types use an infrared light emitting diode (LED) to
generate and send a light signal across an isolation barrier. The difference
is in the detection method. Some optocouplers use a phototransistor
detector while others use a photodiode detector which drives the base of a
transistor.
The phototransistor detector uses the transistors collector base
junction to detect the light signal. This necessitates that the base area be
relatively large compared to a standard transistor. The result is a large
collector to base capacitance which slows the collector rise time and
limits the effective frequency response of the device. In addition the
amplified photocurrent flows in the collector base junction and modulates
the response of the transistor to the photons. This cause the transistor to
behave in a non-linear manner. Typical phototransistor gains range from
100 to 1000.
The photodiode/transistor detector combination on the other hand
uses a diode to detect the photons and convert them to a current to drive
the transistor base. The transistor no longer has a large base area. The
response of this pair is not affected by amplified photocurrent and the
photodiode capacitance does not impair speed.

Optocoupler Operation:
 Optocouplers are good devices for conveying analog information
across a power supply isolation barrier, they operate over a wide
temperature range and are often safety agency approved they do,
however, have many unique operating considerations.
Optocouplers are current input and current output devices. The
input LED is excited by changes in drive current and maintains a
relatively constant forward voltage. The output is a current which is
proportional to the input current. The output current can easily be
converted to a voltage through a pull-up or load resistor.

Applications:
• AC mains detection
• Reed relay driving
• Switch mode power supply feedback
• Telephone ring detection
• Logic ground isolation
• Logic coupling with high frequency noise rejection.

Features:
• Interfaces with common logic families
• Input-output coupling capacitance < 0.5 pF
• Industry Standard Dual-in line 6-pin package
• 5300 VRMS isolation test voltage
• Lead-free component

Optocoupler (817)

Description
The HCPL-817 contains a light emitting diode optically coupled to a
phototransistor. It is packaged in a 4-pin DIP package and available in
wide-lead spacing option. Input-output isolation voltage is 5000 Vrms.
Response time (tr), is typically 4 ms and minimum CTR (Current transfer
ratio) is 50% at input current of 5 mA.

Electromagnetic Relay

A relay is simply an electrically operated on/off switch. The relay

used in this hardware circuit is SPDT (single pole double throw) relay.
Short circuit and other abnormal conditions often occur on a power
system. The heavy current associated with short circuit is likely to cause
damage to equipment if suitable protective relays and circuit breakers are
not provided for the protection of each section of power system. If a fault
occurs in an element of power system, an automatic protective device is
needed to isolate the faulty equipment as quickly as possible to keep the
healthy section of the system in normal operation.
The electromagnetic relay consists of a multi-turn coil, wound on
an iron core, to form an electromagnet. When the coil is energized, by
passing current through it, the core becomes temporarily magnetized.
The magnetized core attracts the iron armature. The armature is pivoted
which causes it to operate one or more sets of contacts. When the coil is
de-energized the armature and contacts are released.
The coil can be energized from a low power source such as a
transistor while the contacts can switch high powers such as the mains
supply. The relay can also be situated remotely from the control source.
Relays can generate a very high voltage across the coil when switched
off. This can damage other components in the circuit. To prevent this
diode is connected across the coil. The cathode of the diode is connected
to the most positive end of the coil.

Electromagnetic Relay

Normally closed

Normally open

Changeover

Relay Contacts
 The spring sets (contacts) can be a mixture of N.O. N.C. and C.O.
various coil operating voltages (ac and dc) are available. The actual
contact points on the spring sets are available for high current and low
current operation.

There are two different kinds of contacts:

NO normally open: The contacts are open until the coil of the relay is
energized, whereupon they are closed to complete the outside circuit
NC normally closed: The contacts are closed until the coil of the relay is
energized, whereupon they are opened to break the outside circuit,
switching it off.
Many relays have multiple contacts, half of which are NO and half
NC. Relays are electromagnetic devices which have a certain amount of
inductance .When they are turned off; the collapse of the magnetic field
can produce a momentary “spike” of high reverse voltage that can wreck
a transistor or integrated circuit. Therefore a reverse biased diode is
placed in parallel to short out the voltage spike, thereby protecting the
circuit.

Diode Used As Protective Circuit

Advantages of Relays:
 • Relays can switch AC and DC, transistors can only switch DC.
• Relays can switch high voltages, transistors cannot.
• Relays are a better choice for switching large currents (> 5A).

Relays can switch many contacts at once.

Power Transistor (BC 369):

• High current gain

• High collector current
• Low collector-emitter saturation voltage
• Complementary type: BC 368 (NPN)

POWER SUPPLY
Power supplies are designed to convert high voltage AC mains to a
suitable low voltage supply for electronics circuits and other devices.
A power supply can be broken down into a series of blocks, each of
which performs a particular function.

For example a 5V regulated supply:

Each of the block has its own function as described

below
1. Transformer – steps down high voltage AC mains to low voltage

AC.
2. Rectifier – converts AC to DC, but the DC output is varying.

3. Smoothing – smoothes the DC from varying greatly to a small

ripple.
4. Regulator – eliminates ripple by setting DC output to a fixed

voltage.

TRANSFORMER

Transformers convert AC electricity from one voltage to another

with little loss of power. Transformers work only with AC and
this is one of the reasons why mains electricity is AC. The two
types of transformers

• Step-up transformers increase voltage,

 • Step-down transformers reduce voltage.

Transformer

Most power supplies use a step-down transformer to

reduce the dangerously high mains voltage (230V in UK) to
a safer low voltage. The input coil is called the primary
and the output coil is called the secondary. There is no
electrical connection between the two coils, instead they are
linked by an alternating magnetic field created in the soft-
iron core of the transformer. The two lines in the middle of the
circuit symbol represent the core.
Transformers waste very little power so the power out is (almost) equal to
the power in. Note that as voltage is stepped down current is stepped up.
The ratio of the number of turns on each coil, called the turn ratio,
determines the ratio of the voltages. A step-down transformer has a large
number of turns on its primary (input) coil which is connected to the
high voltage mains supply, and a small number of turns on its
secondary (output) coil to give a low output voltage.

Turns ratio = Vp = Np
Vs Ns
 And Power Out = Power In

Vs × Is = Vp × Ip

Where

Vp = primary (input) voltage

Np = number of turns on primary coil

Ip = primary (input) current

Ns = number of turns on secondary coil

Is = secondary (output) current

Vs = secondary (output) voltage

BRIDGE RECTIFIER

A bridge rectifier can be made using four individual diodes, but it is also

available in special packages containing the four diodes required. It is

called a full-wave rectifier because it uses all AC wave (both positive and

negative sections). 1.4V is used up in the bridge rectifier because each

diode uses 0.7V when conducting and there are always two diodes

conducting, as shown in the diagram below. Bridge rectifiers are rated by

the maximum current they can pass and the maximum reverse voltage

they can withstand (this must be at least three times the supply RMS

voltage so the rectifier can withstand the peak voltages). In this alternate
pairs of diodes conduct, changing over the connections so the alternating

directions of AC are converted to the one direction of DC.

OUTPUT – Full-wave Varying DC

SMOOTHING
Smoothing is performed by a large value electrolytic capacitor
connected across the DC supply to act as a reservoir, supplying current to
the output when the varying DC voltage from the rectifier is falling.
The diagram shows the unsmoothed varying DC (dotted line) and the
smoothed DC (solid line). The capacitor charges quickly near the peak of
the varying DC, and then discharges as it supplies current to the output.
Note that smoothing significantly increases the average DC voltage to
almost the peak value (1.4 × RMS value). For example 6V RMS AC is
rectified to full wave DC of about 4.6V RMS (1.4V is lost in the
bridge rectifier), with smoothing this increases to almost the peak value
giving 1.4 × 4.6 = 6.4V smooth DC.
Smoothing is not perfect due to the capacitor voltage falling a little as it
discharges, giving a small ripple voltage. For many circuits a ripple
which is 10% of the supply voltage is satisfactory and the equation
below gives the required value for the smoothing capacitor. A larger
capacitor will give fewer ripples. The capacitor value must be doubled
when smoothing half-wave DC.
Smoothing capacitor for 10% ripple, C = 5 × Io
Vs × f

Where

C = smoothing capacitance in farads (F)

Io = output current from the supply in amps (A)

Vs = supply voltage in volts (V), this is the peak value of the unsmoothed
DC

f = frequency of the AC supply in hertz (Hz), 50Hz in the UK

REGULATOR

Voltage regulator ICs are available with fixed (typically 5, 12 and 15V)
or variable output voltages. They are also rated by the maximum current
they can pass. Negative voltage regulators are available, mainly for use in
dual supplies. Most regulators include some automatic protection from
excessive current (‘overload protection') and overheating (‘thermal
protection'). Many of the fixed voltage regulator ICs has 3 leads and look
like power transistors, such as the 7805 +5V 1A regulator shown on the
right. They include a hole for attaching a heat sink if necessary.

Working of Power Supply

• Transformer

The low voltage AC output is suitable for lamps, heaters and special AC
motors. It is not suitable for electronic circuits unless they include a
rectifier and a smoothing capacitor.
• Transformer + Rectifier

The varying DC output is suitable for lamps, heaters and standard motors.
It is not suitable for electronic circuits unless they include a smoothing
capacitor.
• Transformer + Rectifier + Smoothing

The smooth DC output has a small ripple. It is suitable for most

electronic circuits.

• Transformer + Rectifier + Smoothing + Regulator

 D 1 L M 7 8 0 5
1 N 4 0 0 7 + 5 V
1 2
V I NV O U T

GND
J 1 D 2 1 0 0 0 u f
3
2 g n d C 1

3
1 V
D 3

D 4

The regulated DC output is very smooth with no ripple. It is suitable for

all electronic circuits.

The Microcontroller:

In our day to day life the role of micro-controllers has been immense.

They are used in a variety of applications ranging from home appliances,

FAX machines, Video games, Camera, Exercise equipment, Cellular

phones musical Instruments to Computers, engine control, aeronautics,

security systems and the list goes on.

Microcontroller versus Microprocessors:

What is the difference between a microprocessor and microcontroller?

The microprocessors (such as 8086, 80286, 68000 etc.) contain no RAM,

no ROM and no I/O ports on the chip itself. For this reason they are

referred as general- purpose microprocessors. A system designer using

general- purpose microprocessor must add external RAM, ROM, I/O

ports and timers to make them functional. Although the addition of

external RAM, ROM, and I/O ports make the system bulkier and much

more expensive, they have the advantage of versatility such that the

designer can decide on the amount of RAM, ROM and I/o ports needed

to fit the task at hand. This is the not the case with microcontrollers. A

microcontroller has a CPU (a microprocessor) in addition to the fixed

amount of RAM, ROM, I/O ports, and timers are all embedded together

on the chip: therefore, the designer cannot add any external memory, I/O,

or timer to it. The fixed amount of on chip RAM, ROM, and number of

I/O ports in microcontrollers make them ideal for many applications in

which cost and space are critical. In many applications, for example a TV

remote control, there is no need for the computing power of a 486 or even

a 8086 microprocessor. In many applications, the space it takes, the

power it consumes, and the price per unit are much more critical

considerations than the computing power. These applications most often

require some I/O operations to read signals and turn on and off certain

bits. It is interesting to know that some microcontroller’s manufactures

have gone as far as integrating an ADC and other peripherals into the

microcontrollers.

Microcontrollers for Embedded Systems:

In the literature discussing microprocessors, we often see a term

embedded system. Microprocessors and microcontrollers are widely used

in embedded system products. An embedded product uses a

microprocessor (or microcontroller) to do one task and one task only. A

printer is an example of embedded system since the processor inside it

performs one task only: namely, get data and print it. Contrasting this

with a IBM PC which can be used for a number of applications such as

word processor, print server, network server, video game player, or

internet terminal. Software for a variety of applications can be loaded and

run. Of course the reason a PC can perform myriad tasks is that it has

RAM memory and an operating system that loads the application

software into RAM and lets the CPU run it. In an embedded system, there

is only one application software that is burned into ROM. A PC contains

or is connected to various embedded products such as the keyboard,

printer, modem, disk controller, sound card, CD-ROM driver, mouse and

so on. Each one of these peripherals has a microcontroller inside it that

performs only one task. For example, inside every mouse there is a

microcontroller to perform the task of finding the mouse position and

sending it to the PC.

Although microcontrollers are the preferred choice for many

embedded systems, there are times that a microcontroller is inadequate

for the task. For this reason, in many years the manufacturers for general-

purpose microprocessors have targeted their microprocessor for the high

end of the embedded market.

Introduction to 8051:

In 1981, Intel Corporation introduced an 8-bit microcontroller called the

8051. This microcontroller had 128 bytes of RAM, 4K bytes of on-chip

ROM, two timers, one serial port, and four ports (8-bit) all on a single

chip. The 8051 is an 8-bit processor, meaning the CPU can work on only

8- bit pieces to be processed by the CPU. The 8051 has a total of four I/O

ports, each 8- bit wide. Although 8051 can have a maximum of 64K bytes

of on-chip ROM, many manufacturers put only 4K bytes on the chip.

The 8051 became widely popular after Intel

allowed other manufacturers to make any flavor of the 8051 they please

with the condition that they remain code compatible with the 8051. This

has led to many versions of the 8051 with different speeds and amount of

on-chip ROM marketed by more than half a dozen manufacturers. It is

important to know that although there are different flavors of the 8051,

they are all compatible with the original 8051 as far as the instructions are

concerned. This means that if you write your program for one, it will run

on any one of them regardless of the manufacturer. The major 8051

manufacturers are Intel, Atmel, Dallas Semiconductors, Philips

Corporation, Infineon.

AT89C51 From ATMEL Corporation:

This popular 8051 chip has on-chip ROM in the form of flash memory.

This is ideal for fast development since flash memory can be erased in

seconds compared to twenty minutes or more needed for the earlier

versions of the 8051. To use the AT89C51 to develop a microcontroller-

based system requires a ROM burner that supports flash memory:

However, a ROM eraser is not needed. Notice that in flash memory you

must erase the entire contents of ROM in order to program it again. The

PROM burner does this erasing of flash itself and this is why a separate

burner is not needed. To eliminate the need for a PROM burner Atmel is

working on a version of the AT89C51 that can be programmed by the

serial COM port of the PC.

Atmel Microcontroller AT89C51

Hardware features
  40 pin Ic.
 4 Kbytes of Flash.
 128 Bytes of RAM.
 32 I/O lines.
 Two16-Bit Timer/Counters.
 Five Vector.
 Two-Level Interrupt Architecture.
 Full Duplex Serial Port.
 On Chip Oscillator and Clock Circuitry.

Software features

 Bit Manipulations
 Single Instruction Manipulation
 Separate Program And Data Memory
 4 Bank Of Temporary Registers
 Direct, Indirect, Register and Relative Addressing.

In addition, the AT89C51 is designed with static logic for operation down
to zero frequency and supports two software selectable power saving
modes. The Idle Mode stops the CPU while allowing the RAM,
timer/counters, serial port and interrupt system to continue functioning.
The Power Down Mode saves the RAM contents but freezes the
oscillator disabling all other chip functions until the next hardware reset.

The Atmel Flash devices are ideal for developing, since they can be
reprogrammed easy and fast. If we need more code space for our
application, particularly for developing 89Cxx projects with C language.
Atmel offers a broad range of microcontrollers based on the 8051
architecture, with on-chip Flash program memory.

Interal Architecture of AT89C51

Pin description:
The 89C51 have a total of 40 pins that are dedicated for various functions

such as I/O, RD, WR, address and interrupts. Out of 40 pins, a total of 32

pins are set aside for the four ports P0, P1, P2, and P3, where each port

takes 8 pins. The rest of the pins are designated as V cc, GND, XTAL1,

XTAL, RST, EA, and PSEN. All these pins except PSEN and ALE are

used by all members of the 8051 and 8031 families. In other words, they

must be connected in order for the system to work, regardless of whether

the microcontroller is of the 8051 or the 8031 family. The other two pins,

PSEN and ALE are used mainly in 8031 based systems.

Vcc

Pin 40 provides supply voltage to the chip. The voltage source is

+5V.

GND
 Pin 20 is the ground.

Oscillator Characteristics:

XTAL1 and XTAL2 are the input and output, respectively, of an

inverting amplifier which can be configured for use as an on-chip
oscillator, as shown in Figure. Either a quartz crystal or ceramic resonator
may be used. To drive the device from an external clock source, XTAL2
should be left unconnected while XTAL1 is driven as shown in Figure.

Oscillator Connections

It must be noted that there are various speeds of the 8051 family. Speed

refers to the maximum oscillator frequency connected to the XTAL. For

example, a 12 MHz chip must be connected to a crystal with 12 MHz

frequency or less. Likewise, a 20 MHz microcontroller requires a crystal

frequency of no more than 20 MHz. When the 8051 is connected to a

crystal oscillator and is powered up, we can observe the frequency on the

XTAL2 pin using oscilloscope.

RST
 Pin 9 is the reset pin. It is an input and is active high (normally low).

Upon applying a high pulse to this pin, the microcontroller will reset and

terminate all activities. This is often referred to as a power –on reset.

Activating a power-on reset will cause all values in the registers to be

lost. Notice that the value of Program Counter is 0000 upon reset, forcing

the CPU to fetch the first code from ROM memory location 0000. This

means that we must place the first line of source code in ROM location

0000 that is where the CPU wakes up and expects to find the first

instruction. In order to RESET input to be effective, it must have a

minimum duration of 2 machine cycles. In other words, the high pulse

must be high for a minimum of 2 machine cycles before it is allowed to

go low.

EA

All the 8051 family members come with on-chip ROM to store programs.

In such cases, the EA pin is connected to the Vcc. For family members

such as 8031 and 8032 in which there is no on-chip ROM, code is stored

on an external ROM and is fetched by the 8031/32. Therefore for the

8031 the EA pin must be connected to ground to indicate that the code is

stored externally. EA, which stands for “external access,” is pin number

31 in the DIP packages. It is input pin and must be connected to either V cc

or GND. In other words, it cannot be left unconnected.

PSEN

This is an output pin. PSEN stands for “program store enable.” It

is the read strobe to external program memory. When the microcontroller

is executing from external memory, PSEN is activated twice each

machine cycle.

ALE

ALE (Address latch enable) is an output pin and is active high.

When connecting a microcontroller to external memory, port 0 provides

both address and data. In other words the microcontroller multiplexes

address and data through port 0 to save pins. The ALE pin is used for de-

multiplexing the address and data by connecting to the G pin of the

74LS373 chip.

I/O port pins and their functions

The four ports P0, P1, P2, and P3 each use 8 pins, making

them 8-bit ports. All the ports upon RESET are configured as output,

ready to be used as output ports. To use any of these as input port, it must

be programmed.

Port 0

Port 0 occupies a total of 8 pins (pins 32 to 39). It can be

used for input or output. To use the pins of port 0 as both input and
output ports, each pin must be connected externally to a 10K-ohm

pull-up resistor. This is due to fact that port 0 is an open drain,

unlike P1, P2 and P3. With external pull-up resistors connected

upon reset, port 0 is configured as output port. In order to make

port 0 an input port, the port must be programmed by writing 1 to

all the bits of it. Port 0 is also designated as AD0-AD7, allowing it

to be used for both data and address. When connecting a

microcontroller to an external memory, port 0 provides both

address and data. The microcontroller multiplexes address and data

through port 0 to save pins. ALE indicates if P0 has address or

data. When ALE=0, it provides data D0-D7, but when ALE=1 it

has address A0-A7. Therefore, ALE is used for de-multiplexing

address and data with the help of latch 74LS373.

Port 1

Port 1 occupies a total of 8 pins (pins 1 to 8). It can be used

as input or output. In contrast to port 0, this port does not require

pull-up resistors since it has already pull-up resistors internally.

Upon reset, port 1 is configures as an output port. Similar to port 0,

port 1 can be used as an input port by writing 1 to all its bits.

Port 2
 Port 2 occupies a total of 8 pins (pins 21 to 28). It can be

used as input or output. Just like P1, port 2 does not need any pull-

up resistors since it has pull-up resistors internally. Upon reset port

2 is configured as output port. To make port 2 as input port, it must

be programmed as such by writing 1s to it.

Port 3

Port 3 occupies a total of 8 pins (pins 10 to 17). It can be

used as input or output. P3 does not need any pull-up resistors, the

same as P1 and P2 did not. Although port 3 is configured as output

port upon reset, this is not the way it is most commonly used. Port

3 has an additional function of providing some extremely important

signals such as interrupts. Some of the alternate functions of P3 are

listed below:

P3.0 RXD (Serial input)

P3.1 TXD (Serial output)

P3.2 INT0 (External interrupt 0)

P3.3 INT1 (External interrupt 1)

P3.4 T0 (Timer 0 external input)

P3.5 T1 (Timer 1 external input)

P3.6 WR (External memory write strobe)

P3.7 RD (External memory read strobe)

Memory Space Allocation

1. Internal ROM
The 89C51 has 4K bytes of on-chip ROM. This 4K

bytes ROM memory has memory addresses of 0000 to 0FFFh.

Program addresses higher than 0FFFh, which exceed the internal

ROM capacity, will cause the microcontroller to automatically

fetch code bytes from external memory. Code bytes can also be

fetched exclusively from an external memory, addresses 0000h to

FFFFh, by connecting the external access pin to ground. The

program counter doesn’t care where the code is: the circuit

designer decides whether the code is found totally in internal

ROM, totally in external ROM or in a combination of internal and

external ROM.

2. Internal RAM
The 1289 bytes of RAM inside the 8051 are assigned

addresses 00 to 7Fh. These 128 bytes can be divided into three

different groups as follows:

1. A total of 32 bytes from locations 00 to 1Fh are set aside for

register banks and the stack.
2. A total of 16 bytes from locations 20h to 2Fh are set aside for
bit addressable read/write memory and instructions.
A total of 80 bytes from locations 30h to 7Fh are used for read and write
storage, or what is normally called a scratch pad. These 80 locations of
RAM are widely used for the purpose of storing data and parameters by
8051 programmers.

Interfacing of Microcontroller with LCD

The LCD, which is used as a display in the system, is LMB162A. The

main features of this LCD are: 16*2 display, intelligent LCD, used for
alphanumeric characters & based on ASCII codes. This LCD contains 16
pins, in which 8 pins are used as 8-bit data I/O, which are extended
ASCII. Three pins are used as control lines these are Read/Write pin,
Enable pin and Register select pin. Two pins are used for Backlight and
LCD voltage, another two pins are for Backlight & LCD ground and one
pin is used for contrast change.
LCD pin description

Pin Symbol I/O Description

1 VSS - Ground
2 VCC - +5V power supply
3 VEE - Power supply to control contrast
4 RS I RS=0 to select command register, RS=1 to select data
register.
5 R/W I R/W=0 for write, R/W=1 for read
6 E I/O Enable
7 DB0 I/O The 8 bit data bus
8 DB1 I/O The 8 bit data bus
9 DB2 I/O The 8 bit data bus
10 DB3 I/O The 8 bit data bus
11 DB4 I/O The 8 bit data bus
12 DB5 I/O The 8 bit data bus
13 DB6 I/O The 8 bit data bus
14 DB7 I/O The 8 bit data bus
Liquid Crystal Display:

Liquid crystal displays (LCD) are widely used in recent years as

compares to LEDs. This is due to the declining prices of LCD, the ability
to display numbers, characters and graphics, incorporation of a refreshing
controller into the LCD, their by relieving the CPU of the task of
refreshing the LCD and also the ease of programming for characters and
graphics. HD 44780 based LCDs are most commonly used.
LCD pin description:
The LCD discuss in this section has the most common connector used for
the Hitachi 44780 based LCD is 14 pins in a row and modes of operation
and how to program and interface with microcontroller is describes in this
section.

1 6 G n d
1 6 1 5
1 5 V c c
1 4 D 7
1 4 1 3
1 3 D 6
1 2 D 5
1 2 1 1
1 1 D 4
1 0 D 3
1 0 9
9 D 2
8 D 1
8 7
7 D 0
6 E
3

6 5
5 R / W
4 R S
4 3
3 C o n t r a 2s t
2 V c c
2 1
1 G n d
1

LCD Pin Description Diagram

VCC, VSS, VEE
The voltage VCC and VSS provided by +5V and ground respectively while
VEE is used for controlling LCD contrast. Variable voltage between
Ground and Vcc is used to specify the contrast (or "darkness") of the
characters on the LCD screen.
RS (register select)
There are two important registers inside the LCD. The RS pin is used for
their selection as follows. If RS=0, the instruction command code
register is selected, then allowing to user to send a command such as
clear display, cursor at home etc.. If RS=1, the data register is selected,
allowing the user to send data to be displayed on the LCD.
R/W (read/write)
The R/W (read/write) input allowing the user to write information from
it. R/W=1, when it read and R/W=0, when it writing.
EN (enable)
The enable pin is used by the LCD to latch information presented to its
data pins. When data is supplied to data pins, a high power, a high-to-low
pulse must be applied to this pin in order to for the LCD to latch in the
data presented at the data pins.
D0-D7 (data lines)
The 8-bit data pins, D0-D7, are used to send information to the LCD or
read the contents of the LCD’s internal registers. To displays the letters
and numbers, we send ASCII codes for the letters A-Z, a-z, and numbers
0-9 to these pins while making RS =1. There are also command codes
that can be sent to clear the display or force the cursor to the home
position or blink the cursor.
We also use RS =0 to check the busy flag bit to see if the LCD is ready to
receive the information. The busy flag is D7 and can be read when R/W
=1 and RS =0, as follows: if R/W =1 and RS =0, when D7 =1(busy flag
=1), the LCD is busy taking care of internal operations and will not
accept any information. When D7 =0, the LCD is ready to receive new
information.
Interfacing of micro controller with LCD display:
In most applications, the "R/W" line is grounded. This simplifies the
application because when data is read back, the microcontroller I/O pins
have to be alternated between input and output modes.
In this case, "R/W" to ground and just wait the maximum amount of time
for each instruction (4.1ms for clearing the display or moving the
cursor/display to the "home position", 160µs for all other commands) and
also the application software is simpler, it also frees up a microcontroller
pin for other uses. Different LCD execute instructions at different rates
and to avoid problems later on (such as if the LCD is changed to a slower
unit). Before sending commands or data to the LCD module, the Module
must be initialized. Once the initialization is complete, the LCD can be
written to with data or instructions as required. Each character to display
is written like the control bytes, except that the "RS" line is set. During
initialization, by setting the "S/C" bit during the "Move Cursor/Shift
Display" command, after each character is sent to the LCD, the cursor
built into the LCD will increment to the next position (either right or left).
Normally, the "S/C" bit is set (equal to "1")
 VCC VCC

31
EA/VPP 33pF 22uF
9
30 RST
ALE/PROG 18 33pF
XTAL2
29 XTAL1 19 16

8.2 K
PSEN 15 16

AT89C51
8 VCC 15
17 P1.7 14
P3.7/RD 7 14
16 P1.6 13
P3.6/WR 6 13
15 P1.5 12
P3.5/T1 5 12
14 P1.4 11
P3.4/TO 4 11
13 P1.3 10
P3.3/INT1 3 9 10
12 P1.2 9
P3.2/INTO 2 8
11 P1.1 8
P3.1/TXD 1 7
10 P1.0 7
P3.0/RXD 6
5 6
28 32 4 5
27 P2.7/A15 P0.7/AD7 33 4
P2.6/A14 P0.6/AD6 3
26 34 2 3
25 P2.5/A13 P0.5/AD5 35 2
P2.4/A12 P0.4/AD4 1
24 36 1
23 P2.3/A11 P0.3/AD3 37
22 P2.2/A10 P0.2/AD2 38
21 P2.1/A9 P0.1/AD1 39
P2.0/A8 P0.0/AD0

3 1

VCC

VCC

Interfacing of Microcontroller with LCD

LCD Command Code

Code Command to LCD Instruction

(HEX) Register
1 Clear the display screen
2 Return home
4 Decrement cursor(shift cursor to left)
6 Increment cursor(shift cursor to right)
7 Shift display right
8 Shift display left
9 Display off, cursor off
A Display off, cursor on
C Display on, cursor off
E Display on, cursor blinking
F Display on, cursor blinking
10 Shift cursor position to left
14 Shift cursor position to right
18 Shift the entire display to left
1C Shift the entire display to right
80 Force cursor to the beginning of 1st line
C0 Force cursor to the beginning of 2nd line
38 2 line and 5×7 matrix
Interfacing circuit of Microcontroller & ADC along with
LCD:

Interfacing of switches with microcontroller

There are three micro switches in the circuit connected to the

microcontroller pin no. p0.5 to p0.7. One end of each switch is grounded
and other is connected to the microcontroller port with a 10K pull-up, as
in Figure. When switch is pressed that particular port is grounded. The
microcontroller always monitors these switches in real time (i.e. in
continuous mode)

The configuration of the micro switches is as follows:

 Switch1 (S1): Increment

 Switch2 (S2): Decrement
 Switch3 (S3): Set

Interfacing of Switches with µC

 Switches out
Various Hardware Tools used are:
• Soldering Iron
• Soldering Wire
• Ribbon wire
• Flux
• Cutter
• Tin wire
• De-soldering pump
• Multimeter
• IC Programmer
• PC
Software Tools used are:
• Keil compiler
• Sunrom’s software to Program the Microcontroller (AT89s52)
• Embedded C Language

Basic Tutorials for Keil Software:

1. Open Keil from the Start menu
2. The Figure below shows the basic names of the windows referred in
this document
 Starting a new Assembler Project

1. Select New Project from the Project Menu.

2. Name the project ‘Toggle.a51’
3. Click on the Save Button.

4. The device window will be displayed.

5. Select the part you will be using to test with. For now we will use the
Dallas Semiconductor part DS89C420.
6. Double Click on the Dallas Semiconductor.

7. Scroll down and select the DS89C420 Part

8. Click OK
 Creating Source File

o Click File Menu and select New.

o A new window will open up in the Keil IDE.
 o write any code on this file.
o Click on File menu and select Save as…

5. Name the file with extension (.asm for assembly language code & .c
for embedded C language code).
6. Click the Save Button
 Adding File to the Project
1. Expand Target 1 in the Tree Menu

2. Click on Project and select Targets, Groups, Files…

3. Click on Groups/Add Files tab
4. Under Available Groups select Source Group 1
5. Click Add Files to Group… button
6. Change file type to Asm Source file(*.a*; *.src)
7. Click on toggle.a51
8. Click Add button
9. Click Close Button
10. Click OK button when you return to Target, Groups, Files… dialog
box.
11. Expand the Source Group 1 in the Tree menu to ensure that the file
was added to the project.

Creating HEX for the Part

1.Click on Target 1 in Tree menu

2. Click on Project Menu and select Options for Target 1

3. Select Target Tab

4. Change Xtal (Mhz) from 50.0 to 11.0592
5. Select Output Tab
6. Click on Create Hex File check box
7. Click OK Button
8. Click on Project Menu and select Rebuild all Target Files
9. In the Build Window it should report ‘0 Errors (s), 0 Warnings’
10. You are now ready to Program your Part