An outcome is the result of a single trial of a probability

the sample space, which are listed as ordered pairs in the

experiment.

diagram.

Sample space is the set of all possible outcomes of a

probability experiment.There are finite as well as infinite

The following tree diagram shows the method to find the genders

sample spaces. While Finite sample spaces have a countable

of children in a family.

number of possible outcomes, infinite sample spaces have

uncountable number of possible outcomes.
Finite sample spaces of simple experiments can be displayed by
listing all possible outcomes.

Each child in order can be a Boy or Girl. These possibilities are

combined in order and the sample space consists of 8 possible

Examples:
Experiment
Sample Space
Tossing a coin
{Head, Tail}
Sample
Space
Throwing
a six faced
die Formula {1,2,3,4,5,6}
Answering a true or false question
(True, False}
Choosing an odd digit.
{0.2.4.6.8}

outcomes which are listed in the diagram.

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Theoretical or classical probability uses sample space to evaluate
the probability of events numerically. Theoretical probability

Infinite sample spaces are written using set builder notation.

assumes that all outcomes in the sample space are equally likely
to occur.

Example:

Thus the probability of the occurrence of an event E is given by

Suppose the height requirement for a recruitment is between 62

the formula,

inches and 80 inches, then the sample space can be written as

P(E) = n(E)n(S)

S = { x | 62 x 80}

Where n(E) is the number of outcomes favorable to E and n(S) is

Sample Space Tree diagram

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Tree diagrams are used to determine the sample space when the
probability experiment consists of two or more activities or
occurrences.
Definition: A tree diagram is a method used to find all possible
events of a probability experiment, where the outcomes are
connected with their starting points by arrows.Examples:

the number of outcomes in the sample space S.

Probability of the sample space is the probability of the
occurrence of any one outcome of the sample space. Extending
the above formula the probability of sample space is given by
P(S) = n(S)n(S) = 1

A High School Literary committee of 5 members consists of 3

Solved Examples

Seniors and 2 Juniors. Find the number of ways a two member

Question 1: Find the probability of turning an even

team for a Quiz contest consisting of one Junior and one Senior

number up when a six sided fair die is thrown.

can be selected.

Solution:
Let the E be the event of turning up an even number. Then
the outcomes in the sample space and E are as follows:

The above tree diagram depicts the selection process. One Senior

S = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 )

can be selected from three. And for each of this possible selection

space

a Junior can be added in two ways. Thus there are 6 outcomes in

E = { 2, 4, 6 }

6 outcomes in sample
3 outcomes in the

event E.

2. A security system uses a five digit code using the numbers 0 to

9. If the digits can be repeated,

P(E) = n(E)n(S) = 36 = 12.

write a rule to define the sample space and find number of

elements in the sample space.

The number of outcomes in the sample space is often

The sample space consists of five digit numbers as follows

determined using combinatorics formulas like permutation

00000, 01234, ..................

and combination, without actually listing the outcomes.

10756, 11111.....................
The sample space can be defined as follows:

Question 2: A card is drawn at random from a pack of 52

S = { xxxxx | x {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}

cards. Find the number of elements in the sample space

As repetition of digits is allowed, each digit can be chosen in

and also determine the probability of drawing a red card.

Solution:

10 ways
Hence the number of elements in sample space = 10 x 10 x 10
x 10 x 10 = 100,000.

As we need to pick one card from 52, this is a case of

Permutation vs Combination
combination.
Hence the number of elements in the sample space n(S) =
52C1 = 52.
Let E be the event of picking a red card. As this red card
has to come from 26 cards (13 Hearts + 13 Diamonds)
Number of elements in the event E n(E) = 26C1 = 26.

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What is Permutation? The different arrangements which can be
made out of a given number of things by taking some or all at a
time are called permutations.
Example:

Probability of picking a red card P(E)

Sample Space Examples

= n(E)n(S) = 2652 = 12.

1. What are the two digit numbers that can be formed using
the digits 2,5,7.

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Solution: Here out of three digits, we formed two digit numbers,

1. Sometimes the sample space can be written in tabular form,

(i.e) we form numbers by taking two digits at a time.

like the outcomes when two dice are rolled. Here each outcome is The numbers that can be formed are, 25, 27, 52, 57, 72, 75.
an ordered pair as follows:
Die
I

2. What are the different numbers that can be formed using

all the digits, 9, 8 and 5 .

Die II
1

Solution: Here we form numbers by taking all at a time.

(1,1) (1,2) (1,3) (1,4) (1,5) (1,6)

(i. e) we form three digit numbers by taking all the digits at a

(2,1) (2,2) (2,3) (2,4) (2,5) (2,6)

time.

(3,1) (3,2) (3,3) (3,4) (3,5) (3,6)

The numbers that can be formed are 589, 598, 859, 895, 958 and

(4,1) (4,2) (4,3) (4,4) (4,5) (4,6)

985

(5,1) (5,2) (5,3) (5,4) (5,5) (5,6)

(6,1) (6,2) (6,3) (6,4) (6,5) (6,6)

Hence we observe that in permutations there will be selection and

then arrangements.

It can be seen there are 36 elements in the sample space.

What is Combination? Each of the different groups or

selections which can be formed by taking some or all of a number Example: In how many ways three digits numbers can be formed
of objects irrespective of their arrangements, is called a

using the digits, 3, 4, 5, 7 and 9.

combination.

Solution: We have 5 digits, 3, 4, ,5, 7 and 9.

The number of three digit numbers that can be formed is

Example:

permutation of five things taken three at a time.

1. John as three pens each of blue, red and green. In how

(i. e), 5P3 = 5 ( 5 - 1) (5 - 2) [ by Formula 1, nPr = n (n-1) (n-2) . .

many ways two pens can be selected from the three

. . . . (n - r + 1) ]

pens.

=5.4.3

Solution: John as three colored pens each of blue, red and green. = 60
The different ways of selecting two pens are, blue and
red ; red and green (or) blue and green.
Therefore there are three ways of selecting two pens
from three pens.

Factorial Method: Using the factorial formula, we have nPr = n!

(nr)!

2. A bag has an yellow marble, black marble and a blue

marble. In how many ways three marbles can be

P (5, 3) = 5P3

selected?

= 5!(53)!

Solution: Since the bag contains three marbles each of yellow,

black and blue,

= 5.4.3.2.12.1

the selection of thee marbles contain all the three

colors yellow, black and blue.
Therefore, the selection can be done only one way.
Hence we observe that in combinations there will be only

= 5.4.3
= 60
There will be 60 three digit numbers that can be formed.

selection (and no arrangement).

Permutations and Combinations Formula

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Combinations Formula:

Factorial: Factorial notation is used to express the product of

Formula 1: Combination of n objects by taking r at a time is nCr

first n natural numbers.

= C (n, r) = nPrr!

(i. e) n! = 1.2.3.4 . . . . . . . . . . n

Formula 2: Combination of n objects by taking r at a time is nCr

Example : 5 ! = 1.2.3.4.5 = 120

= C (n, r) = n!(nr)!r!

10 ! = 1.2.3.4.5.6.7.8.9.10 = 3628800
Example: In how many ways 3 balls can be selected from a
Permutations Formula:

box containing 10 balls.

Formula 1: The permutations of n objects by taking r at a time

Solution: Since the above situation is only selected we have

is,

combination.

P (n, r) = nPr = n (n-1) (n-2) . . . . . . . . (n - r + 1)

Therefore, C (n, r) = C(6, 3)

= nPrr!

Formula 2: The above permutation can be expressed using

factorial notation as follows.

= 6P33!

P (n, r) = nPr = n!(nr)!

= 6.5.43.2.1

= 20

Since the pair of books together can be arranged in 2

(or) C (6, 3) = n!(nr)!r!

ways,
the total number of ways of arranged the ten books so that

= 6!3!3!

a particular pair of books is always together = 2 x 9 !

= 1.2.3.4.5.61.2.3.1.2.3

b. The ten books can be arranged in P (10, 10) ways = 10 !

ways

= 20

From (a), the ten books can be arranged in 9! . 2 ways by

Permutations and Combinations Examples

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arranging particular pair of books together.

Therefore, the number of ways of arranging the 10 books

Solved Examples

so that a particular pair is never together is,

Question 1: How many four letter words, with or without

=10 ! - 2 x 9 !

meaning can be formed out of the letters of the word,

= 10 x 9 ! - 2 x 9!

"MATHEMAGIC", if repetition of letters is not allowed.

= (10 - 2) x 9 !

Solution:

=8x9!
the number of ways of arranging the 10 books so that a

The word "MATHEMAGIC" contain the letters, M, A, T,

particular pair is never together is = 8 x 9 !

H, E, G, I, C which are 8 letters.

Here we need to select four letters and arrange them.

Question 3: How many diagonals are there in an octagon?

Hence we have selection and arrangement which is

Solution:

permutation.
Therefore the required number of words = Permutations of

A polygon of 8 sides has 8 vertices.

8 letters by taking four at a time

By joining any two of these vertices, we obtain either a

= P (8, 4)

side or a diagonal of the polygon.

= 8 (8 - 1) (8 - 2) (8 - 3)

Here we have only a selection (and no arrangement) ,

= 8 . 7. 6. 5

hence we have combination.

= 1680

Number of all straight lines obtained by joining 2 vertices

at a time

Question 2: In how many ways can 10 books be arranged

= C (8 , 2)

on a shelf so that a particular pair of books shall be

= 8!6!.2!

a. always together.
b. never together.

= 8.7.6.5.4.3.2.11.2.3.4.5.6.1.2

Solution:
= 28
a. Since a particular pair of books is always together.

Since the number of sides = 8,

Number of diagonals of the octagon = 28 - 8

Permutations and Combinations Practice

If we keep these together as one pair, then we have to

= 20

arrange 9 books on the shelf.

This can be done in P (9, 9) ways = 9 ! ways

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Practice Problems
Question 1: In how many ways 7 boys and 5 girls be
arranged for a group photograph, if the girls are to sit on
chairs in a row and the boys are to stand in a row behind
them?
Question 2: Find the number of ways in which the letters
of the word, "LAPTOP", can be arranged such that the
vowels occupy only even position.
Question 3: How many three digit numbers can be formed
with the digits, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, when the digits may be
repeated any number of times in any arrangement.
Question 4: Out of 6 men and 4 women a committee of
54 is to be formed containing at least one woman. In how
many ways the committee can be formed.
Question 5: A code word is to consists of two distinct
alphabets followed by two distinct numbers between 1 and
5. How may such code words are there?