THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERS

345 E. 47 St., New York, N.Y. 10017

M
^[

88-GT-150

The Society shall not be responsible for statements or opinions advanced in papers or in discussion at meetings of the Society or of its Divisions or Sections or printed in its publications.
Discussion is printed only if the paper is published in an ASME Journal- Papers are available
from ASME for fifteen months after the meeting.

Printed in USA.

Copyright 1988 by ASME

Operating Characteristics of Heavy-Duty Gas Turbines

in Utility Service
WILLIAM I. ROWEN
Member-ASME
Manager-Gas Turbine Control Engineering
Turbine Business Operation
GE Company
Schenectady, New York

ABSTRACT

3.3 THE TEMPERATURE CONTROL SYSTEM

3.3.1
Peaking operation
3.4 START-UP AND SHUTDOWN
3.4.1 Fast start and load
3.4.2 Black start

With the increasing utilization of gas turbines

in industrial and cogeneration applications, they

are taking on a greater role in base load service.

Because of their inherent responsiveness, they also

offer operating characteristics that can enhance
their contribution to utility systems as a generator
prime mover. This paper will describe these
characteristics, particularly as they relate to the
interaction of the gas turbine, the governor, and
the temperature control system. Additional
features, such as load control, variable inlet guide
vanes, peaking operation and other unique
characteristics are also discussed from this point
of view.

4.0 VARIATIONS AND OPTIONAL FEATURES

4.1 ISOLATED OPERATION
Isochronous governing
4.1.1
4.1.2 Isochronous load sharing
4.1.3 Dead load pickup
4.2 LOAD CONTROL
4.2.1 Constant settable droop
4.2.2 Non-linear droop

4.2.3 Auto peaking

INDEX

4.3 VARIABLE INLET GUIDE VANES

4.3.1 Heat Recovery Operation
4.4 EMISSIONS CONTROL
4.4.1 Water injection
4.4.2 Steam injection
4.4.3 Power augmentation

1.0 NOMENCLATURE

2.0 INTRODUCTION
3.0 BASIC PRINCIPLES
3.1 THE GAS TURBINE
3.2 THE GOVERNOR

5.0 SUMMARY

1.0 NOMENCLATURE
IGV
MW
N
Nsp
Pa
Pcd
Torque
Ta
Tcd
Tti
Tx
Tr
Tra
Wf
Wci
Wsi
Wwi

=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

Inlet Guide Vane Angle

Generator Output
Turbine Speed
Speed Governor Set Point
Barometric (Ambient) Pressure
Compressor Discharge Pressure
Turbine Output Torque
Ambient Temperature
Compressor Discharge Temperature
Turbine Inlet (Firing) Temperature
Turbine Exhaust Temperature
Rated Exhaust Temperature at ISO
Rated Tr at Any Ambient Temperature
Fuel Flow
Compressor Inlet Flow
Steam Injection Flow
Water Injection Flow

English Units
Degrees

SI Units
Degree

In Hg
PSIA

mm Hg
Pa

F
F
F
F
F
F

C
C
C
C
C
C

% Wci
% Wci

% Wci
% Wci

* Units are % of ISO Base Rating.

Presented at the Gas Turbine and Aeroengine Congress
Amsterdam, The NetherlandsJune 6-9, 1988

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2.0 INTRODUCTION
The gas turbines discussed in this paper

operate on the Brayton Cycle in an open or simple

cycle, utilizing the atmosphere as a heat sink. The
heat source for the cycle is a hydrocarbon-based
fuel, in either a gaseous or liquid state, this
burned directly in the air stream that forms the
cycle working fluid. The power produced by the gas
turbine is used to drive an alternator to produce
electrical power at frequencies compatible with the
local network. Additional useful energy can be
recovered from the exhaust gas by using a heat
exchanger in a system configuration referred to as a

Combined Cycle, as contrasted to the previously

This paper will limit itself to a discussion of

single-shaft gas turbines in generator drive service.
Aero-derivative turbines are excluded because of
their substantially different features and characteristics. Furthermore, with the exception of the
discussion of start-up and shutdown characteristics,
this treatise is limited to an operating speed range
of 95 to 107 percent to ensure linearity and
predictability. The formulae presented are an
extension of those in Ref. 2, and the terminology is
compatible.

3.0 BASIC PRINCIPLES

3.1 THE GAS TURBINE

described Simple Cycle.

Recovered exhaust heat is most often used to
generate steam, which can be used for a process, as
in the case of cogeneration, or can be used to
generate additional electrical power in a steam
In either event, the operating
turbine.
characteristics of the gas turbine will remain
essentially the same as in simple-cycle operation,
except that operation of the gas turbine must
respect the operating limitations of the heat
recovery and steam cycle equipment. Where the steam
turbine drives its own generator, an exhaust gas
bypass stack and damper are used to allow greater
plant operating flexibility.

The simple-cycle gas turbine draws in atmospheric air, compresses it to the combustor pressure
level, adds fuel and raises the temperature level to
the cycle firing temperature, and then expands the
hot gases to atmospheric pressure, producing usable
mechanical power in the process. A cycle diagram,
and the corresponding temperature-entropy diagram are
shown in Figs. 2 and 3 respectively. The effects of
real cycle pressure losses, and compressor and
turbine efficiencies are also shown in Fig. 3.

WN

The gas turbines discussed in this paper are of

the single-shaft, heavy-duty, industrial design as

shown in Fig. 1. They are aerodynamically and

Nis

thermodynamically similar to one another in broad

terms, as the product line has been developed by
scaling both up and down in size. Within a given
power rating a high level of standardization has
been achieved for the basic gas turbine, the

rJAAR1IAG
VARIABLE INLET
GUIDE VANES

auxiliaries, and the control system. As a result,

the variation in operating characteristics from one
application to another, and from one frame size to

NOTE'. 1 INJECTION POINT FOR WATER OR STEAM FOR OPTIONAL NO. CONTROL
2 INJECTION POINT FOR STEAM FOR OPTIONAL POWER AUGMENTATION

the next, is easily predictable. This was initially

demonstrated with respect to the system dynamics in
the manner described in Ref. 2.

MS5001 AND
MS6001 ONLY

Figure 2 - Cycle Diagram

Im

^il^rrl ..{r01

COMP.

DISCH.

TEMPERATURE

TEMP.

Figure 1 - MS7001E Crossection

The fuel control systems for liquid and gaseous
fuels are designed to have similar characteristics,
even though the physics of the two flow control
processes are significantly different. This subject
is treated extensively in Ref. 2, which is a companion paper to this one. As a result of the system
design, the same fuel command represents the same
energy input for either liquid or gas. Therefore,

fuel transfers under load are easily achieved by

gradually transitioning the fuel command from one
fuel control system to the other.

Figure 3 - Normal Temperature-Entropy Diagram

The amount of power (or torque at constant

speed) produced by a gas turbine of a specific
design, and the efficiency of production, are
essentially an instantaneous function of the mass
flow of air drawn into the compressor, and the
amount of fuel supplied to the combustor.
- 2 -

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The amount of mass flow of air drawn into the

compressor is greatly affected by the ambient inlet
conditions of temperature and barometric pressure
(as well as inlet guide vane position, which will be
discussed later). Thus the gas turbine is capable
of higher output levels during times of colder
ambient temperatures and higher barometers, and
ISO base load capabilities for various
vice-versa.
turbine ratings are shown in Table I, with
corrections for ambient temperature and barometer
identified in the notes.
The actual output is a function of the heat
released in the combustion system, which is a direct
and essentially instantaneous function of fuel flow,
Therefore, full attainment of low ambient
temperature capability requires a proportional
increase in fuel flow that is modified only slightly
by variations in machine efficiency. The expected
output torque and exhaust temperature as functions
of fuel flow may be estimated using the following
equations. Values used in these equations are
percentages of capabilities shown in Table I,
corrected for ambient conditions.

Torque - 1.3 (Wf-23.0)+0.5(100-N)

Tx = [1/(1+.0027(59-Ta))][Tr-.6(59-Ta)-7(100-Wf)+5.5(100-N)] in F
Tx = [1/(1+.005(15-Ta))][Tr-.6(15-Ta)-3.9(100-Wf)+3.i(100-N)] in C

The operating map of the gas turbine, in terms

of exhaust temperature versus fuel flow or load is
shown in Fig. 4. This shows the ISO condition part
load characteristic, which is bounded by base and
peak exhaust temperature limits at the top, and
maximum and minimum fuel limits on the right and
left sides. Minimum fuel represents the fuel flow
necessary to maintain a flame in the combustor.
This value is often referred to as "minimum blowout
fuel". Maximum fuel is associated with the "full
stroke" capability of the fuel system, and exceeds
the values shows in Table I by a nominal amount.
The similarity of this map to the turbine performance curves is readily apparent.

I - ISO Base Load Performance Characteristics

Table
MODEL

MW = N x Torque

TURBINE
POWER

TURBINE
SPEED

INLET
FLOW

RPM

LB/SEC

MW

5100
5100
3600
3600
3600
3000

270
301
611
639
888
891

26.3
38.3
77.3
81.7
135.7
114.7

MS5001PA
MS6001B
MS7001E
MS7001EA
MS7001F
MS9001E

MS5001PA
MS6001B
MS7001E
MS7001EA
MS7001F
MS9001E

EXHAUST
TEMP.

FUEL
FLOW

OUTPUT
TORQUE
FT-LB

BTU/SEC

36,300
52,900
151,200
159,800
265,500
269,300

88,400
115,700
229,500
240,800
391,600
334,700

901
1003
1001
992
1101
985

KJ/SEC

RPM

KG/SEC

MW

N-M

5100
5100
3600
3600
3600
3000

122
137
271
290
403
404

26.3
38.3
77.3
81.7
135.7
114.7

49,200
71,700
205,000
216,700
360,000
365,200

91,100
122,000
242,100
254,000
413,200
353,100

483
539
538
533
594
529

NOTES TO TABLE I
1.

Fuel flow based on lower heating value and gas fuel. Liquid fuel ratings
are normally 2% lower.

2.

Packaged unit configuration with allowances made for inlet and exhaust
pressure drops of standard systems.
KJ/SEC is unconventional SI measure, but more meaningful than Watts for
fuel flow.

3.
4.

Correction for barometer: Multiply power torque, inlet and fuel flow by
(actual inches of mercury)/29.92 or (actual MM of mercury)/760 as
appropriate.

5.

Corrections for ambient temperature:

SI

ENGLISH

PARAMETER
Inlet Flow

Multiply By

1 + .0022 (59-Ta)

1 + .0039 (15-Ta)

Power

Multiply By

] + .0037 (59-la)

1 + .0066 (15-Ta)

Torque

Multiply By

1 + .0037 (59-Ta)

1 + .0066 (15-Ta)

Fuel Flow

Multiply By

1 + .0028 (59-Ta)

] + .0051 (15-Ta)

Exhaust Temp.

Subtract

.6 (59-Ta)

.6 (15-Ta)

3 -

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PEAK

TEMPERATURE CONTROL
LIMITS

BASE

different operating conditions require different

rates of setpoint change.

108

ISO
DAY
EXHAUST
TEMPERATURE

50% OUTPUT
AT 100 0/o SPEED

106

RANGE
OF
ADJUSTMENT

TURBINE
CHARACTERISTIC
ON GOVERNOR
CONTROL

104

102
SPEED
CHANGER
SETTING 100

2/,
ERROR OUTPUT
0

MIN NO
FUEL LOAD

OUTPUT

RATED
LOAD

The governor, or speed control, alters fuel

flow to maintain turbine speed at a preselected
value under varying ambient and load conditions.
This is accomplished by comparing actual speed to a
reference or setpoint value, also occasionally
called the "speed changer", which is under the
control of the operator. The difference between the
actual and reference value is referred to as the
speed error, and the change in fuel flow is a
function of this error.

125

SYSTEM
FREQUENCY

94

3.2 THE GOVERNOR

As mentioned previously, turbine output may be

changed by the operator by raising or lowering the
setpoint. Figure 6 shows the same system as Figure
r but after the operator has raised the setpoint to
103 percent, causing the error to increase to three
percent, and the output of the turbine to increase
proportionately to 75 percent. Changes to the
setpoint are achieved at predetermined rates which
will minimize transient thermal stresses to the hot
gas path components of the turbine. In actuality,

100

75

50

96

Figure 4 - Operating Limits

This type of speed control is referred to as

"droop" control, or as a droop governor, because if
the speed were not held constant by the grid, the
speed would "droop" with increasing load at fixed
setpoint due to the proportionality that exists
between the speed error and fuel flow or load. The
speed-load characteristic of a droop governor is
shown in Fig. 5. The turbine operating line is
shown for four percent droop. This means that the
difference, or error between the setpoint, or speed
changer setting and the actual turbine speed, or
system frequency must be four percent to obtain 100
percent rated ISO turbine output. Figure 5 shows
the setpoint at 102 percent which results in two
percent error, and sufficient fuel flow to the
turbine to produce 50 percent output at 100 percent
turbine speed.

25

98

MAX
FUEL

In large utility systems, where the frequency

of the grid is maintained relatively constant, there
is essentially no change in turbine speed when
running connected to the grid. Fuel flow, and
therefore turbine output, is held proportional to
the speed error, or difference between the actual
and reference values. Therefore, turbine output can
be controlled by the operator by changing the error
through raising and lowering the reference value or
setpoint.

OPERATING LINE
FOR 4% DROOP

SETTING

Figure 5 - Governor Droop Curve

108
75% OUTPUT
AT 100% SPEED

106

104

RANGE
OF
ADJUSTMENT

OPERATING LINE
FOR 4^/o DROOP

SETTING
102

SPEED
CHANGER
SETTING

ERROR
OUTPUT-%
100
0

25

50

75

100

SYSTEM
125 FREQUENCY

98

96

94

Figure 6 - Response to Set Point Change

Table II shows the setpoint rates used with the

turbine ratings shown in Table I. These rates are
indicative of the normal loading rates for the
designated gas turbines. The synchronizing rate is
chosen to provide optimum speed control at a no load
condition when operating in conjunction with the
automatic synchronizing function. The normal rate
is used after synchronizing and breaker closure by
the automatic start-up and shutdown sequencing. The
manual rate is provided to the operator during
manual operation, and is faster than the normal
rate. Most experienced operators will only use this
rate at its maximum when required by system
conditions, preferring to change load more slowly by
pulsing the setpoint control for normal manual
operation. Fast loading rates are provided as an
option on some turbines to allow an operator to be
more responsive to system problems requiring more
rapid turbine loading. Use of the fast loading
rate increases the thermal fatigue duty on the hot
gas path parts.

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Table II - Governor Set Point Rates

SPEED CHANGE - % PER MINUTE

MODEL

SYNCHRONIZING

MS5001P
MS6001B
MS7001E
MS7001EA
MS7001F
MS9001E

2.667
2.667
2.667
2.667
2.667
2.667

NORMAL
1.00
1.00
0.333
0.333
0.333
0.333

MANUAL
8.00
8.00
0.667
0.667
0.667
0.667

FAST LOAD
8.00
8.00
2.667
2.667
2.667
2.667

CORRESPONDING LOAD CHANGE AT 4% DROOP - % PER MINUTE

MS5001P
MS6001B
MS7001E
MS7001EA
MS7001F
MS9001E

25.0
25.0
8.33
8.33
8.33
8.33

NOT
APPLICABLE

If the speed error is affected by the setpoint

value, it is also affected by the actual speed, or
system frequency. A drop in system frequency, at

fixed setpoint value, will result in a proportional

increase in turbine output. Such a situation is
illustrated in Fig. 7, which is an extension of
Fig. 6, except that system frequency has decayed to
99 percent, causing the speed error to increase to
four percent, and the turbine output to increase to
100 percent even though the setpoint value remains
at 103 percent. This type of action in response to
a system frequency change is beneficial from the

standpoint that the system frequency excursion is

caused by an unbalance between existing load and

existing generation, and that the automatic response

of the gas turbine is in the direction of reducing
this unbalance.

108
100%
9 OUTPUT

AI

RANGE
OF
ADJUSTMENT

104

AT 9Wo SPEED

^ \ SETTING

OPERATING LINE

FOR 4% DROOP
SPEED 102
CHANGER
SETTING
100

98

ERROR
OUTPUT

25

50

75

100

SYSTEM
125 FREQUENCY

96

94

Figure 7 - Response to System Frequency Change

It should be apparent that fuel and output
increases caused by actual speed variations do not
occur under the same controlled conditions as do
those associated with setpoint changes, but are in
direct response to the needs of the connected

200.0
200.0
16.67
16.67
16.67
16.67

200.0
200.0
66.67
66.67
66.67
66.67

utility system. Such active response is designed

into the gas turbine, and will occur in the normal
course of events within the limits shown in the
operating map of Fig. 4, and over a typical speed
range of 95 to 107 percent. The former corresponds
to the minimum normal operating speed, and the
latter corresponds to the setpoint level required to
achieve fuel flow corresponding to maximum
capability at minimum ambient temperature conditions.
Prime movers driving alternators that are
operated electrically in parallel must have their
governors set for droop to share load properly in
response to variations in system frequency. A droop
setting of four percent has been used throughout the
foregoing discussion because experience has shown
this value to be appropriate for most utility system
applications. However, it should be noted that the
droop setting is field adjustable over a range of
from 2 to 10 percent. Lower settings result in
greater load changes for smaller changes in system
frequency, which is sometimes referred to as a
"stiffer" system. If the droop is set too low, (or
too tight), load control stability can become
marginal. Lower droop settings also reduce the
resolution of the load control, since a given change
in setpoint corresponds to a greater change in fuel
flow and turbine output. Higher droop settings have
the opposite characteristics, but also result in
less participation by the gas turbine in system
frequency regulation.
3.3 THE TEMPERATURE CONTROL SYSTEM
The primary purpose of the temperature control
system is to limit both turbine firing temperature
and turbine exhaust temperature to levels consistent
with obtaining acceptable hot gas path parts lives.
This is accomplished by accurately measuring the gas
turbine exhaust temperature, comparing it to a value
which has been computed to provide the appropriate
limit, and then comparing the fuel command required
to maintain this temperature with that required to
satisfy the speed, load or startup control. This
fuel command comparison is accomplished in a low
value selection process that allows the lowest fuel
command requirement to actually control the fuel
command signal.
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Exhaust temperature is used as the measured

variable because it is lower, and therefore allows
longer thermocouple life, and the exhaust gas is
more completely mixed, causing little variation due
to measurement location. By contrast, firing
temperature is defined as the total (or stagnation)
temperature at the inlet to the first-stage turbine
rotor, an area where temperatures are intentionally
profiled to optimize first-stage bucket temperature
and stress distribution.
The gas turbine will operate on governor
control, under part load conditions, until the
computed allowable firing or measured exhaust
temperature is reached. At this point temperature
control acts to limit fuel flow by limiting the fuel
command signal from further increase in response to
the demands of the governor. When these conditions
are reached, the gas turbine output is at maximum
capability for the existing ambient and equipment
conditions.

Careful inspection of Fig. 8 will show that,

for constant firing temperature, the allowable
exhaust temperature decreases with increasing output
at decreasing ambient. This apparent anomaly can be
explained by examining the temperature-entropy
diagram shown in Fig. 9. This plot shows two
conditions having the same maximum firing
temperature, but one having a higher compressor
discharge pressure as a result of higher air flow,
which would be the case at a lower ambient
temperature. Because of the higher expansion ratio
to ambient pressure, the turbine temperature drop
from constant firing temperature is greater,
resulting in a lower allowable exhaust temperature.

FIRING TEMP.
COMP.
DISCHARGE
PRESSURE

11
EXHAUST
TEMP.

If ambient temperature increases, exhaust

temperature will tend to increase, and the
temperature control system will reduce the fuel
command to hold the appropriate level of exhaust
temperature. If the ambient temperature decreases,
the temperature control system will allow a fuel
flow increase by returning control of the fuel
command to the governor. Examination of the ambient
effects equations shown in Table I will show that
these ambient effects can be significant, amounting
to a 15 percent change in output for 40F (22C)
change in ambient temperature. It is for this
reason that the temperature control system is an
active control, rather than a fixed fuel limit.
The relationship between exhaust temperature,
firing temperature and ambient temperature is shown
in Fig. 8. This plot shows allowable turbine firing
and exhaust temperatures as a function of compressor
discharge pressure, which is a measure of the
turbine expansion pressure ratio. The lower solid
line is the actual computed exhaust temperature
limit to achieve the upper line, or firing
temperature limit.

MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE

TEMPERATURE

COMP,
DISCH.
TEMP.

YL4YJd

ENTROPY
SOLID LINE- ORIGINAL CYCLE
DOTTED LINE- HIGHER AIR FLOW,
HIGHER PRESSURE RATIO,
CONSTANT FIRING TEMP,
LOWER EXHAUST TEMP

Figure 9 - High Flow Temperature-Entropy Diagram

The relationship between allowable exhaust

temperature and compressor discharge pressure for
constant firing temperature is exponential. The
value of the exponent is affected only by the ratio
of specific heats and the turbine efficiency. Since
both of these vary only slightly in the operating
region where temperature control is effective, the
relationship is essentially fixed. Furthermore,
since the value of the exponent is less than 0.25,
the relationship is also very close to a straight
line, considerably easing the control problem.

FIRING TEMPERATURE

3.3.1 Peaking Operation

TEMPERATURE
MAXIMUM
ALLOWABLE

EXHAUST
TEMPERATURE

FUEL CONTROL LINE

50 '

COMPRESSOR DISCHARGE PRESSURE

Figure 8 - Exhaust Temperature Control Curve

Gas turbines have the optional capability of

operating at power levels in excess of their
continuous base rating shown in Table I. This type
of operation is achieved by increasing the exhaust
temperature control point by a predetermined amount
corresponding to the difference between base and
peak firing temperature. Peaking operation results
in reduced hot gas path parts lives from those
expected at base load operating temperatures.
Peaking operation is usually selected by the
operator, but can be selected automatically as
described under "Auto-peaking, which follows. The
turbine performance characteristics for ISO peak
operation are shown in Table III. The notes from
Table I also apply.
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Table III - Peak Load Performance Characteristics

TURBINE
POWER

MODEL

MS5001PA
MS6001B
MS7001E
MS7001EA
MS9001E

MS5001PA
MS6001B
MS7001E
MS7001EA
MS9001E

OUTPUT
TORQUE

FUEL
FLOW

EXHAUST
TEMP.

MW

FT-LB

BTU/SEC

28.1
41.4
83.7
88.2
126.1

38,900
57,200
163,800
172,600
296,100

91,700
124,000
247,400
259,200
360,000

947
1006
1064
1055
1047

MW

N-M

K3/SEC

52,700
77,600
222,100
234,000
401,500

96,800
130,800
260,900
273,500
379,800

28.1
41.4
83.7
88.2
126.1

508
574
573
568
564

NOTES TO TABLE III

Speed and airflow are the same as Table I.
2.

3.4

All notes from Table I apply.

START-UP AND SHUTDOWN

SPEED -'I,

too r

The gas turbine is an internal combustion

engine in which the fuel is burned directly in the
working fluid. Therefore, the gas turbine, like any
internal combustion engine, is not self starting and
requires an external source of cranking power for
startup. This is most usually a diesel engine or
electric motor combined with a torque converter, but
could also be a steam turbine or gas expander, if
external steam or gas supplies are available. The
torque converter is required to ensure sufficient
breakaway torque and to properly match the cranking
device speed torque characteristic to the starting
needs of the gas turbine.

1 MIN.
START
AUXILIARIES
DIESEL WA RMUP

60

I-

7x - F/10
J

PURGE COAST

40

20

IGV - DEGREES
&

--_____

FSR - %

rslWSXlIMsflILRZflPdLR

Sufficient cranking power is provided to crank

the unfired gas turbine at 25 to 30 percent speed,
depending on the ambient, even though ignition speed
is 10 to 15 percent. This extra cranking power is
used for gas path purging prior to ignition,
compressor water washing, and accelerated cooldown. Starting devices are rated for intermittent
duty, and are therefore operated at power levels
higher than the continuous duty rating.

Figure 10 - Typical Startup Curves

When purging is completed, the torque converter
output is reduced to allow the turbine rotor to
decelerate to ignition speed, which is between 10 and
15 percent. This speed has been found to be optimum
from the standpoints of both thermal fatigue damage
to hot gas path components as well as reliable
ignition and crossfiring of the combustors. The
ignition sequence consists of turning on ignition
power to the spark plugs and then firing fuel flow.
When flame is detected by the flame detectors, which
are on the opposite side of the turbine from the
spark plugs, ignition and crossfiring are complete,
and fuel is reduced to the warmup value for one
minute, while the torque converter output is brought
to maximum.

A typical automatic starting sequence is shown

in Fig. 10. After automatic system checks have been
successfully completed and lube-oil pressure
established, the cranking device is started, and for
diesel engines, allowed to warmup. The torque
converter is then filled and the turbine rotor
starts to turn. When the turbine reaches purge
speed, this speed is held, by modulating the torque
converter, for the necessary purge period. This
time period is determined by the enclosed volume of
the exhaust system. Three to five volume changes
are required to ensure the evacuation of any
stagnant pockets of combustible gases. Purge times
will vary from one minute or less to as long as ten
minutes in some heat recovery applications.

After completion of the warmup period, fuel

flow is allowed to increase, and the gas turbine
begins to accelerate faster. At a speed of about 30
to 50 percent, the gas turbine reaches an acceleration rate where fuel is reduced to follow a pre- 7 -

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to full-speed no-load are shown in Table IV.

Appropriate loading rates are shown in Table II.

determined program of acceleration rates, slower

initially, and higher just before reaching running
speed. The purpose of this is to reduce the thermal
fatigue duty associated with the start-up.

Normal shutdown is initiated by the operator,

and is reversible until the breaker opens. The
shutdown sequence begins with automatic unloading of
the unit at the normal rates shown in Table II. The
main generator breaker is opened by the reverse
power relay at about five percent negative power,
corresponding to about 99.8 percent speed set
point. This ensures that the breaker is not opened
with positive power on the train. (Unlike steam
turbines, working fluid in the gas turbine is always
flowing, allowing continuous dissipation of windage
losses. Furthermore, there are no bucket resonances
of concern.) Opening of the breaker drives the gas
turbine fuel flow to a minimum value sufficient to
maintain flame, but not unit speed.

At about 40 to 50 percent speed, turbine

efficiency has increased sufficiently so that the
gas turbine becomes self-sustaining, and overruns
the starting device, which is then allowed to cool
down prior to shutdown. At about 80 to 90 percent
the compressor inlet guide vanes, which were closed
during start-up to prevent compressor surge, are
opened to the full-speed, no-load position. As
mentioned previously, speed-sensitive events, such
as attainment of acceleration control and self sustaining conditions are sensitive to existing ambient
temperature, since they are really a function of air
flow.
As the turbine approaches running speed, the
next step of the start-up, synchronizing to the
running bus, is begun. This is a two-step process
that consists of matching turbine generator speed to
the bus, then closing the breaker at the point where
the two are in phase within predetermined limits.
Turbine speed is matched to line frequency with a
small positive differential, about 0.3 percent, to
ensure a small positive load pickup, (about 7.5
percent of rated load for four percent droop), to
prevent the generator breaker from tripping on
reverse power at breaker closure. Microprocessorbased synchronizing methods are used to predict zero
phase-angle difference and compensate for breaker
closing time to provide true zero phase-angle
closure.

The gas turbine then decelerates to about 40

percent speed, where fuel is completely shut off.
Again, the purpose of this fired shutdown sequence
is to reduce the thermal fatigue duty imposed on the
hot gas path parts. A typical fired shutdown
sequence, from breaker opening through fuel cutoff,
is shown in Fig. 11.
Subsequent to the shutoff of fuel, the gas
turbine coasts down to a point where the cool-down
turning system can be effective. The rotor must be
turned periodically to prevent bowing and resultant
vibration on subsequent start-ups. This is
accomplished via the torque converter output wheel,
operating from the auxiliary lube-oil pump on the
larger turbines, or a rotor turning device on the
smaller units. Normal (unaccelerated) cool-down
periods vary from five hours on the smaller turbines
to twenty-four hours on the larger units. Cool-down
sequences may be interrupted at any point for a
restart if desired.

The final step in the starting sequence

consists of automatic loading of the gas turbine
generator at either a normal or fast rate, as shown
in Table II, to either a preselected intermediate
load or base or peak load. Typical starting times

Table IV - Package Power Plant Starting Times

DIESEL
WARMUP
TIME
MINUTES

TURBINE
STARTING
TIME
MINUTES

TIME TO
FULL SPEED
NO LOAD
MINUTES

FUEL USED
106 BTU

MODEL
SERIES

TYPE OF
START

STARTING
DEVICE

MS5001P

Normal

Diesel

7.17

9.17

Fast
Load

Diesel

1/2

7.17

7.67

3.9

MS60018

3.9

Emergency

Big
Diesel

1/2

4.0

4.5

2.5

Normal

Diesel

10.0

12.0

5.7

Fast
Load

Diesel

1/2

6.67

7.17

4.2

Normal

Motor

N.A.

7.5

7.5

11.0

Normal

Motor

N.A.

8.17

8.17

15.4

MS7001EA
MS9001E

NOTES:
1. Times and fuel consumptions shown are for ISO conditions.
2. Appropriate loading time from lower half of Table II should be added to
reach ISO base load.
3. Fuel used for fired shutdown equals 15% of normal startup fuel
consumption.
4. Listed diesel starting devices may be replaced with motors. Please
delete diesel warmup times.
Purge, coastdown and gas turbine warmup periods are eliminated for
5.
emergency start.
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4.1

10

TX

sN
K^
LL^

FSR

=LL
wo
x k
I- w

TNH

C(,

=o
z,

IGV

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360
TIME-SECONDS

Figure 11 - Fired Shutdown Curves

ISOLATED OPERATION

The preceding discussion is based on the

existence of a firm utility tie, and essentially
fixed system frequency. This is the normal operating
environment in the United States and most developed
countries, but system upsets can result in occasional
system breakup and subsequent "islanding" of generation centers. To operate under these circumstances,
generators must be capable of satisfactory and stable
operation in an isolated mode. This implies that the
gas turbine generator governor should be capable of
maintaining connected system frequency within reasonable limits. In an isolated mode, there is true
speed control, but no load control, since the gas
turbine generator must carry whatever load is
connected to the system.
Under these abnormal operating conditions it
should be remembered that either the governor or the
temperature control system, but not both, will
control fuel flow and power output. Therefore, it
is important to ensure that the gas turbine is
operated at load levels within its rated capability
for the existing ambient and machine conditions. In
essence, the single-shaft gas turbine cannot operate
on temperature control when isolated, because there
is no speed control function. The resultant
variations in turbine speed, usually in the
decreasing direction, will reduce cycle airflow, and
turbine capability.
4.1.1 Isochronous Governing

3.4.1 Fast Start

The small gas turbines are capable of faster
starting in the event of a system emergency, however,
thermal fatigue duty for these faster starts is
substantially higher. Therefore, selection of a
fast or emergency start is by operator action, with
the normal start being the default case.
3.4.2 Black Start
Gas turbine generators that are equipped with
diesel engine starting devices are also optionally
capable of starting in a blacked-out condition,
without outside electrical power. Lube oil for
starting is supplied by the DC emergency pump,
powered from the unit battery, which also provides
power to the DC fuel forwarding pump for black
starts on distillate. (The turbine and generator
control panels are always powered from the battery
on all units.) Power for the cooling system fans is
obtained from the main generator through the power
potential transformer after the generator field is
flashed from the battery at about 20 percent speed.
The black start option utilizes a DC batteryoperated turning device for rotor cool-down to
ensure the integrity of the black start capability.
4.0

VARIATIONS AND OPTIONAL FEATURES

As can be seen from the foregoing discussion of

basic principles, the gas turbine-driven generator is
an extremely flexible, versatile and responsive contributor to utility system generation requirements.
Optional features which have been developed over the
past thirty years can further enhance this contribution. The balance of this paper will discuss
these features, and their application to the utility
generation environment.

When operating isolated with a droop governor,

the speed will vary in accordance with the droop
setting. This will amount to four percent for a
load range of 0 to 100 percent with a droop setting
of four percent, and clearly can be objectionable,
even under emergency conditions. The problem can be
addressed by operator action, using the speed
changer (or governor set point) to compensate for the
isolated system load variations. Reducing the droop
to two percent will cut the speed variation in half,
but will not eliminate it.
An alternative approach is to utilize an isochronous governor. As the name implies, this is a
true constant speed governor that will maintain a
constant system frequency regardless of the applied
load, up to the gas turbine capability. It is a
"zero droop" governor. In technical terms, it is
referred to as a proportional plus reset, or
integrating speed control. This can be contrasted
to the droop governor, which is referred to as a
straight proportional speed control. The reset feature of the isochronous governor allows it to
integrate out any steady-state speed error, with
time, to a zero error condition. This ensures that
the actual running speed will equal the reference
speed or set point.
The isochronous governor set point is fixed at
100 percent speed. Any deviation, regardless of how
small, will cause the isochronous governor to
integrate the fuel command in the direction of
making the error exactly zero. If another governor
is attempting to hold a slightly different speed,
the isochronous governor will respond by integrating
to one end or the other of its operating range,
either temperature control or minimum fuel. The
implication of this is that any system, or group of
connected prime movers, can have only one
isochronous governor, with the remainder being droop
governors.

s:s
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of connected prime movers, can have only one

isochronous governor, with the remainder being droop
governors.

120 \

ISOCHRONOUS
GOVERNOR

\
\

In such a multi-unit system, the unit with the

isochronous governor will have responsibility for
maintaining system frequency by absorbing the system
load changes. The units that are on droop governor
will change load only in proportion to changes in
their governor setpoints, so long as the unit with
the isochronous governor is operating within its
range.

110 ^

100

4% DROOP GOVERNOR
WITH 104% DIGITAL SET POINT

CAPABILITY % OF ISO RATING

90

4.1.2 Isochronous Load Shari

There are occasions where the potential load
change can exceed the rating of the largest unit on
the system. In these cases, the normal approach of
designating the largest unit as the isochronous
machine in the event of separation from the system,
will not prove adequate for frequency control when
islanded or separated. The alternative is to employ
a technique referred to as "Isochronous Load
Sharing".
Isochronous load sharing is a technique that
works equally well with small systems that will not
be interconnected, as well as with installations
that are exposed to being isolated. In this system,
all participating units are interconnected by a
signal representing the average system load being
carried as a percentage of participating unit
ratings. This signal is compared with the actual
percent load by each unit governor. Any deviation
from the system average causes a signal to be added
to, or subtracted from, the isochronous speed
reference.
Since any system load unbalance is transiently
represented by a corresponding system frequency
integrating error, the system automatically compensates for the unbalance to restore the system to
equilibrium at the speed reference value. Provisions
are made for incoming units to automatically align
themselves with the system average load prior to
participating in isochronous load sharing.
4.1.3 Dead Load Pickup
The ability to close the generator breaker on
de-energized system, thereby accepting a step change
in load torque, is another advantage of the gas turbine as a prime mover. It is attributable to the
direct combustion process and the inherently rapid
response of any internal combustion engine. Since
the system is de-energized, the gas turbine will be
an isolated source of generation after breaker
closure, and as described above, the gas turbine
cannot be operated on temperature control, as this
precludes normal speed governing.
However, if the bus is known to be dead, for
instance by the absence of voltage to synchronize
with, the droop governor set point can be stepped to
104 percent speed with breaker closure. This will
effectively increase fuel to the turbine faster than
the load will be applied, maintaining speed at or
better than rated, and thus maintaining dead load
pickup capability equal to turbine capability or ISO
rating, whichever is less. Dead load pickup capability is shown in Fig. 12.
This type of operation
increases the thermal fatigue duty on the hot gas
path parts.

80

4% DROOP GOVERNOR
WITH 100% DIGITAL SET POINT

70

20

40

60

80

100

120

AMBIENT TEMPERATURE - ^F

Figure 12 - Dead Load Pickup Capability Curve

4.2

LOAD CONTROL

Load, or generator output control is now

commonly fitted to most gas turbine generators, and
is utilized in the droop governing mode. This mode
of control is accomplished by measuring generator
output with a "watts transducer", comparing it to a
reference which is controlled from the governor
raise/lower function, and altering the speed control
set point to make the difference between actual and
reference power output zero. A typical predetermined "load" reference is "preselected load", which
is typically set for 50-60 percent load. On
startup, the gas turbine will automatically
synchronize and load up to the preselected load
point. A second start signal will cause the turbine
to load up to either base or peak temperature
control, whichever has been selected by the operator.
Continuous load control is sometimes desirable,
and can be implemented as an operator selectable
option from the control panel. It is important to
remember that the load control will work through the
normal governor function, by varying the set point at
the normal set point rates. Therefore the gas turbine will not participate in system frequency regulation, except on a very short term basis, since the
speed governor set point will always be pulsed up or
down to correct the load back to the equivalent load
set point.
4.2.1 Constant Settable Droop
The droop setting is important because it
determines how various prime movers on a system will
share load in proportion to variations in system
frequency. This proportionality is determined by the
droop setting, typically four percent. Unfortunately, the energy input as a function of the fuel
flow command is subject to the vagaries of fuel
temperature, heating value, and such peripheral
functions as steam or water injection flow rates.
Fortunately, the gas turbine generator makes an
excellent calorimeter. If any of the aforementioned
parameters change while at steady fuel flow command,
the generator output will reflect the change. This
characteristic provides the solution to the problem
of load sharing being subject to fuel, fuel supply
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and injection variations. The option that

accomplishes this is called "constant settable
droop". This approach uses a settable fractional
feedback of generator output power in place of the
traditional fuel flow feedback. If a signal proportional to four percent of the generator output is fed
back to the governor in place of the fuel flow feedback, the result is a four percent proportional droop
system that will maintain this proportionality
independently of fuel or injection conditions.

ME

_ UPPER
LIMIT

50% NOMINAL
LOAD

a % DROOP

75% NOMINAL LOAD

SPEED ^/n

LOA D - %

LOWER

Gas turbine participation in system frequency

regulation will continue in a normal droop governor
fashion since variations in the feedback only compensate for variations in fuel and injection conditions. A block diagram comparison of conventional
droop governing and constant settable droop governing
is shown in Fig. 13. The location of the speed (or
system frequency) feedback, relative to the load or
fuel feedback signals, will ensure governor and
turbine response to speed variations.

W
oFE TEN

Figure 13 - Droop Governing Comparison

4.2.2 Non-Linear Droop

In today's world of digitally-implemented
turbine control, it is now feasible to incorporate
many operating features that would be extremely
difficult, if not impossible, using analog systems.
A case in point is the implementation of non-linear
droop. This feature allows normal droop operation
for proper load sharing over the normally expected
range of frequency deviation.
However, if the system frequency error signal
exceeds a predetermined (and field settable) level,
either positive or negative, the operating droop is
reduced to a predetermined (also field settable)
degree. This results in the gas turbine generator
loading or unloading more rapidly in response to
frequency deviation, increasing the gas turbine
contribution to reducing system frequency deviations
in response to load variations. A typical
non-linear droop curve is shown in Fig. 14. This is
most effective on relatively small systems where the
gas turbines are a significant portion of the system
generation.

J LIMIT
1% DROOP

99

F
I

CURVES SHOWN FOR 4% DROOP BETWEEN UPPER AND LOWER LIMITS, WITH 1% DROOP
OUTSIDE UPPER AND LOWER LIMITS.

Figure 14 - Non-linear Droop Control Curve

4.2.3 Auto-peaking
A gas turbine operating at rated base load, on
temperature control provides no operating reserve
margin for the connected system, even though it may
have a peak rating. This is because standard control
procedures require that the operator select the
peaking mode, since peaking operation accelerates the
expenditure of available hot gas path parts lives.
An optional feature for the standard control
will allow operation on base temperature control, yet
still provide reserve margin in an amount equal to
the difference between base and peak capability for
the prevailing ambient and machine conditions to
assist in recovery from system upsets. This option
utilizes a speed or frequency detector to automatically ramp the temperature control set point from the
base to peak settings if system frequency drops below
the detector setting. This action returns control of
fuel flow to the speed governor, which then increases
fuel in response to the system frequency deviation.
Resolution of the speed or frequency detector settings is easily achievable down to 0.01 Hertz.
Return of the gas turbine to base load temperature control occurs at an adjustable time interval
after recovery of system frequency, as indicated by
the detector. Manual selection of peak will inhibit
the automatic return to base temperature control. A
comparator compares actual exhaust temperature to the
base temperature control set point, and records
fired hours on the appropriate base or peak meters.
Naturally, this feature requires that the gas
turbine have a peak rating. In cogeneration or heat
recovery operations, consideration should be given to
the expected temperatures to be encountered during
the selection of downstream heat recovery equipment.
4.3

VARIABLE INLET GUIDE VANES

Variable inlet guide vanes (IGV's) are supplied

on most gas turbines to control air flow during
startup to avoid compressor surge as described in the
section on turbine startup. In addition, IGV's are
positioned at minimum full-speed operating level on
gas-fired turbines under light load conditions to
decrease the compressor discharge pressure, and
thereby increase the fuel nozzle pressure ratio, as a
means of minimizing the potential for combustor
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resonance. The startup IGV setting is 34 degrees,

and the minimum full-speed operating level is 57
degrees, while maximum IGV angle is 84 degrees,
corresponding to rated compressor inlet flow for the
conditions shown in Table I.
4.3.1

Heat Recovery Operation

The IGV's have the ability to control compressor inlet flow, under normal operating conditions,
over a range of between 75 and 85 percent to 100
percent, depending on prevailing ambient and machine
conditions. This provides increased exhaust temperatures at part load, relative to full air flow conditions, and can substantially increase the amount of
exhaust energy that is recoverable, since higher
exhaust temperature at reduced flow provides more
effective heat transfer in the HRSG than higher flow
at reduced temperature. It should be noted that,
under the postulated conditions of rated firing
temperature, the turbine efficiency as a function of
flow is relatively flat, varying only as a second
order function of pressure ratio. The net result is
that overall part-load combined-cycle efficiencies
are higher at reduced IGV settings.
For this reason, virtually all gas turbines
installed for heat recovery operation utilize modulating IGV's to maximize cycle part-load thermal
efficiencies. The control scheme employs the temperature control system to hold the IGV's closed, at
the 57 degree setting, until the turbine exhaust
temperature reaches a settable differential below
that at which fuel limiting will occur. Further
increases of fuel in response to governor action
cause the inlet guide vanes to open, since the
exhaust temperature now transiently exceeds the IGV
control set point, increasing air flow, fuel flow,
and gas turbine output. This process continues until
the IGV's are fully open, whereupon further increases
in fuel flow cause the exhaust temperature to
increase, putting the turbine on temperature control
of fuel flow. This combined temperature control
characteristic is shown in Fig. 15.

LIUIIXIi4UI t8U1'CI8

/
,

ISO CONDITIONS
57 IGV AN GLE

//
/

/
TEMPERATURE

\
ISO CONDITIONS

HEAVY LINE INDICATES

TYPICAL TRAJECTORY
FROM PART LOAD TO
FULL LOAD .

84 IGV ANGLE

/
/

MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE

EXHAUSTTEMPERATURE

ISO CONDITIONS
84 IGV ANGLE

FUEL CONTROL LINE

/ \^

/
/

\
IGV CONTROL LINE

COMPRESSOR DISCHARGE PRESSURE

Figure 15 - VIGV Temperature Speed/Load Curve

The operating characteristics of the gas turbine under modulating IGV operation can be approximately described as follows. Since the turbine
efficiency is relatively flat, the torque equation of
Section 3.1 remains essentially unchanged. However,
the exhaust temperature equations must be
compensated by the ratio of rated air flow to actual
air flow, corrected for ambient conditions.
The dynamic load pickup capability of the gas
turbine, after reaching IGV control, is limited by
the differential in temperature between the IGV set
point and the fuel temperature control set point,
resulting in reduced response to decreasing system
frequency. Response to the slower change of the
governor set point, and increasing system frequency
remain essentially the same as the simple cycle gas
turbine. In cases where fast response is required,
an internal control signal is utilized to fully open
the inlet guide vanes more rapidly, and thus allow
more rapid load pickup.
The application of exhaust heat recovery
equipment results in an increase in the exhaust system pressure drop which adversely affects gas turbine
performance as alluded to in Tables I and III. The
net effect is a reduction in turbine output of
approxi- mately 0.5 percent for each four inches
(100 mm) water-gage increase in turbine back
pressure. In addition, the reduced turbine pressure
ratio, at constant firing temperature, results in an
increase in turbine exhaust temperature of 2.2F
(1.2C) for each four-inch increase in back
pressure. There is no corresponding change in fuel
flow, since air flow and firing temperature are
constant.
4.4

EMISSIONS CONTROL

Gas turbine emissions of nitrogen oxides can be

reduced to meet EPA requirements by injecting water
or steam into the primary combustion zone to lower
flame temperatures. This increases the turbine mass
flow, pressure ratio, and working fluid properties in
a manner which substantially alters the gas turbine
performance characteristics in comparison to the
"dry" condition. The amount of water or steam to be
injected is highly sensitive to site conditions, fuel
composition and applicable local codes. Therefore,
this paper will only address broad concepts, couched
in terms of a typical gas turbine at ISO conditions,
burning natural gas or distillate, and meeting EPA
requirements.
4.4.1

Water Injection

Water injection is the method of choice for

controlling nitrogen oxide emissions from simplecycle gas turbines. Typical water injection curves
for gas and distillate fuels are shown in Fig. 16.
The practicalities of instrument resolution and EPA
requirements for accuracy dictate the shape of the
low-flow portion of the curve, which is designed to
ensure meeting minimum injection requirements, while
maintaining achievable minimum flow feedback signal
levels. Fast acting shutoff valves are used to
reduce injection flow in the event of load rejection
to prevent combustor flameout. Failure to maintain
required water to fuel ratios will cause an alarm in
accordance with EPA reporting requirements, but will
not result in a turbine shutdown. The effect of
water injection on turbine performance is shown in
Table V.
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availability of excess steam at many cogeneration

sites, has led to the consideration of steam
injection, beyond levels required for emissions
control, as a means of augmenting turbine output.
However, there is a limit to the amount of steam
injection into the gas turbine in general, and into
the primary zone of the combustor in particular.
The latter limit is set by the flameout
characteristics of the combustor, while the former
is set by mechanical considerations and compressor
pressure ratio limitations.

2.0

1.5

0
J

LL

oca

The maximum allowable total steam injection to

the gas turbine is approximately five percent of
existing air flow depending on model series, and
prevailing ambient and machine conditions. This must
be divided between emissions control steam injection
into the combustor, and power augmentation steam
injected into the compressor discharge, as indicated
in Fig. 2.

1.0

3N

0
.5

100

50

150

FUEL FLOW - % OF ISO RATED

Figure 16 - Emissions Control Water to Fuel Ratio Curves

4.4.2 Steam Injection

Steam injection is the method of choice for
controlling emissions from gas turbines applied to
cogeneration and combined-cycle systems because of
the availability of steam at appropriate conditions,
and because of the substantial improvement in gas
turbine heat rate that is achievable. Steam flow
requirements are nominally 1.4 times those shown for
water injection. The effect of steam injection on
turbine performance is also shown in Table V.
Table

V - Performance Characteristics with Injection

EFFECT SHOWN IS FOR EACH 1% INJECTION
POWER INCREASE - %

MODEL

FUEL FLOW INCREASE - %

* Water Injection
MS5001PA
MS6001B
MS7001E
MS7001EA
MS9001E

5.0

SUMMARY

The heavy-duty gas turbine is a very flexible

prime mover for driving generators in utility service. This paper has described the basic operating
characteristics of the gas turbine and its controls
and optional features from the viewpoint of utility
applications. Emphasis has been placed on the interaction of the equipment with the connected system,
and is based on experience with over 2500 gas
turbines in generator service.
REFERENCES

3.5
3.0
2.9
2.9
3.0

5.5
4.8

3.3
2.9
2.8
2.8
2.8

1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5

1. C.R. St. Pierre - "Impact Loading of Isolated

Generators", IEEE Transactions on Industry
4.9 Applications, Vol. IA-17, No. 6, November/December
1981, Page 557.

4 9
.

* Steam Injection
MS5001PA
MS60018
MS7001E
MS7001EA
MS9001E

In most cases, control of augmentation steam is

achieved as an extension of the normal turbine
governing characteristic in a technique referred to
as "dual governing", which allows the governor to
control turbine output beyond the point where fuel
is limited by the temperature control system. Where
excess steam is usually available, it is also possible to base load the augmentation steam, and allow
the gas turbine governor to alter output using fuel
flow while below rated exhaust temperature. Since
some of the augmentation steam goes through the
primary zone of the combustor, the algorithms that
calculate the two flows are very complex. Exhaust
temperature control curves are also compensated for
the effects of steam injection when the steam
injection is in use.

NOTES TO TABLE V
1.

Injection is defined as a % of inlet flow in Table I.

2.

Values shown are for ISO base load conditions.

2. W.I. Rowen - "Simplified Mathematical

Representations of Heavy-Duty Gas Turbines", ASME
Journal of Engineering for Power, October 1983,
Page 865.
3. R.L. Doughty, et al - "Electrical Studies For An
Industrial Gas Turbine Cogeneration Facility", IEEE
Paper #IAS 32-034, Presented in Denver, Colorado,
October, 1986.

4.4.3 Power Augmentation

The improvement in gas turbine performance
achievable with steam injection, coupled with the
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