KEN ANDRIE D.

GUARIA
BSEE 4
03-17-15

A.C. APPARATUS

Parallel Operation of Single Phase Transformer

Two transformers are said to be connected in parallel if the primary windings are
connected to supply busbars and secondary windings are connected to load
busbars. While connecting two or more than two transformers in parallel, it
is essential that their terminals of similar polarities are joined to the same busbars.
The wrong connections may result in a dead short-circuit and primary transformers
may be damaged unless protected by fuses or circuit breakers. There are three
principal reasons for connecting transformers in parallel. Firstly, if one transformer
fails,
the
continuity
of
supply
can
be
maintained
through
other
transformers. Secondly, when the load on the substation becomes more than the
capacity of the existing transformers, another transformer can be added in
parallel. Thirdly, any transformer can be taken out of the circuit for repair/routine
maintenance without interrupting supply to the consumers.
Why Parallel Operation of Transformers is required? It is required because it is
economical to install numbers of smaller rated transformers in parallel than
installing a bigger rated electrical power transformer. This has mainly the following
advantages; to maximize electrical power system efficiency, to maximize electrical
power system availability, to maximize power system reliability and to
maximize electrical power system flexibility.
When two or more transformers run in parallel, they must satisfy the following
conditions for satisfactory performance. These are the conditions for parallel
operation of transformers; same voltage ratio, same percentage impedance, same
polarity and same phase sequence.

Instrument Transformer
Instrument transformers are high accuracy class electrical devices used to isolate or
transform voltage or current levels. The most common usage of instrument
transformers is to operate instruments or metering from high voltage or high
current circuits, safely isolating secondary control circuitry from the high voltages or
currents. The primary winding of the transformer is connected to the high voltage or
high current circuit, and the meter or relay is connected to the secondary circuit.
Instrument transformers may also be used as an isolation transformer so that
secondary quantities may be used in phase shifting without affecting other primary
connected devices.
Current transformers (CT) are a series connected type of instrument transformer.
They are designed to present negligible load to the supply being measured and
have an accurate current ratio and phase relationship to enable accurate secondary
connected metering. It also steps down the current of a circuit to a lower value and
is used in the same types of equipment as potential transformer. The types of
instrument current transformer include the following; bar type C.T. (placed on the
panel board to measure the current of the bus bars) and clamp on/tong tester (can
be used with a single conductor and the core of C.T. can be split with the help of a
trigger switch and therefore the core can be clamped around a live conductor to
measure the current).

KEN ANDRIE D. GUARIA

BSEE 4
03-17-15

A.C. APPARATUS

Potential transformers (PT) (also called voltage transformers (VT)) are a parallel
connected type of instrument transformer. They are designed to present negligible
load to the supply being measured and have an accurate voltage ratio and phase
relationship to enable accurate secondary connected metering. It also steps down
the voltage of a circuit to a low value that can be effectively and safely used for
operation of instruments such as ammeters, voltmeters, wattmeters and relays
used for various protective purposes. The types of instrument potential transformer
includes the following;

electromagnetic P.T. (wire wound transformer), capacitor P.T. (uses capacitance

potential divider which is lower cost than electromagnetic P.T.) and optical P.T.
(which exploits the electrical properties of optical materials).

Scott or T-Connections Transformer

A Scott connected transformer is a type of circuit device used to convert a threephase supply (3-, 120-degree phase rotation) to a two-phase (2-, 90-degree
phase rotation), or vice-versa. The Scott connection evenly distributes a balanced
load between the phases of the source. It all started in the later part of 19th
century, two phase generators were used to drive three phase motors. For
this Edisons rotary convertors were used. As the usages of rotary convertors were
expensive, an engineer from Westinghouse Charles F. Scott designed a transformer
that converts three phase to two phase or vice versa. Hence the transformer is
named after him.
Now as most of the equipment runs on either single phase or three phases, Scott
connected transformers became obsolete. However still in some places like
the electrical locomotive stations, these transformers have relevance. The Scott
connection uses two single-phase transformers to transform three phase voltages
and currents into two-phase voltages and currents.
The first single phase transformer is called the main transformer. It has a centertapped primary winding connected to the three-phase circuit with the secondary
winding connected to the two-phase circuit. The ends of the center-tapped main
primary winding are connected to two of the phases of the three-phase circuit.
The second single phase transformer is called the teaser transformer. It has one
end of its primary winding connected to the third phase of the three-phase circuit
and the other end connected to the center tap of the primary winding of the main.
The Scott connection requires no primary neutral connection, so zero-sequence
currents are blocked.

Solenoid
A solenoid is a coil of insulated or enameled wire wound on a rod-shaped form made
of solid iron, solid steel, or powdered iron. Devices of this kind can be used as
electromagnets,
as
inductors
in
electronic
circuits,
and
as
miniature wireless receiving antennas.
In a solenoid, the core material is ferromagnetic, meaning that it concentrates
magnetic lines of flux. This increases the inductance of the coil far beyond the
inductance obtainable (thats why solenoid can be more specifically classified as an
inductor rather than an electromagnet.) with an air-core coil of the same dimensions
and the same number of turns. When current flows in the coil, most of the resulting
magnetic flux exists within the core material. Some flux appears outside the coil
near the ends of the core; a small amount of flux also appears outside the coil and
off to the side.

The types of solenoids are the following; push, pull, rotary, clapper, open frame and
closed frame solenoid. The typical solenoid applications are the linear and rotary
solenoid
application.
For
linear
application
includes
valve
actuators,
latching/switching and pushing/pulling objects. For rotary application includes
shutter actuators and sorting machines.

Toroid
A toroid is a coil of insulated or enameled wire wound on a donut-shaped form made
of powdered iron. A toroid is used as an inductor in electronic circuits, especially at
low frequencies where comparatively large inductances are necessary. A toroid has
more inductance, for a given number of turns, than a solenoid with a core of the
same material and similar size. This makes it possible to construct high-inductance
coils of reasonable physical size and mass. Toroidal coils of a given inductance can
carry more current than solenoidal coils of similar size, because larger-diameter
wires can be used, and the total amount of wire is less, reducing the resistance.
In a toroid, all the magnetic flux is contained in the core material. This is because
the core has no ends from which flux might leak off. The confinement of the flux
prevents external magnetic fields from affecting the behavior of the toroid, and also
prevents the magnetic field in the toroid from affecting other components in a
circuit.
The applications of toroid are the following; security systems, lighting dimming,
professional audio and audio visual equipment, domestic Hi-Fi audio and audio
visual equipment, etc.

Fuses and Circuit Breakers

Large power overloads may potentially destroy electrical equipment, or in more
serious cases, cause a fire. A fuse and circuit breaker both serve to protect an
overloaded electrical circuit by interrupting the continuity, or the flow of electricity.
How they interrupt the flow of electricity is very different, however. A fuse is made
up of a piece of metal that melts when overheated; a circuit breaker has an internal
switch mechanism that is tripped by an unsafe surge of electricity. Fuses tend to be
quicker to interrupt the flow of power, but must be replaced after they melt, while
circuit breakers can usually simply be reset.
There are many different types of fuses for residential and commercial use, but the
most common type is made up of a metal wire or filament that is enclosed in a glass
or ceramic and metal casing. In a home, the fuse is typically plugged into a central
fuse box where all the buildings wiring passes through. When the electricity is
flowing normally, the fuse permits the power to pass unobstructed across its
filament, between circuits. If an overload occurs, the filament melts, stopping the
flow of electricity.
It generally takes very little time for the filament in the type of fuse used in a home
to melt, so any power surge is quickly stopped. Once a fuse is blown, however, it
must be discarded and replaced with a new one. There are many different voltage
and ratings available that handle different capacities of electricity, and the best fuse
4

for a circuit is typically one that is rated for slightly higher than the normal
operating current.
A circuit breaker works in one of two ways, with an electromagnet (or solenoid) or a
bi-metal strip. In either case, the basic design is the same: when turned on, the
breaker allows electrical current to pass from a bottom to an upper terminal across
the solenoid or strip. When the current reaches unsafe levels, the magnetic force of
the solenoid becomes so strong that a metal lever within the switch mechanism is
thrown, and the current is broken. Alternately, the metal strip bends, throwing the
switch and breaking the connection.
To reset the flow of electricity after the problem is resolved, the switch can simply
be turned back on, reconnecting the circuit. Circuit breakers are often found in a
cabinet of individual switches, called a breaker box. The simple switch action of a
circuit breaker also makes it easy to turn off an individual circuit in a house if it's
necessary to work on the wiring in that location.
Another use of the circuit breaker is a ground fault circuit interrupter (GFCI) outlet,
which functions to prevent electric shock instead of overheating. It works by
breaking the circuit in an outlet if the current becomes unbalanced, and can be
reset by the push of a button. This technology is particularly useful in bathrooms or
kitchens where electrocution is a risk due to the frequent use of electric appliances
near a source of water.

Power Relays

A relay is an electromagnetic switch operated by a relatively small electric current

that can turn on or off a much larger electric current. The heart of a relay is an
electromagnet (a coil of wire that becomes a temporary magnet when electricity
flows through it). You can think of a relay as a kind of electric lever: switch it on with
a tiny current and it switches on ("leverages") another appliance using a much
bigger current.
A power relay is a switch which uses an electromagnetic coil in order to close or
open a circuit. Power relays also contain an armature, a spring and one or several
contacts. If the power relay is designed to normally be open, when power is applied,
the electromagnet attracts the armature, which is then pulled in the coils direction
until it reaches a contact, therefore closing the circuit. If the relay is designed to be
normally closed, the electromagnetic coil pulls the armature away from the contact,
therefore opening the circuit.
Power relays are used for many different applications, including: automotive
electronics, audio amplification, telephone systems, home appliances, vending
machines, etc.

Lightning and Surge Arrester

5

Lightning can create voltage surges in several of the following ways. Lightning can
score a direct hit on your house. It can strike the overhead power line which enters
your house, or a main power line that is blocks away from your home. Lightning can
strike branch circuitry wiring in the walls of your house. Lightning can strike an
object near your home such as a tree or the ground itself and cause a surge.
Lightning arresters are protective devices for limiting surge voltages due to
lightning strikes or equipment faults or other events, to prevent damage to
equipment and disruption of service. Also called surge arresters.Lightning arresters
are installed on many different pieces of equipment such as power poles and
towers, power transformers, circuit breakers, bus structures, and steel
superstructures in substations
The term "power surge" is a widely misused term. There really is no clear definition
of what a 'power surge' is. But a voltage surge is when the instantaneous
magnitude of voltage spikes to a high value. While surge arrester is used to protect
insulation/components from high dv/dt that peak at instantaneous values that are in
excess of the breakdown of the insulation or component. Lightning is one common
cause of voltage surges. Another common cause is switching in an inductive circuit.

Electric Meter
Electricity meter provides a window into your electricity consumption, so it's vital to
understand how to take accurate measurements. Your electricity meter will tell you
how much you actually use - rather than the estimate your supplier uses for each
bill. Its important to take accurate measurements from electric meters as this
ensures you don't pay more than you need to. Electric meters let you know how
much energy you actually use, as opposed to the estimate your supplier uses for
each bill. This will also help you decide whether you can get a better rate by
switching.
There are five main types of electric meters. Taking an electricity meter reading
differs depending on the model as each displays information differently. Standard,
digital and dial are three ways used to display a basic electric meter reading.
Standard meter (or electric mechanical meter) is the most common type of electric
meter and uses a mechanical display to show your readings.
Dial meters which look like small traditional clocks are slightly more complex. When
reading your dial meter, always remember that dials next to each other go round in
opposite directions.
Digital meters Uses the first five figures on the digital display, and ignore any last
figure that begins 0.1.