Reproduction in Plants

Like animals, plants must pass on their genetic information to the next generation, i.e.
reproduce. Within the kingdom plantae, there are hundreds of thousands of different
plants, dating back millions of years. Most can reproduce both sexually and asexually.
Reproduction in Plants
Sexual
2 parents.
Fertilisation
Gametes > meiosis.
Varied offspring (evolution
prone to mutation).
Complex therefore, lots of
time.
Often used to produce
structures (e.g. seeds) to
survive adverse conditions
(e.g. Winter).

Asexual
1 parent.
No fertilisation
No gametes > mitosis.
Identical offspring.
Very quick allows plants
to spread in environment.
Optimum conditions.

The sexual structures of various plants show a multitude of mechanisms to ensure that
the male gamete (the one that moves) reaches the female gamete. For example,
conifers have cones, mosses have motle spores, ferns have sexual sari but the most
obvious sexual structures are the flowers of the angiosperms (flowering plants)
Angiosperms are considered by most botanists to be the apex of evolution in the
plant kingdom and we shall see an incredible variety of flowers occupying specific
niches. e.g. There is a Bee orchid whos flower mimics the sex organs of a female bee
to entice male bees to pollinate them.
What are the problems for stationary organisms and sex?
Plants cannot translocate, therefore the male part of the flower cannot directly deliver
its gametes to the female parts. Therefore, some kind of vector is needed: The three
major vectors involved are:
1. Wind
2. Water
3. Animals
As the male gamete is called pollen the role of the vectors is to transfer polled from the
male parts of one flower (anthers) to the female parts (carpels) of another flower of the
same species. This process is called pollination.

The Structure of Wind and Animal Pollinated Plants

Feature of Flower

Insect Pollinated
(Sunflower)
Enclosed within the
flower so that insects
must make contact.

Wind Pollinated
(Conifer)
Exposed so the wind
can easily blow them
away.

Position of
Stigma

Enclosed within the

flower so that insects
must make contact.

Exposed to catch
pollen blowing in the
wind.

Type of Stigma

Sticky so pollen grains

attach from insects.

Size of Petals

Large, to attract
insects.

Feathery, to catch
pollen grains blowing
in the wind.
Small, have no need to
attract insects.

Colour of Petals

Bright yellow petals to

attract insects.

Green + dull, no need

to attract insects.

Nectories

Present reward for

insect.
Small + sticky to stick
to insects bodies.

None

Position of
Stamens

Pollen Grains

Larger, inflated grains

to carry in the wind.

Structure of a typical Animal Pollinated Plant Buttercup

How is Self Pollination Avoided?

NB The whole point of sex is variation
The major cause of variation is the joining together of genetic information of two
different individuals. Therefore, most plants have a problem as most flowers have both
male and female parts.
Self-pollination is avoided in most species by differential ripening. i.e. the carpels
+ the stamens never release gametes at the same time.
What Happens After Pollination?

Nucleus moves down the pollen

tube and fuses with female
nucleus. i.e. fertilisation
Chromosomes are now in pairs.

Dispersal The Events That Follow Fertilisation

In simple terms, following fertilisation, the ovary develops into a fruit and the
integuments and zygote develop into a seed (the zygote being the embryo). Thus a
fruit (true fruit) will contain seeds. Therefore, a tomato is a fruit. Beware false fruits!
e.g. Strawberries!
False fruit Strawberry

Typical True Fruit Apple

Different flowers produce different types of fruit, but in all cases the following four
changes take place.
1. The zygote develops into an embryonic plant with small root (radicle) and shoot
(plumule).
2. The other contents of the ovule develop into cotyledons which will be a good
store for the young plant when the seed germinates.

3. The ovule wall becomes the seed coat or testa.

4. The ovary wall becomes the fruit coat; this can take many forms depending on
the type of fruit.
The Biology of Dispersal
It is clear, the competition between developing seedlings and indeed competition with
parent plants is best avoided. For example, the soil contains only so many nutrients
such as nitrates (NO3-), phosphates (PO43-) and sulphates (SO42-), the air contains
limited Carbon Dioxide for photosynthesis and even more obviously, big leafy trees will
shade out developing seedlings. Hence, dispersal is a huge selection pressure in the
evolution of plants.
The Various Methods of Dispersal
Propagule: Any structure that is the result of sex in plants that is dispersed. e.g. fruit,
seeds, false fruit + spores!
Animal Dispersal

Succulent Propagules

Hooked / Barbed

Seeds with a
resistant coat to pass through
the digestive system unaltered.
Ability to be
activated after dormancy.
Attraction obvious
colour + odour.
Reward Tasty
flesh.
Wind Dispersal

Winged Propagules (Sycamore)

Some method
of
sticking to animal
vector. e.g. goose

Feathered Propagules (Dandelion)

Self Dispersal
Explosive
Lupin, Laburnum.
Seeds are encased in
contractile protein
structures. As the
case loses water, the
proteins contract and
force the seed up/out
Water Dispersal
and away from the

Rattle Style
e.g. Some poppies.
Controlled system of
release using
flexibility of the
ovary.

Propagules must have a density of less than one and therefore they can float on water.
They must also have a method of waterproofing; this usually involves lipids or

waterproof hairs. The coconut is the best example although it also depends on animals.

Germination
A seed contains a plant embryo, consisting of a root (radicle), shoot (plumule) and one
or two seed leaves, called cotyledons. It also contains a food store. During germination,
the food store is used up, providing the nutrients to allow the radicle and plumule to
grow. The radicle grows down into the soil, where it will absorb water and mineral ions.
The plumule grows upwards towards the light, where it can start the process of
photosynthesis. Once the small plant (seedling) is able to photosynthesise, germination
is over.
The food store of peas or beans is present in the cotyledons. It consists mainly of starch
and protein. In monocots such as maize, there is a separate food store of starch.

The Conditions Needed for Germination

When seeds are dispersed from the parent plant they are usually very dry, containing
about on 10% water. This low water content restricts a seeds metabolism, so that it
can remain alive but dormant for a long time, sometimes for many years.
When a seed germinates, dormancy is broken. The seeds food store is broken down by
enzymes and respired aerobically. This means that germination needs the following
conditions:

Warm temperatures, so that enzymes can act efficiently.

Water, for chemical reactions to take place in solution.
Oxygen, for respiration.

How The Female Hormones Control the Menstrual Cycle

1) Day 0/28 Menstrual flow Blood endometrium + unfertilised egg voided in the
vagina.
2) Low hormone levels stimulate pituitary to release FSH (follicle stimulating hormone)
3) FSH stimulates one follicle to grow (graafian follicle)
4) Graafian follicle releases oestrogen which a) switches off FSH
b) stimulates endometrium growth.

5) Oestrogen increases from day 1 peaks at 15/16. Stimulates pituitary for second
time and for 24 hours, the female releases LH into the blood. (6)
6) LH targets the graafian follicle causing it to burst open releasing the ovum. (7)
8) Ovum is swept into fallopian tube. Scar tissue left following bursting of follicle is
called corpus luteum and it releases progesterone (9)
9) Progesterone produced for 12-14 days:
a) maintains endometrium
b) Keeps FSH and LH off (negative feedback)
10) When the progesterone runs out the woman has a menstrual period.

Male and Female Reproductive Systems

What Happens if the Egg is Fertilised?

If during the menstrual cycle, the egg is fertilised, the corpus luteum continues to make
progesterone. This progesterone is produced to continue maintaining the lining of the
uterus and therefore, the lining is not shed and menstruation does not happen. The first
sign that a woman is pregnant is when her monthly periods stop. When the placenta
develops, later on in the pregnancy, it secretes progesterone, taking over the role of
the corpus luteum.
During pregnancy, a membrane called the amnion encloses the developing embryo.
The amnion secretes a fluid called the amniotic fluid, which protects the developing
embryo against jolts and bumps. As the embryo develops, it becomes more and more
complex. When it becomes recognisably human, we no longer call it an embryo, but a
fetus. At the end of nine months of development, there isnt any room left for the fetus
to grow and it sends a hormonal signal to the mother to initiate birth. This is called
going into labour.

The placenta is an interactive organ with a large surface area allowing the mothers
blood to flow on one side and the embryos in the opposite direction. Thus diffusion of
substances will occur in both directions.
NB The placenta is also very thin and thus diffusion is very speedy as the distance is
very short.
The embryos blood will be low in oxygen, amino acids, glucose, fatty acids etc.
because it is growing at such a fast rate. Therefore, all of these will diffuse from the
mothers blood into the embryos blood. However CO2 and UREA will move in the
opposite direction. All of this represents an efficient exchange mechanism. However,
mother beware! Viruses, e.g. HIV and drugs e.g. caffeine, alcohol, or nicotine, will also
pass across the placenta and therefore pregnant females must take care of their eating
and drinking and avoid possible disease situations.

Pregnancy
We have seen that the menstrual cycles prepares the uterus for pregnancy by the
production and maintenance of an endometrium and indeed the placenta produces
progesterone throughout pregnancy. This not only ensures a healthy relationship
between the placenta and the developing embryo but, it ensures no more eggs are
released.
Why Internal Development?
Placental Mammal
O2 Supply

Nutrients - e.g. amino

acids, glucose.
Temperature
Physical Protection

Placenta has a large

surface area and therefore
aerobic respiration can
supply ATP for
development.
Provided by placenta in
large amounts. Egg is
therefore relatively small.
Homothermic embryo
inside female therefore
temperature is constant.
Embryo develops in fluid
filled sacs. Chorion (allow
waste to leave)

External Egg
Development
Relies on diffusion via
porous shell.

Egg must be huge,

therefore venerable to
damage.
Male/Female incubate
eggs for a number of
weeks (geese = 8 weeks)
Parents must be careful
not to damage the eggs
during incubation
vulnerable to predators
and physical damage.

NB Lungs are not active until birth, therefore, the baby will not drown.
The Three Stages of Birth
1) Dilation of the cervix The cervix gets wider to allow the baby to pass through. The
amnion is then ruptured by the uterus muscles contracting quite strongly. This allows
the amniotic fluid to escape, or the breaking of the waters.
2) Delivery of the baby The baby is pushed hard first through the cervix and vagina to
the outside world by strong contracting of the muscles of the uterus.
3) Delivery of the afterbirth The uterus continues to contract after the baby is born
and together with the membranes that surrounded the baby, the placenta is pushed
out. These are known as the afterbirth.

Changes at Puberty

These are the roles of oestrogen and testosterone in the development of secondary
sexual characteristics.
Puberty also brings changes in attitude and behaviour

Cell Division
Mitosis

2 Identical Diploid Cells

Occurs during growth, repair,
producing offspring
cloning and asexual reproduction.

Meiosis

4 Haploid Gametes Variable

Occurs when

The nucleus of a cell contains chromosomes on which genes are located. A gene is a
section of a molecule of DNA. Genes exist in alternative forms called alleles which give
rise to differences in inherited characteristics.
Human body cells have 46 chromosomes in 23 pairs called homologous pairs.
Chromosomes in a homologous pair carry genes for the same features in the same
sequence. They do not necessarily have the same alleles of every single gene. These
body cells are diploid cells they have two copies of each chromosome. The sex cells,
with 23 chromatids (only one copy of each chromosome), are haploid cells.
Mitosis
When a parent cell divides, it produces daughter cells. Mitosis produces two
daughter cells that are genetically identical to the parent cell both daughter cells

have the same number and type of chromosomes as the parent cell. To achieve this,
the dividing cell must do two things:
1. It must copy each chromosome before it divides. This involves the DNA
replicating and more proteins being added to the structure. Each daughter
cell will then be able to receive a copy of each chromosome (and each
molecule of DNA) when the cell divides.
2. It must divide in such a way that each daughter cell receives one copy of
every chromosome. If it does not do this, both daughter cells will not
contain all the genes.

Mitosis
There are four main stages of mitosis:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase

There is also another part of mitosis, before the prophase called the interphase.

Each daughter cell in mitosis is identical. Whenever cells need to be replaced in our
bodies, cells divide by mitosis to make them. This happens more frequently in some
regions than others.
The skin loses thousands of cells every time we touch something. This adds up to
millions every day that need replacing. A layer of cells beneath the surface is
constantly dividing to produce replacements.
Cells are scraped off the lining of the gut as food passes along. Again, a layer of
cells beneath the gut lining is constantly diving to produce replacement cells.
Cells in our spleen destroy worn out red blood cells at the rate of
100,000,000,000 per day! These are replaced by cells in the bone marrow
dividing by mitosis. In addition, the bone marrow forms all our new white blood
cells and platelets.
Cancer cells divide by mitosis. The cells formed are exact copies of the parent
cell, including the mutation in the genes that makes the cells divide
uncontrollably.
Meiosis

1st Meiotic division The chromosomes move to same spindle fibre.

2nd Division Chromatids separate.

Therefore, from these diagrams, it should be clear that meiosis produces gametes that
contain chromosomes that are no longer in pairs and that sex is essential because
during fertilisation, the gametes fuse and the diploid state (pairs) is re-established.
Why Does Sex lead to Variation?
1. Each new zygote contains genetic information from 2 different individuals.
2. Even siblings are not identical because every sperm and every egg has a unique
combination of gene.
3. Meiosis is complex and is prone to mistakes called mutations.

Chromosomes, Genes and DNA

Deoxyribonucleic Acid, or DNA, is the genetic material found in the nucleus of cells as
long thin threads known as chromosomes.
DNA is a complex message that determines exactly the characteristics of an organism.
It is often called the genetic code, but what does it actually do?

A Model of DNA
Scientific models are ideas set out to explain known facts. There are four things which
our model must be able to explain:
1.
2.
3.
4.

How
How
How
How

does DNA replicate itself?

can it code the 20 different amino acids?
does it account for mutation?
do you get so much information in such a small space?

What does DNA actually do?

DNA tells the cells exactly which to make by coding specific sequences of amino acids.
Why DNA must replicate itself?

The Chemical Nature of DNA

The following chemical facts were known about DNA:
1.
2.
3.
4.

It always contains deoxyribose sugar.

There are a high amount of Phosphate ions (PO43-)
There are four nitrogenous bases; adenine, thymine, cytosine and guanine.
In every bit of DNA from every living creature, the number of As always equals
the number of Ts ad the number of Cs always equals the number of Gs. Thus
suggesting that they are complementary.

DNA replicating itself

DNA as a 3D molecule is 2 anti-parallel
strands of complimentary nitrogenous
bases joined together by Hydrogen bonds.
During replication of DNA, 2 strands
separate and each one acts as a template
for manufacture of the other therefore
giving 2 identical DNA strands.
DNA Doing its job The Coding strand
41 1 base > 1 aa = 4 (not enough)
42 doublet code = 16 (not enough)
43 triplet code (punctuation codes as well) =

64 (enough)

A gene is a section of DNA triplets coding for a particular protein.

Mutation
Sometimes, the information on the chromosomes changes, especially during
meiosis (production of gametes in the gonads). A change in the DNA that leads to a
change in a protein is know as a mutation.
Variation is different however, it can be genetic, environmental, or a combination
of both.
Most mutations are neutral, however in terms of evolution, some mutations can
be beneficial and increase an organisms chance of survival. Many mutations are
harmful.
A mutagen is any agent, physical or environmental, that can induce a genetic
mutation or increase the chance of mutation. These mutagens which increase the
chance of mutation if you are exposed to them are:
1. Nuclear radiation (alpha, beta and gamma radiation) This is sometimes
called ionising radiation because it creates ions as it passes through things,
causing mutations.
2. X-rays and ultraviolet light The highest-frequency parts of the
electromagnetic spectrum.
3. Certain chemicals which can cause mutations For example, nitrous acid,
mustard gas, nitrous oxide and some of the chemicals formed when food is
charred which can interfere with the DNA molecules and often replace parts of
it.
4. Cigarette smoke Contains chemical mutagens. Often carcinogens or
chemicals which can lead to cancer.
However, mutations can also reverse previous mutations back to normal. Such
backwards mutations are much rarer than forward mutations as for a backwards
mutation to occur, the exact base pair that was originally mutated must be reversed.
This means that the chance of this happening is over a thousand times less likely.

The Work of Gregor Mendel

Parents

Red x White

F1

All Red

F1

Red x Red

F2

75% Red + 25% White

Let the gene for red = R

Let the gene for white = r
Therefore, the red gene is dominant over the white.

A different case Co-dominance

Human Genetics
Sex determination; Why is it that 50% of the babies born are male and 50% of the
babies born are female?

Sex is a strange character because although it is controlled by thousands of loci, it

behave genetically like a single character!

The genetics show that the population therefore should always be 50:50 (male:female)
but NB each fertilisation event is totally random and independent of previous
fertilisations. Also note, there are slightly more males than females are born because Y
sperms are on average, better swimmers.
But! Dont panic, as by the age of 18, there are more females because male children
are more prone to childhood diseases and misadventure!

Cystic Fibrosis: An example of a recessive trait in Humans

Normal Mucus R
Cystic Mucus r
RR Normal
Rr Normal
rr Cystic sufferer.
Cystic fibrosis is a genetic syndrome where the sufferer produces excessively thick
mucus and thus has problems with breathing and digestion.
If two people are carriers of the cystic gene, but they have normal mucus, there is a
chance that the baby will not receive the dominant normal mucus gene and the
recessive cystic gene will therefore take over.

Huntingdons Chorea: A dominant mutants trait

Huntingdons is a dominant gene that causes systematic destruction of the motor
nerves. Luckily, it is very rare and the symptoms only show up after the age of about
45.
NB in exam questions, I must remember that for any dominant trait, only one gene is
needed for it to show up in the phenotype.

ABO Blood Groups A case of multiple variants at a single locus

If somebody needs a blood transfusion, you cant just take any old blood and stick it in
them because blood cells have proteins on their surface that can be recognised by antibodies as foreign and this will cause the blood to agglutinate.