QB: What is FT-IR? Write the basic principle of this technique with the applications.

FT-IR stands for Fourier Transform Infrared, the preferred method of infrared spectroscopy. In
infrared spectroscopy, IR radiation is passed through a sample. Some of the infrared radiation
is absorbed by the sample and some of it is passed through (transmitted). The resulting
spectrum represents the molecular absorption and transmission, creating a molecular
fingerprint of the sample. Like a fingerprint no two unique molecular structures produce the
same infrared spectrum. This makes infrared spectroscopy useful for several types of
analysis. The information can FT-IR provide are as follows:
It can identify unknown materials
It can determine the quality or consistency of a sample
It can determine the amount of components in a mixture
Principle:
For a molecule to absorb IR, the vibrations or rotations within a molecule must cause a net
change in the dipole moment of the molecule. The alternating electrical field of the radiation
(remember that electromagnetic radiation consists of an oscillating electrical field and an
oscillating magnetic field, perpendicular to each other) interacts with fluctuations in the
dipole moment of the molecule. If the frequency of the radiation matches the vibrational
frequency of the molecule then radiation will be absorbed, causing a change in the amplitude
of molecular vibration. This is called natural frequency of vibration
Applications

Identification of inorganic compounds and organic compounds

Identification of components of an unknown mixture
Analysis of solids, liquids, and gasses
In remote sensing
In measurement and analysis of Atmospheric Spectra
Solar irradiance at any point on earth
Long wave/terrestrial radiation spectra
Can also be used on satellites to probe the space
Biological and biomedical fields like detection of water in biological membranes
Analysis of Aircraft exhausts
Measurement of toxic gas in fuels
Combustion
Gas analysis

QC: Discuss the theory and interpretation of IR spectra

Infrared spectrum is only one source of information, and additional information is most likely
required for a satisfactory analysis of the spectrum. The following are a set of simple
guidelines to help a person through the early stages of rationalizing an infrared spectrum and
to get to the first stages of an interpretation.
It is important to appreciate that there are often recurring patterns in the spectrum that are
characteristic of certain classes or compounds and/or functional groups. Such patterns can be
far more diagnostic in the interpretation process than merely isolated group frequencies.
Examples include the overall appearance of the hydrogen-bonded hydroxyl functionality, the
patterns associated with unsaturation and aromaticity, and the combinations of bands used to
characterize different carbonyl compounds. To start, it is worthwhile to determine if the

compound is organic (evidence of CH functionality) and if there is a characteristic chain or

ring associated with the compound. Having determined this, it is worthwhile to reflect on the
complexity of the spectrum, and to see if one or two characteristic functionalities, associated
with simple functional groups (-OH,-NH etc.) are present. Often, the like-to-like rule applies
that is, a simple spectrum is usually indicative of a simple molecular structure, and vice
versa.
If the spectrum clearly indicates multiple functionality, then be aware that mutual interaction
may be occurring, and this may be causing some deviations from ideality, relative to the
common group frequency assignments. Also, multiple functionality might reflect a complex
structure, but it might also reflect that the sample is a mixture. In both cases, an appreciation
of the existence of spectral coincidences is very important. For example, a strong absorption
between 1250 and 1150 cm 1 can be assigned to numerous types of chemical bonds, from the
C-F group to the
Si-O group. A careful assessment of the other spectral features, and
most likely an understanding of the nature of the sample, will usually help in resolving some
of these spectral coincidence situations. The use of known relative band intensities for certain
functional groups can also be helpful in determining whether band overlap is occurring, and in
particular whether

Advantages and Disadvantages of Optical Microscope

Advantages:

Direct imaging with no need of sample pre-treatment, the only

microscopy for real color imaging.
Fast, and adaptable to all kinds of sample systems, from gas, to
liquid, and to solid sample systems, in any shapes or geometries.
Easy to be integrated with digital camera systems for data
storage and analysis.

Disadvantages:

Low resolution, usually down to only sub-micron or a few

hundreds of nanometers, mainly due to the light diffraction limit.

In organic chemistry, functional groups are specific groups of atoms or bonds within molecules that are
responsible for the characteristic chemical reactions of those molecules. The same functional group will
undergo the same or similar chemical reaction(s) regardless of the size of the molecule it is a part of
Stereoisomers are isomeric molecules that have the same molecular formula and sequence of bonded atoms
(constitution), but that differ only in the three-dimensional orientations of their atoms in space.

Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) is a physical phenomenon in whichnuclei in a magnetic

field absorb and re-emit electromagnetic radiation. This energy is at a specific resonance frequency which
depends on the strength of the magnetic field and the magnetic properties of the isotope of the atoms; in
practical applications, the frequency is similar to VHF andUHF television broadcasts (601000 MHz). NMR
allows the observation of specific quantum mechanical magnetic properties of the atomic nucleus. Many
scientific techniques exploit NMR phenomena to study molecular physics, crystals, and non-crystalline materials

through NMR spectroscopy. NMR is also routinely used in advanced medical imaging techniques, such as
in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
Infrared spectroscopy (IR spectroscopy) is the spectroscopy that deals with the infrared region of
theelectromagnetic spectrum, that is light with a longer wavelength and lower frequency than visible light. It
covers a range of techniques, mostly based on absorption spectroscopy. As with all spectroscopic techniques, it
can be used to identify and study chemicals. For a given sample which may be solid, liquid, or gaseous, the
method or technique of infrared spectroscopy uses an instrument called an infrared spectrometer (or
spectrophotometer) to produce an infrared spectrum. A basic IR spectrum is essentially a graph of infrared
light absorbance (or transmittance) on the vertical axis vs. frequency or wavelength on the horizontal axis.
Typical units of frequency used in IR spectra are reciprocal centimeters (sometimes called wave numbers), with
the symbol cm1. Units of IR wavelength are commonly given in micrometers (formerly called "microns"), symbol
m, which are related to wave numbers in a reciprocal way. A common laboratory instrument that uses this
technique is a Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectrometer
Mass spectrometry (MS) is an analytical chemistry technique that helps identify the amount and type of
chemicals present in a sample by measuring the mass-to-charge ratio and abundance of gas-phase ions.[1]
A mass spectrum (plural spectra) is a plot of the ion signal as a function of the mass-to-charge ratio. The spectra
are used to determine the elemental or isotopic signature of a sample
In a typical MS procedure, a sample, which may be solid, liquid, or gas, is ionized, for example by bombarding it
with electrons. This may cause some of the sample's molecules to break into charged fragments. These ions are
then separated according to their mass-to-charge ratio, typically by accelerating them and subjecting them to an
electric or magnetic field: ions of the same mass-to-charge ratio will undergo the same amount of deflection.
[1] The ions are detected by a mechanism capable of detecting charged particles, such as an electron multiplier.
Results are displayed as spectra of the relative abundance of detected ions as a function of the mass-to-charge
ratio. The atoms or molecules in the sample can be identified by correlating known masses to the identified
masses or through a characteristic fragmentation pattern.
spectroscopy or ultraviolet-visible spectrophotometry refers to absorption
spectroscopy or reflectance spectroscopy in the ultraviolet-visiblespectral region. This means it
uses light in the visible and adjacent (near-UV and near-infrared [NIR]) ranges. The absorption or
reflectance in the visible range directly affects the perceived color of the chemicals involved. In
this region of the electromagnetic spectrum,molecules undergo electronic transitions. This
technique is complementary to fluorescence spectroscopy, in that fluorescencedeals with
transitions from the excited state to the ground state, while absorption measures transitions from
the ground state to the excited state
Ultravioletvisible